西方思想经典书后问题答案

Unit1

1.What does covenant mean?describe the old covenant and the new.

The Old Covenant is the first section of the Christian Bible, based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible, a collection of religious writings by ancient Israelites. It is the counterpart to the New Covenant, the Christian Bible's second section. It includes such diverse materials as prophetic oracles, teachings of wise men, instructions of priests and ancient records of the royal courts. Some material is historical, some is legendary; some is legalistic, some is didactic.

The books of the Old Covenant can be broadly divided into several sections: 1) the first five books or Pentateuch (Torah); 2) the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; 3) the poetic and "Wisdom" books dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; 4) and the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.

The New Covenant is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Covenant, which is based on the Hebrew Bible. The Greek New Covenant discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity. Although Christians hold different views from Jews about the Hebrew scriptures of the Old Covenant, Christians regard both the Old and New Covenants together as sacred scripture. The New Covenant (in whole or in part) has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world. It reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Covenant are also incorporated (along with readings from the Old Covenant) into the various Christian liturgies. The New Covenant has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom, and left an indelible mark on its literature, art, and music.

The New Covenant is an anthology, a collection of Christian works written in the common Greek language of the first century, at different times by various writers, who were early Jewish disciples of Jesus. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Covenant consists of 27 books.

2.What is the meaning of the original sin?

Original sin, also called ancestral sin,is the Christian doctrine of humanity's state of sin resulting from the fall of man, stemming from Adam's rebellion in Eden. This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature", to something as drastic as total depravity or automatic guilt of all humans through collective guilt.

Jewish theologians are divided in regard to the cause of what is called "original sin". Some teach that it was due to Adam's yielding to temptation in eating of the forbidden fruit and has been inherited by his descendants; the majority, however, do not hold Adam responsible for the sins of humanity, teaching that Adam's sins are his alone. However, Adam is recognized as having brought death into the world by his

disobedienceby some theologians. Because of his sin, his descendants will live a mortal life, which will end in death of their bodies. The doctrine of "inherited sin" is not found in most of mainstream Judaism. Although some in Orthodox Judaism place blame on Adam for overall corruption of the world, and though there were some Jewish teachers in Talmudic times who believed that death was a punishment brought upon humanity on account of Adam's sin, that is not the dominant view in most of Judaism today. Modern Judaism generally teaches that humans are born sin-free and untainted, and choose to sin later and bring suffering to themselves.The concept of inherited sin is also not found in any real form in Islam. Some interpretations of original sin are rejected by other Christian theologies.

3.

Justification, in Christian theology, is God's act of removing the guilt and penalty of sin while at the same time declaring a sinner righteous through Christ's atoning sacrifice. In Protestantism, righteousness from God is viewed as being credited to the sinner's account through faith alone, without works.

Some people argue that natural evils are a mechanism of divine punishment for moral evils that humans have committed, and so the natural evil is justified. God's condemnation of evil is subsequently believed to be executed and expressed in his created world; a judgment that is unstoppable due to God's all powerful will; a constant and eternal judgment that becomes announced and communicated to other people on Judgment Day. In this explanation, God's condemnation of evil is declared to be a good judgment.

4. Evaluating the Image of Eve from the feminist perspective

Feminist movement was considered as one of the most influential cultural developments in western civilization. Interestingly, if we traced back to Christian Bible, the primary religious texts of Christianity, which plays the dominant role in western theology, we could hardly find any evidence of feminism or gender equality. Instead, a patriarchal system formed in the Garden of Eden since Adam and Eve were created. The following perspectives can illustrate this point of view explicitly.

The creation of Eve: Patriarchy can be found from the reason why Eve was created as well as the process how Eve was created. The beginning of Genesis portrayed how God created the heaven and the earth in seven days, followed by the arrangement of the Garden of Eden and a man named Adam. After completing all these work, God made a woman named Eve from Adam’s rib by saying “It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him.” (Zhu, 5) Considerable debates were aroused on the word—the “help meet”. The literal meaning of the “help meet” undoubtedly refers to someone who is a helper to the other person and belongs to the second-class status. In other words, woman was born to help man, to accompany man, and to please man in order to prevent him from loneliness. Based on this explanation, some people would insist that women can still share an equal position with men, for they could work together. However, Thomas Aquinas argued that the woman was created “not indeed to help him in any other work, as some

have maintained, because where most work is concerned man can get help more conveniently from another man than from a woman; but to help him in the work of procreation.” (Aqu inas, 35) Thus, it was clearly that woman was created not to share the same status with man.

Another fact can also demonstrate that woman was created to subordinate to man. For the first woman, Eve, was blamed as the symbol of original sin. She could not resist the temptation of the serpent, and also induced Adam to eat the forbidden fruit. She was the reason why human beings were cast of the Eden garden. However, from the feminist perspective, such criticism on Eve is unfair. Because, Eve herself wad induced by the serpent. She didn’t mean to betray the Lord’s will. Besides, without Eve, human beings would still be naked and don’t know shame. And if so, human beings can never be different from animals. Therefore, Eve should be the origin of the history of civilization of human beings.

The Old Testament written in the patriarchal society was meant to consolidate the dominate status of man. And at that time, women were treated as appendant to men.

可以参考“《圣经·旧约》中夏娃、大力拉及路德形象的女性主义解读”

5.

旧约中的主更严苛，新约中的耶稣更仁爱。

旧约《圣经》中关于耶稣基督的预言，在新约中得到完全应验。新约首先在四福音书向我们揭示这位奇妙的人物是神的儿子，神的话、神的解释、说明和彰显。祂将无限的神带到有限的人里，将三一神与三部分人联调在一起，借着祂芬芳的美德，在祂的人性里彰显全备之神丰富的属性，并且完成了包罗万有之法理的救赎。新约《圣经》继续解释这位奇妙人物在复活里成了赐生命的灵，生为神的长子，并为着祂的身体祂的教会重生信徒。祂这赐生命的灵要进入信祂的人里面，作他们的生命与他们成为一，使他们在生命性情上与祂一样，成为神的众子。这些众子建造在一起，成为基督的身体，终极完成于新耶路撒冷。这是神对人永远的定旨。

Christian canon is contained in the Bible, comprised of the Old and New Testaments. The word bible comes from a Greek word meaning books. Appropriately, the Bible is a collection of scripture (as separate books) considered sacred and inspired by the Holy Spirit. The Jewish Bible, the Tanakh, contains books of the Old Testament. The reverence and respect for the Jewish Old Testament in the Christian faith is evidenced in Christ's own words. He says "I come not to abolish the law but to fulfill it." (Matt 5:17-20). The Old Testament focuses on the Hebrews' covenant with God, their history, wisdom and laws. The New Testament centers on Christ's life and ministry, crucifixion and resurrection

Old Testament:

Moses leads the Isrealites out of Egypt

Old Testament books include the study of creation in Genesis, the flight of the Israelites out of Egypt in Exodus and the beautiful Psalms. Many phrases used in everyday life come from the Old Testament. "To everything there is a season" is from Ecclesiastes 3.1-8. The Old Testament is valued in the Bible as a source of prefiguring

the coming of the Messiah.

New Testament:

The New Testiment begins with the birth of Christ

New Testament books include the four Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, the testimony of Jesus' apostles. Other books include the works ascribed to Paul, including Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians and Timothy. The New Testament records the life and ministry of Jesus. Through the eyes of Jesus' apostles, the story of Jesus' humble birth in the manger and the angels telling the shepherds, "fear not" comes to life.

6.

十诫，有时可能写做十戒，是《圣经》记载的上帝借由以色列的先知和众部族首领摩西向以色列民族颁布的十条规定，即《摩西十诫》。耶稣复活以后，十诫成为给全世界的人的诫命。

十诫对以色列人的生活有广泛的影响，但是耶稣也曾经指出，犹太人故意寻找律法的空子，即绕过律法的约束。在新约圣经中，由于耶稣的降临，使得现在的基督徒已经不是活在“律法中”，乃是活在“恩典里”，但是十诫仍然对所有的基督徒产生深远的影响，并且一直是基督徒信仰的根基。

自圣奥思定开始，教会在给候洗者和信徒的教理讲授中，「十诫」占着优越的地位。在十五世纪，人们习惯把十诫的规条写成有节奏的词句，以便背诵并采用积极的形式。这种方式直到今日仍被沿用。教会的教理书在讲解基督徒的伦理时，经常随从「十诫」的次序。

The central event in the national founding of the Israelite people is the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai. The “Ten Commandments” (Exodus 20: 1-14), pronounced there by the Lord God to the assembled and recently liberated children of Israel, constitute the most famous teaching of the book of Exodus, perhaps of the entire Hebrew Bible. Prescribing proper conduct toward God and man, the Decalogue embodies the core principles of the Israelite way of life and, later, of what would become known as the Judeo-Christian ethic. Even in our increasingly secular age, its influence on the prevailing morality of the West is enormous, albeit not always acknowledged or welcomed.

Yet, despite its notoriety, the Decalogue is still only superficially known, in part because its very familiarity interferes with a deeper understanding of its teachings. 7.

当我们读圣经的时候，我们不应过分追究其中是否存在这些那些信条的错误，而更应该关注它所记载的历史。事实上，不难发现圣经上有许多信条、信仰值得商榷，甚至可以直接被否定；然而，大多数的还是通古至今的。对圣经的解读是一次对历史的追溯和反省。这也许是圣经阅读的乐趣所在。

8.

这一题个人觉得看过了就可以了，没啥讨论的意义。

9.

a. Bone of his bones

b. Eve’s apple

c. Forbidden fruit

d. Dust thou art; to dust returnest/ P6最后（returnest不是一个单词来的，它是一种古英语的语法现象。thou是古英语来的，相当于现在的you，art是用在thou 后面的系动词。returnest里的est是与thou连用的动词后缀。）

e. Adam and Eve/王侯将相宁有种乎？（人生而平等）

Unit2

1.

dialogue/ respond by asking back

2.

His way of asking back guides quizzer to find the truth with a clear logic. In his argument, he always emphasizes that he knows nothing as he regards the argument as a process in which quizzer and responder explore the truth together. Socrates suspects his own knowledge and other wise man’s knowledge. He believes there must be some knowledge that he doesn’t know.

3.

For Plato, knowledge should be certain and infallible and genuinely real as contrasted

with appearance.

4.

①首先是要对影子（事物的假象）提出质疑，接着要通过不断追问寻求真理，最后获得哲学思维方法，看清事物本质。

②敢于接受自己的“无知”，并且要有追求真理的勇气。

在《理想国》第七卷，柏拉图作了一个著名的比喻，其直接目的是要揭示“受过教育的人与没受过教育的人的本质”*1+的不同及相关问题，人们一般称之为“洞穴喻”。在这个比喻中，柏拉图作了如下设想：有一个洞穴式的地下室，一条长长的通道通向外面，有微弱的阳光从通道里照进来。有一些囚徒从小就住在洞穴中，头颈和腿脚都被绑着，不能走动也不能转头，只能朝前看着洞穴后壁。在他们背后的上方，远远燃烧着一个火炬。在火炬和人的中间有一条隆起的道路，同时有一堵低墙。在这堵墙的后面，向着火光的地方，又有些别的人。他们手中拿着各色各样的假人或假兽，把它们高举过墙，让他们做出动作，这些人时而交谈，时而又不做声。于是，这些囚徒只能看见投射在他们面前的墙壁上的影像。他们将会把这些影像当作真实的东西，他们也会将回声当成影像所说的话。此时，假如有一个囚徒被解除了桎梏，被迫突然站起来，可以转头环视，他现在就可以看见事物本身了：但他们却以为他现在看到的是非本质的梦幻，最初看见的影像才是真实的。而假如有人把他从洞穴中带出来，走到阳光下面，他将会因为光线的刺激而觉得眼前金星乱蹦，以至什么也看不见。他就会恨那个把他带到阳光之下的人，认为这人使他看不见真实事物，而且给他带来了痛苦。

不过柏拉图认为，只要有一个逐渐习惯的过程，他的视力就可以恢复，首先大概看阴影最容易，其次是看人或事物在水中的倒影，再次是看事物本身，在夜间观察天象，之后就可以在白天看太阳本身了。此时他便明白：“造成四季交替和年岁周期的主宰可见世界一切事物的正是这个太阳，它也就是他们过去通过某种曲折看见的所有那些事物的原因。”*2+于是他回想当初穴居的情形，就会庆幸自己在认识上的变化而对同伴表示遗憾。他既已见到了事物之本身，便宁愿忍受任何痛苦也不愿意再过囚徒生活。然而，如果他复回洞中，那些同伴不仅不信其言，还会觉得他到上面走了一趟，回来眼睛就坏了，对“影像”竟不能如从前那样辨别。他的同伴们不仅不想出去，甚至想把那位带他出洞的人逮住杀掉。

这，就是整个洞穴比喻的基本内容。这个比喻中涉及到太阳、洞穴、囚徒等多个方面，它们各是指什么？让我们对这个寓意良深的隐喻进行详细的分析。

5.

开创哲学先例，强调共相，追求普遍性，追求世界本源。

6.

哲学家为王，以哲学思维方法管理统御国家。

7.

具有哲学精神与力量。

8.

相同点，教育注重引导，不愤不启不悱不发，举一反三等。政治上主张无为而治。

Unit3(只读)

1.What is Aristotle’s idea concerning political right?

Aristotle famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal". He conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." When the state is framed upon the principle of equality and likeness, the citizens think that they ought to hold office by turns. Formerly, as is natural, everyone would take his turn of service; and then again, somebody else would look after his interest, just as he, while in office, had looked after theirs. However, the government should be constituted in accordance with strict principles of justice.

https://www.360docs.net/doc/e814991996.html,pare the idea of the “mean” in Aristotle and Confucius.

For Aristotle, the Mean is determined by the right rule. The right rule is in the part of soul with the rational principle. Further, he divides this part into two: one is the scientific part, which is used to contemplate things whose originative causes are invariable; the other is the calculative part, which is used to contemplate variable things. Aristotle thinks that only practical wisdom is what we are looking for, which contemplates variable things by deliberation and seeks for human goods. Practical wisd om is a capacity to plan one’s life well. This capacity involves deliberation within men’s control.

自诚明，谓之性；自明诚，谓之教。诚则明矣，明则诚矣。

Confucius thinks that there are two ways: One is having sincerity naturally and being intelligent, so that one can achieve a harmonious state. The other way is following the instructions to attain sincerity. Once having sincerity, one becomes intelligent and then can know equilibrium and aim to harmony. Either the innate way or the acquired way is fine. However, the former way is only exists for sages so, as common men, we should follow the instructions. Further, Confucius emphasizes that the instructions should be set up as the guide for all actions. Without relying on those instructions, actions will go wrong.

Apparently, Aristot le’s doctrine of the Mean is separated from practical wisdom as to its intimacy with actions. It shows that he wants to purify the Mean and emphasize the

Mean as a state of character. This state leads to virtuous actions, but does not direct the actions. Aristotle leaves the practical part out of the Mean in a conceptual sense. Confucius’ doctrine of Zhong Yong(中庸)involves the practical part. His doctrine of ZhongYong（中庸）is a dynamic system for a complete process of how a man can acquire moral virtue.

Unit4(只读)

1.In what sense is Man’s death justifiable/unjustifiable?

God had threatened him with his punishment of death if he should sin, leaving him indeed to the freedom of his own will, but yet commanding his obedience under pain of death; and He placed him amid the happiness of Eden, as it were a protected nook of life, with the intention that , if he preserved his righteousness, he should thence ascend to a better place.

简而言之就是坚守圣洁不要主动“犯罪”

3.How do “mercy” and “justice” coexist?

“Therefore hath He mercy on whom He will have mercy, and whom He will He hardeneth,” “He hath mercy” of His great goodness, “He hardeneth” without any injustice; so that neither can he that is pardoned glory in any merit if his own, nor he that is condemned complain of anything but his own demerit. For it is grace alone that separates the redeemed from the lost, all having been involved in one common perdition through their common origin.

Unit5(只读)

1.What is the significance of ...

Columbus’ explorations had a profound impact on the world. They led directly to the opening of the western hemisphere to European colonization; to large-scale exchanges of plants, animals. Cultures and ideas between the two world; and, on

a darker note, to the deaths of millions indigenous American peoples from war,

forced labor, and disease.

https://www.360docs.net/doc/e814991996.html,ment on The Prince...

It is a reflection on the rational, original thought of the author, as well as a reflection of the classical education he received in his youth. It is a clarion call of nationalism in face of factions and foreign invasion, and of nationality in a political atmosphere full of pseudo-virtuosity with litter traces of religious orientation.

Unit6(只读)

1.

The famous satire the praise of folly advocates a return to simple christian ethics by ironically praising foolish activities of the day and attacking superstitious religious practices and the vanity of church leaders. P167, line13

Eg. If the roman pontiff assailed all monks with a thunderbolt, then they’d be canons, not monks. Yet if he permitted all monks to take wives, then they’d be monks. (a sarcasm for pontiff’s intelligence) p170, the highlighted line.

7.

By the fall and revolt of adam the whole human race was delivered to the curse, and degenerated from its original condition, the doctrine of original sin. P187, the two highlighted lines...

Calvin believes people must live humbly and suffer enough to get himself saved by god.

Unit7(只读)

1.

Man, being the servant and interpreter of Nature, can do and understand so much and so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature: beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything.

2.

一、知识可以成为力量

培根相信人类理智的能力，他认为只要人们认识到理智是一种巨大的力量，并且愿意追求这种力量，运用这种力量，那么人类就可以获得更多的的东西。人类可以通过对知识的把握而获得一种理智的力量，进而去认识世界，把握宇宙。

二、知识可以成为实践

科学知识是一种巨大的力量，这种力量之所以可能，其根本原因在于它能够与实践结合。知识是僵死的，但是当我们把它运用于实践活动的时候，它便会转化为一种切实的力量。“知识就是力量”这个命题的深刻内涵正在于解释了知识能够为人掌握、技术更新，间接地、不自觉地对自然乃至对社会产生巨大的改正作用。。显然，在培根看来科学知识的最终目的是指导实践，知识不仅是一种理智力量，更直接的是一种实践力量。