英语议论文写作模板

如何写好英语议论文的开头

1、名人名言

经典句型：

A proverb says "You are only young once.（适用于已记住的名言）

It goes without saying that we cannot be young forever.（适用于自编名言）

更多经典句型：

As everyone knows, No one can deny that…

2、数字统计

原理：要想更有说服力，就应该用实际的数字来说明。

According to a recent survey, about 78.9% of the college students wanted to further their study after their graduation.

Honesty：根据最近的一项统计调查显示，大学生向老师请假的理由当中78%都是假的。

Travel by Bike：根据最近的一项统计调查显示，85%的人在近距离旅行的时候首选的交通工具是自行车。

Youth：根据最近的一项统计调查显示，在某个大学，学生的课余时间的70%都是在休闲娱乐。

Five-day Work Week Better than Six-day Work?：根据最近的一项统计调查显示，98%的人同意每周五天工作日。

更多句型：

A recent statistics shows that…

如何写议论文的结尾

1、如此结论

Obviously（此为过渡短语）, we can draw the conclusion that good manners arise from politeness and respect for others.

更多过渡短语：

to sum up, in conclusion, in brief, on account of this, thus

更多句型：

Thus, it can be concluded that…, Therefore, we can find that…

2、如此建议

Obviously, it is high time that we took some measures to solve the problem.

更多句型：

Accordingly, I recommend that some measures be taken.

Consequently, to solve the problem, some measures should be taken.

议论写作的七项原则

一、写作的“七项基本原则”

1、长短句原则

写一个短小精辟的句子，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：

As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

在文章第一段（开头）用一长一短，且先长后短；在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释

主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉！文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

2、主题句原则

主题句，放在文章的开头（保险型）或者结尾，让读者一目了然

To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam （主题句）. Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

3、一二三原则

（1）first, second, third, last（少推荐，）

（2）firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally（少推荐，）

（3）the first, the second, the third, the last（少推荐，）

（4）in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly（较少推荐）

（5）to begin with, then, furthermore, finally（较强烈推荐）

（6）to start with, next, in addition, finally（较强烈推荐）

（7）first and foremost, besides, last but not least（较强烈推荐）

（8）most important of all, moreover, finally（较强烈推荐）

（9）on the one hand, on the other hand（适用于两点的情况）

（10）for one thing, for another thing（适用于两点的情况）

4、短语优先原则

I cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it.

I want it.

可以用短语表达：I am looking forward to it.

这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

5、多实少虚原则

写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西，不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词，少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。比如我们说一个很好的时候，不应该之说nice 这样空洞的词，应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospital之类的形象词。再比如：

走出房间，general的词是：walk out of the room

但是小偷走出房间应该说：slip out of the room

小姐走出房间应该说：sail out of the room

小孩走出房间应该说：dance out of the room

老人走出房间应该说：stagger out of the room

所以多用实词，少用虚词。

6、多变句式原则

（1）加法（串联）

都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是，可以在任何句子之间加and,但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说：

I enjoy music and he is fond of playing guitar.

如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：

Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm.

其它的短语可以用：

besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

（2）转折（拐弯抹角）

批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点.

The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.

The coat was thin, but it was warm.

更多的短语：

despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

（3）因果（so, so, so）

讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系！

The snow began to fall, so we went home.

更多短语：

t hen, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

（4）失衡句（头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重）

其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。

举例：This is what I can do.

Whether he can go with us or not is not sure.

同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：

When to go, Why he goes away…

（5）附加（多此一举）

就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语

The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.

I don't enjoy that book you are reading.

Mr. Liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going.

（6）排比（排山倒海句）

文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势！

Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you.

Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides.

We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life.（气势恢宏）

要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可！

7、挑战极限原则

诸如独立主格的句子，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：

The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.

Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China.

议论文写作的篇章组织

一、举实例

In order to attract more customers, advertisers have adopted every possible stimulative factor in making ads, such as sound, light, colors, cartoon films and human performance. For instance, to advertise a certain food, advertisers will ask an actor or actress to sit at a table and devour the seemingly delicious food while they film him or her.

更多句型：

To take…as an example, One example is…, Another example is…, for example

二、做比较

方法：写完一个要点，比较与之相似的；又写完一个要点，再比较与之相反的；

世界上没有同样的指纹，没有相同的树叶，文章亦同，只有通过比较，你才会发现二者的相同点（through comparison）和不同点（through contrast）。下面是一些短语：相似的比较：

in comparison, likewise, similarly, in the same manner

相反的比较：

on the other hand, conversely, whereas, while, instead, nevertheless, in contrast, on the contrary, compared with…,…

三、换言之

没话说了，可以换一句话再说，让你的文章在多一些字，或者文绉绉地说，是让读者更充分的理解你的观点。

实际就是重复重复再重复！下面的句子实际上就三个字I love you!

I am enthusiastic about you. That is to say, I love you.

I am wild about you. In other words, I have fallen in love with you.

或者上面我们举过的例子：

I cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it.

因此可以这样说：I cannot bear it. That is to say, I cannot put up with it or I am fed with it.

更多短语：

In more difficult language, in simpler words, put it more simply，simply put, to put it in another way, in other words.

英语议论文写作模板

一、不同观点列举型（选择型）

There is a widespread concern over the issue that_____作文题目_____. But it is well known that the opinion concerning this hot topic varies from person to person. A majority of people think that_____观点一________. In their views there are 2 factors contributing to this attitude as follows：in the first place,_____原因一_______.Furthermore, in the second place, ___原因二_____. So it goes without saying that _____观点一_____.

People, however, differ in their opinions on this matter. Some people hold the idea that

_____观点二_______. In their point of view, on the one hand,_____原因一_______. On the other hand,_____原因二_____. Therefore, there is no doubt that _____观点二______.

As far as I am concerned, I firmly support the view that_____观点一或二______.It is not only because ________, but also because _________. The more _______, the more ________.

二、利弊型的议论文

Nowadays, there is a widespread concern over （the issue that）___作文题目______. In fact, there are both advantages and disadvantages in __题目议题_____. Generally speaking, it is widely believed there are several positive aspects as follows. Firstly,___优点一______. And secondly ___优点二_____.

Just As a popular saying goes, every coin has two sides,__讨论议题______ is no exception, and in another word, it still has negative aspects. To begin with,___缺点一______. What is more, ____缺点二______.

To sum up, we should try to bring the advantages of __讨论议题____ into full play, and reduce the disadvantages to the minimum at the same time. In that case, we will definitely make a better use of the ____讨论议题___.

三、答题性议论文

Currently, there is a widespread concern over （the issue that）__作文题目_______ .It is really an important concern to everyone of us. As a result, we must spare no efforts to take some measures to solve this problem.

As we know that there are many steps which can be taken to undo this problem. First of all,__途径一______. In addition, another way contributing to success of the solving problem is ___途径二_____.Above all, to solve the problem of ___作文题目______,we should find a number of various ways. But as far as I am concerned, I would prefer to solve the problem in this way, that is to say,____方法_____.

四、谚语警句性议论文

It is well known to us that the proverb：___谚语_______has a profound significance and value not only in our job but also in our study. It means ____谚语的含义_______.The saying can be illustrated through a series of examples as follows. （also theoretically ）

A case in point is ___例子一______. Therefore, it is goes without saying that it is of great importance to practice the proverb ____谚语_____.

With the rapid development of science and technology in China, an increasing number of people come to realize that it is also of practical use to stick to the saying：____谚语_____. The more we are aware of the significance of this famous saying,the more benefits we will get in our daily study and job.

五、图表作文的框架

As is shown/indicated/illustrated by the figure/percentage in the table （graph /picture /pie /chart）, ___作文题目的议题_____ has been on rise/ decrease （goes up / increases / drops / decreases），significantly / dramatically / steadily rising / decreasing from______ in _______ to ______ in _____. From the sharp/marked decline/ rise in the chart, it goes

without saying that ________.

There are at least two good reasons accounting for ______. On the one hand,________. On the other hand，_______ is due to the fact that ________. In addition,________ is responsible for _______. Maybe there are some other reasons to show ________. But it is generally believed that the above mentioned reasons are commonly convincing.

议论文作文范文

1. My Opinion on Cheating In Exams

It is known to us all that some students cheat in exams at school. As students, we often take exams at school, but sometimes we have too many exams which are too difficult for us. On the other hand, some of us are lazy and don’t work hard at their lessons. So when taking exams they sometimes cheat in order to get better results to please their parents and teachers.

In my opinion, it is wrong to cheat in exams because it breaks the rules of schools. We students should be honest and try to get good results by studying hard instead of cheating in exams. What’s more, we should improve our study methods and get well prepared for exams.

2. Newspaper and Website

Newspapers have been popular for a long time, but in recent years more and more people prefer to get news from the Internet.

Newspapers and websites are similar in several ways. For example, they both aim at providing information to the public. Besides that, advertising is an important way for both of them to make money.

In spite of the above similarities, there are a few differences. Websites update their news

freely. As for newspapers, nothing can be changed once published. So websites offer us the latest news faster than newspapers. Furthermore, newspapers have to be paid for while most websites are free. And it is on the websites that we can express ourselves and exchange ideas with others more easily.

In my opinion, websites and newspaper play their own roles in our lives and they are part

of our lives.

3. whether it is good to keep animals in zoos

There is a widespread concern over whether it is good to keep animals in zoos. The opinion

concerning this hot topic varies from person to person. Some of my classmates think that it is good to keep animals in zoos. In their views, there are three factors contributing to this attitude as follows. In the first place, it provides chances for people to see the wildlife. What’s more, it might also develop people’s love for animals and nature. Finally, animals in zoos can be protected from dangers in the wild.

However, the rest of the class hold the idea that keeping animals in zoos is a wrong choice

for the following three reasons. First, it is a waste of money and labor to keep animals in zoos. Second, it will also damage the balance of nature. And what’s worse, animals will lose their freedom if caged in zoos.

From my point of view, I feel it is unwise to take animals away from their natural living areas and keep them locked up.

4. Saving Land for Endangered Animals

There is only so much land on the earth, and so what we can do with it is limited. Some people believe that human needs for farmland, housing and industry should come first, while others believe that some land should be set aside for endangered animals. I am of the opinion that we should reserve some land for the wor ld’s animals for the following reasons.

First, manki nd’s need for land is constantly growing. If the demand is not checked in some way, humans will eventually develop all of the earth’s av ailable land. At that time, mankind will have no more room to grow, and all the wild animals will have disappeared, as well as other valuable resources. Second, humans are able to innovate and can use the land that they already possess in more efficient ways. Animals are unable to do this. Once their land is taken away from them they will die. Third and last, endangered animals are an important part of the biodiversity of our planet. If they disappear, we cannot predict what the effect will be. Therefore, we should treat such animals as a valuable resource to be protected.

To sum up, the world’s endangered animals are an imp ortant resource and we should protect them by setting aside some land for them. Although mankind’s need for land continues to grow, people are intelligent and inventive enough to put the land they have to better use. In this way, we can have enough land for farming, housing and industry, and preserve the biodiversity of the planet at the same time.

Book Knowledge vs. Experience

Knowledge can be acquired from many sources. These include books, teachers and practical experience, and each has its own advantages. The knowledge we gain from books and formal education enables us to learn about things that we have no opportunity to experience in daily life. We can study all the places in the world and learn from people we will never meet in our lifetime, just by reading about them in books. We can also develop our analytical skills and learn how to view and interpret the world around us in different ways. Furthermore, we can learn from the past by reading books. In th is way, we won’t repeat the mistakes of others and can build on their achievements.

Practical experience, on the other hand, can give us more useful knowledge. It is said that one learns best by doing, and I believe that this is true, whether one is successful or not. In fact, I think making mistakes is the best way to learn. Moreover, if one wants to make new advances, it is necessary to act. Innovations do not come about through reading but through experimentation. Finally, one can apply the skills and insights gained through the study of books to practical experience, making an already meaningful experience more meaningful.

However, unless it is applied to real experiences, book knowledge remains theoretical and, in the end, is useless. That is why I believe that knowledge gained from practical experience is more important than that acquired from books.

议论文写作的10个主题

1 The Origin of Sports

When did sport begin? If sport is, in essence, play, the claim might be made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have observed, the beasts play. Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games. Fishes and birds dance. The apes have simple, pleasurable games. Frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with the universe of animals

- past, present, and future. Young animals, particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh (or so it seems) to the point of delighted exhaustion. Their play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to give pleasure to the players, and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the anguish of life in earnest.

Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble part of our basic nature. In their generous conceptions, play harmlessly and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy, and imagination into action. Play is release from the tedious battles against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable, tragedies of life. This is a grand conception that excites and provokes. The holders of this view claim

that the origins of our highest accomplishments ---- liturgy, literature, and law ---- can

be traced to a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely enjoyed by young beasts and children. Our sports, in this rather happy, nonfatalistic view of human nature, are more splendid creations of the nondatable, transspecies play impulse.

2. Collectibles

Collectibles have been a part of almost every culture since ancient times. Whereas some objects have been collected for their usefulness, others have been selected for their aesthetic beauty alone. In the United States, the kinds of collectibles currently popular range from traditional objects such as stamps, coins, rare books, and art to more recent items of interest like dolls, bottles, baseball cards, and comic books.

Interest in collectibles has increased enormously during the past decade, in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their value as investments. Especially during cycles of high inflation, investors try to purchase tangibles that will at least retain their current market values. In general, the most traditional collectibles will be sought because they have preserved their value over the years, there is an organized auction market for them, and they are most easily sold in the event that cash is needed. Some examples of the most stable collectibles are old masters, Chinese ceramics, stamps, coins, rare books, antique jewelry, silver, porcelain, art by well-known artists, autographs, and period furniture.

Other items of more recent interest include old photograph records, old magazines, post cards, baseball cards, art glass, dolls, classic cars, old bottles, and comic books. These relatively new kinds of collectibles may actually appreciate faster as short-term investments, but may not hold their value as long-term investments. Once a collectible has had its initial play, it appreciates at a fairly steady rate, supported by an increasing number of enthusiastic collectors competing for the limited supply of collectibles that become increasingly more

difficult to locate.

3. Henry Ford

Although Henry Ford’s name is closely associated with the concept of mass production, he

should receive equal credit for introducing labor practices as early as 1913 that would be considered adv anced even by today’s standards. Safety measures were improved, and the work

day was reduced to eight hours, compared with the ten-or twelve-hour day common at the time. In order to accommodate the shorter work day, the entire factory was converted from two to three shifts.

In addition, sick leaves as well as improved medical care for those injured on the job were

instituted. The Ford Motor Company was one of the first factories to develop a technical school to train specialized skilled laborers and an English language school for immigrants.

Some efforts were even made to hire the handicapped and provide jobs for former convicts.

The most widely acclaimed innovation was the five-dollar-a-day minimum wage that was offered in order to recruit and retain the best mechanics and to discourage the growth of labor unions. Ford explained the new wage policy in terms of efficiency and profit sharing.

He also mentioned the fact that his employees would be able to purchase the automobiles

that they produced - in effect creating a market for the product. In order to qualify for the minimum wage, an employee had to establish a decent home and demonstrate good personal habits, including sobriety, thriftiness, industriousness, and dependability. Although some criticism was directed at Ford for involving himself too much in the personal lives of his employees, there can be no doubt that, at a time when immigrants were being taken advantage of in frightful ways, Henry Ford was helping many people to establish themselves in America.

4．Piano

The ancestry of the piano can be traced to the early keyboard instruments of the fifteenth

and sixteenth centuries --- the spinet, the dulcimer, and the virginal. In the seventeenth century the organ, the clavichord, and the harpsichord became the chief instruments of the keyboard group, a supremacy they maintained until the piano supplanted them at the end of the eighteenth century. The clavichord’s tone wa s metallic and never powerful; nevertheless, because of the variety of tone possible to it, many composers found the clavichord a sympathetic instrument for intimate chamber music.

The harpsichord with its bright, vigorous tone was the favorite instrument for supporting the bass of the small orchestra of the period and for concert use, but the character of the tone could not be varied save by mechanical or structural devices. The piano was perfected in the early

eighteenth century by a harpsichord maker in Italy (though musicologists point out several previous instances of the instrument). This instrument was called a piano e forte (sort and loud), to indicate its dynamic versatility; its strings were struck by a recoiling hammer

with a felt-padded head. The wires were much heavier in the earlier instruments.

A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame,

and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instrument capable of myriad

tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance.

5. Movie Music

Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as "silent", the film

has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. From the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment; when the Lumiere films were shown at the first

public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film.

As movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and perhaps a cellist, would

be added to the pianist in certain cases, and in the larger movie theaters small orchestras were formed. For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualification for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces. Since the conductor seldom saw the films until the night before they were to be shown(if indeed, the conductor was lucky enough to see them then), the musical arrangement was normally improvised in the greatest hurry.

To help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments. In 1909, for example, the Edison Company

began issuing with their films such indications of mood as " pleasant", "sad", "lively".

The suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of music, and precise directions to show where one piece led into the next.

Certain films had music especially composed for them. The most famous of these early special scores was that composed and arranged for D.W Griffith’s film Birth of a Nation, which was released in 1915.

6. International Business and Cross-cultural Communication

The increase in international business and in foreign investment has created a need for executives with knowledge of foreign languages and skills in cross-cultural communication. Americans, however, have not been well trained in either area and, consequently, have not enjoyed the same level of success in negotiation in an international arena as have their

foreign counterparts.

Negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth for the purpose of reaching an

agreement. It involves persuasion and compromise, but in order to participate in either one, the negotiators must understand the ways in which people are persuaded and how compromise is reached within the culture of the negotiation. In many international business negotiations abroad, Americans are perceived as wealthy and impersonal. It often appears to the foreign negotiator that the American represents a large multi-million-dollar corporation that can afford to pay the price without bargaining further. The American negotiator’s role becomes that of an impersonal purveyor of information and cash.

In studies of American negotiators abroad, several traits have been identified that may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception, while undermining the negotiator’s position. Two traits in particular that cause cross-cultural misunderstanding are directness and impatience on the part of the American negotiator. Furthermore, American negotiators often insist on realizing short-term goals. Foreign negotiators, on the other hand, may value the relationship established between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in it for long-term benefits. In order to solidify the relationship, they may

opt for indirect interactions without regard for the time involved in getting to know the other negotiator.

7. Scientific Theories

In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related. A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced. A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory,

in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion.

A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory. If observations confirm th e scientist’s predictions, the

theory is supported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must search further. There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.

Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performing experiments. Facts by themselves are not science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said, "Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but

a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called

a house."

Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to

the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination. Possible solutions to

the problem are formulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses.

In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It ex tends the scientist’s thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test hypotheses. Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose

and direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories.

8.Changing Roles of Public Education

One of the most important social developments that helped to make possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was the effect of the baby boom of the 1950’s and 1960’s on the schools. In the 1920’s, but especially i n the Depression conditions of

the 1930’s, the United States experienced a declining birth rate --- every thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930,

75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940. With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic boom that followed it young people married and established households

earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the Depression. Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand in 1946,106.2 in 1950, and 118 in 1955.

Although economics was probably the most important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the baby boom. The increased value placed on the idea of the family also helps to explain this rise in birth rates. The baby boomers began streaming into the first grade by the mid 1940’s and became a flood by 1950. The public school system suddenly found itself overtaxed. While the number of schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar conditions, these same conditions made the schools even less prepared to cope with the food. The wartime economy meant that few new schools were built between 1940 and 1945.

Moreover, during the war and in the boom times that followed, large numbers of teachers left their profession for better-paying jobs elsewhere in the economy. Therefore in the 1950’s and 1960’s, the baby boom hit an antiquated and inadequate school system.

Consequently, the " custodial rhetoric" of the 1930’s and early 1940’s no longer made sense that is, keeping youths aged sixteen and older out of the labor market by keeping them in school could no longer be a high priority for an institution unable to find space

and staff to teach younger children aged five to sixteen. With the baby boom, the focus of educators and of laymen interested in education inevitably turned toward the lower grades and back to basic academic skills and discipline. The system no longer had much interest in offering nontraditional, new, and extra services to older youths.

9 Telecommuting

Telecommuting-- substituting the computer for the trip to the job has been hailed as a solution to all kinds of problems related to office work. For workers it promises freedom from the office, less time wasted in traffic, and help with child-care conflicts. For management, telecommuting helps keep high performers on board, minimizes tardiness and absenteeism by eliminating commutes, allows periods of solitude for high-concentration tasks, and provides scheduling flexibility. In some areas, such as Southern California and Seattle, Washington, local governments are encouraging companies to start telecommuting programs in order to reduce rush-hour congestion and improve air quality. But these benefits do not come easily.

Making a telecommuting program work requires careful planning and an understanding of the differences between telecommuting realities and popular images. Many workers are seduced by rosy illusions of life as a telecommuter. A computer programmer from New York City moves to the tranquil Adirondack Mountains and stays in contact with her office via computer. A manager comes in to his office three days a week and works at

home the other two. An accountant stays home to care for her sick child; she hooks up her telephone modern connections and does office work between calls to the doctor. These are powerful images, but they are a limited reflection of reality.

Telecommuting workers soon learn that it is almost impossible to concentrate on work and care for a young child at the same time. Before a certain age, young children cannot recognize, much less respect, the necessary boundaries between work and family. Additional child support is

necessary if the parent is to get any work done. Management too must separate the myth from the reality. Although the media has paid a great deal of attention to telecommuting in most cases it is the employee’s situation, not the availability o f technology that precipitates a telecommuting arrangement. That is partly why, despite the widespread press coverage, the number of companies with work-at-home programs or policy guidelines remains small.

10 The origin of Refrigerators

By the mid-nineteenth century, the term "icebox" had entered the American language, but ice was still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States. The ice trade grew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals,

and by some forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter.

After the Civil War( 1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into

household use. Even before 1880,half of the ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston and Chicago, went to families for their own use. This had become possible because a new household convenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented.Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose.

In the early nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary. The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the ice from melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling. Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping up the ice in blankets, which kept the ice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve the delicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox. But as early as 1803, and ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the right track. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the market center. When he used an icebox of his own design to transport his butter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to pay a premium price for his butter, still fresh and hard in neat, one-pound bricks. One advantage of his icebox, Moore explained, was that farmers would no longer have to travel to market at night in order to keep their produce cool.