Lowering the entry level Lessons from the Web and the Semantic Web
英语作文-便利店零售行业,门槛攀升的原因和解决方法
英语作文-便利店零售行业，门槛攀升的原因和解决方法The convenience store retail industry has long been a staple of urban life, offering quick access to a variety of goods for consumers on the go. However, in recent years, the industry has faced increasing challenges that have raised the barrier to entry for new stores and entrepreneurs. This essay explores the reasons behind the rising thresholds and proposes potential solutions to these challenges.Market Saturation and Competition。
One of the primary reasons for the heightened barriers to entry in the convenience store industry is market saturation. In many urban areas, convenience stores are a common sight, with multiple outlets often found within a short distance of each other. This high density of stores creates intense competition, making it difficult for new entrants to secure a foothold in the market. The competition is not only among convenience stores but also with supermarkets, online retailers, and delivery services, which offer similar products with the added convenience of home delivery.Regulatory Hurdles。
视野大学英语一二三四ListeningI
Three Four Listening
目录
• Listening skills and strategies • Analysis of Common Listening Question Types • Types of listening materials and coping
Judging right or wrong after listening
"Judging right or wrong after listening" is a common listening question type in which students are required to listen to a statement or message and then determine which it is true or false
Successful candidates were appointed to positions in the government hierarchy based on
their performance in the examinations and the needs of the
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้state
Listen and answer
Appointment of offices by the Board of Civil Service in the Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty's Board of Civil Service was responsive for applying
offices through a competitive examination system
短道速滑宣传口号英语作文
短道速滑宣传口号英语作文### Unleashing Passion on Ice: A Promotional Campaign for Short Track Speed Skating。
The electrifying sport of short track speed skating, where razor-sharp blades slice through the ice, as athletes charge around an oval track, is a spectacle of speed, strategy, and stamina. It is a sport that combines thethrill of racing with the precision of skating, offering an adrenaline-pumping experience to both participants and spectators. This essay outlines a promotional campaigntitled "Feel the Speed—Embrace the Ice" designed to boost the visibility and popularity of short track speed skating through a multi-pronged approach, leveraging digital marketing, community engagement, and impactful slogans to capture the imagination of a wider audience.#### The Essence of Short Track Speed Skating。
常用矿业英语
矿业英语(蒋林筛选)abnormality 反常一般说anormaly的人更多吧adit 平硐adit collar 平硐口adit cut mining 平硐开采adit entrance 平硐口adit mine 平硐开采矿山adit mouth 平硐口adjoining rock 围岩正常人说country rock吧advance bore 超前钻孔也有说pilot hole的agglomeration 聚集air adit 通风平硐就是air wayair drill 风钻air pick 风镐air pipe 风管air shaft 风井airleg 气腿风钻听起来更像汉语alluvial gold 砂金更常见的说法是placer alluvium 冲积层ammon dynamite 硝安炸药ammon explosive 硝铵炸药amphibole 角闪石analyst 化验员assayer更准确点anchor bolt 锚杆angle of bedding 层理面倾斜角anticline 背斜anticlinorium 复背斜antimony 锑assay 试金正常人都叫化验automatic feed 自动给料automatic feeder 自动给矿机automatic installation 自动设备auxiliary adit 辅助平峒auxiliary equipment 辅助设备auxiliary fan 辅助扇风机auxiliary level 辅助平巷auxiliary shaft 辅助竖井azimuth angle 方位角back bolting 顶板锚杆支护back filling 充填back stoping 上向梯段回采ball mill 球磨机band ore 带状矿石bank height 台阶高度barrier pillar 安全煤柱这个就叫safety pillar也行basalt 玄武岩base charge 基本装药量;炮眼底部装约bearing 煤层走向;轴承bed 地层belt feeder 带式给矿机beneficiating method 选矿法bin 矿仓biotite 黑云母bit 钎头就叫钻头也行blast hole 炮眼blasting charge 装炸药blind shaft 暗井正常人都说盲井block 采区;块;滑车组block caving method 分段崩落采矿法正确说法是sublevel caving board and pillar 房柱式开法跟room and pillar是一样的bolting 锚杆支护borehole 钻孔borehole survey 钻孔测量boring bar 钻杆drillrodbornite 斑铜矿bottom dump skip 底卸式箕斗bottom wall 下盘正确说法是heading wall 或footwallbucket excavator 多斗挖掘机bulldozer 推土机cage 罐笼calcite 方解石calculation of reserves 储量计算capstan winch 绞盘carbonaceous 炭质的casing pipe 套管caved area 崩落区cement 水泥charge 装药chloride 氯化物chute 溜道circuit 回路classification screen 分级筛classifier overflow 分级机溢流clay 粘土clay band 粘土夹层clay bed 粘土层cleaning 精浮选就是精选没有浮cleavage 劈理closed circuit crushing 闭路破碎collar cave 井颈塌落combustion 燃烧common drift 共用平巷compressed air 压缩空气compressor 压缩机concentrate 精矿contaminated air 污浊空气contour map 等高线图control 第;操纵;治理conveyor 运输机copper 铜core 岩心core sample 岩心试样coring 岩心钻进crack 裂缝crane 起重机cross adit 石门cross cutting 石门掘进cross level 横巷crush 破碎crusher 破碎机crusher jaw 破碎机颚crushing rolls 辊碎机crystal 晶体curvature 曲率cushioning 缓冲cuthole 掏槽炮眼cyanide 氰化物dacite 英安岩daily advance 日掘进进度day drift 平硐day output 日产量degree of extraction 回采率正确说法是recovery dehydration 脱水dehydrator 脱水器deister table 垂特摇床delamination 剥离delay 迟滞delay action blasting 迟发爆破densification 浓缩deposition 沉淀depot 仓库desulphurization 脱硫detonate 起爆detonating charge 起爆装药detonating cord 导爆线detonator 雷管developement drift 开拓平巷diagram 曲线图diameter 直径diamond 金刚石diesel electric locomotive 柴油电机车dike 岩脉dilution 稀释注意这个大部分时间翻译为贫化diorite 闪长岩dioxide 二氧化物dip angle 倾角directional drilling 定向钻进discontinuity 不连续性dissolubility 溶解性dissolvent 溶剂ditch 沟道dolomite 白云石drain 排水管drill bar 钻杆drill bit 钎头drill rig 钻车drill rod 钻杆drilling jumbo 钻车dry assay 干法试金dump car 翻斗车elastic 弹性的elastic strain 弹性应变electrum 银金矿engineering 工程entry 水平巷道entry advance 平巷推进entry bottom 平巷底entry brushing 巷道挑顶entry driving 平巷掘进entry pillar 平巷煤柱environment 环境environment pollution 环境污染environment protection 环境保扩evaporation 蒸发exploration 探矿explosion 爆炸explosive 炸药extraction 采掘extraction drift 回采平巷eye survey 目测face 叫工作面！！！facilities 设备fan 扇风机fault 断层fault basin 断层盆地fault coal 劣质煤fault diagnosis 故障诊断fault line 断层线fault outcrop 断层露头fault plane 断层面fault surface 断层面fault zone 断层带feeder 给矿机field 煤田field reconnaissance 野外普查field test 现场试验fiery coal 瓦斯煤filling machine 充填机filtering 过滤firing interval 起爆间隔floatation 浮选flocculant 架凝剂那个字是絮flotation machine 浮选机flotation mill 浮选厂flotation oil 浮选用油flotation oil feeder 浮选给油器flotation process 浮选法flotation pulp 浮选矿浆flotation reagent 浮选剂flotation tailings 浮选尾矿flotator 浮选机free oscillation 自由振动gabbro 辉长岩galena 方铅矿gangue 脉石geological map 地质图geological prospecting 地质勘探geological section 地质剖面geometry 几何goaf 采空区goaf stowing 采空区充填gob 采空区gob area 采空区gold mine 金矿gold mining 采金gold vein 金矿脉grade 坡度以及品位grade of ore 矿石品位granite 花岗岩gravitation 重力gravitational exploration 重力勘探gravitational field 重力场gravitational method 重力法gravitational prospecting 重力勘探gravitational separation 重力选gravity 重力gravity separation 重力选grill 格栅grizzly 格筛ground water 地下水ground water drainage 地下水排水ground water lowering 降低地下水位ground water plane 地下水面ground water pollution 地下水污染ground water pressure 地下水压力ground water resources 地下水资源groundbeam 横梁groundwork 基础hand held drill 手持式凿岩机hand packing 人工充填hand picker 手选工hand picking 手选hanging wall 上盘haulage 运输haulage adit 运输平硐haulage chain 牵引链haulage entry 运输平巷haulage level 运输水平heterogeneous 不均匀的hoisting 提升hole diameter 钻孔径horizon 层位hydraulic 水力的illumination 照明impurity 不洁物inclination 倾斜insolubility 不溶性insulated conductor 绝缘导体intersection 交叉intrusion 侵入isotope 同位素jumbo 钻车kinematic 运动学的ladderway 梯子间lamination 分层lime 石灰loader 装载机;装填机locomotive 机车long hole rods 深孔钻杆lump 块;块的magma 岩浆magmatic rock 岩浆岩magnetic 磁性的magnetic dressing 磁选magnetic drum 磁鼓magnetic field 磁场magnetic separator 磁选机main adit 主平硐main airway 主风巷main haulage level 主运输水平malachite 孔雀石mechanized coal face 机械化采煤工祖mesozoic 中生代metallization 矿物化metamorfic rock 变质岩mica 云母microscope 显微镜mill 磨机;选矿厂mine 矿山mined bed 开采层mined out space 采空区mineral 矿物mineral composition 矿物组成mineral products 有用矿物mineralogy 矿物学mining 矿业;开采mining area 矿区mining lease 采矿用地mining right 采矿权moisture 湿气mud fluid 钻探用泥桨narrow vein 薄矿脉nickel 镍nitrate 硝酸盐non electric initiation system 非电起爆装置non metal 非金属open circuit 开路open pit bench 露天矿阶段opencast mining 露天开采opencast mining machinery 露天采矿机械opencast mining method 露天开采法opening 开拓巷道opening driving 开拓掘进opening for drainage 排水巷道ore 矿石ore bearing vein 含矿脉ore benefication 选矿ore bin 矿石仓ore block 矿块ore concentration 选矿ore concentration plant 选矿厂ore crusher 矿石破碎机ore deposit 矿床ore dilution 矿石贪化ore drawing 放矿ore dressing 选矿ore dressing plant 选矿厂ore extraction 矿石开采ore pass 放矿溜道orebody 矿体orefield 矿区outlet 出口outlet shaft 上风竖井output 产量;输出功率overhead 架空的oxidation 氧化oxide 氧化物packing 充填panel 采区paraffin 石蜡pass 溜道pillar 矿柱placer 砂矿placer gold 砂金pneumatic pick 风镐portal 入口powder 炸药powder drift 爆破平巷precipitate 沉淀物prop 支柱prospecting 勘探prospecting adit 勘探平硐prospecting bore 勘探钻孔prospecting drift 勘探巷道prospecting drill 勘探钻机prospecting guide 勘探标志prospecting schaft 探竖井prospecting tool 勘工具prospecting trench 勘探沟prospecting work 勘探工作prospective value 预期值prospector 勘探者pulp 矿浆pulverization 粉碎pump 泵pump capacity 泵能力pump chamber 泵房pump dredge 泵式挖掘船pump head 泵唧扬程pump man 司泵工pumping compartment 泵隔间pumping equipment 排水设备pumping head 水头pumping out 扬水pumping plant 泵唧装置pumping shaft 排水井pumping station 水泵站pumproom 泵房pumpset 泵唧装置pumpway 泵隔间purity 纯度pyrite 黄铁矿quarry 采石场quarry bank 露天矿的梯段quartz 石英radioactive 放射性的radius 半径raise 天井reagent 试剂reclamation operation 复田工作reflotation 再浮选regional 区域的regional metamorphism 区域变质regional prospecting 区域勘探register 记录器;计量表retreating mining 后退式开采return air 回风rigidity 刚度rock dump 废石堆roller 辊rolling shaft 溜道roof 顶板room 室;矿房rope 绳索rubble 砾石rupture 破裂safety berm 保安平台safety pillar 保安矿柱sample 试样sampler 采样器sampling 取样sampling device 采样器sampling method 取样法sampling mill 试样磨机sand 砂scraper 扒矿机scraper apron 耙斗后壁scraper box 扒斗scraper bucket 耙斗screen 筛screening 筛分seam 地层sedimentary rock 沉积岩service cage 辅助罐笼service drift 辅助平巷service entry 辅助平巷service raise 人行天井service roadway 辅助巷道service shaft 辅助竖井service track 辅助线set 组shaft 上风竖井就是竖井shale 页岩shallow mine 浅矿shank 钎尾short wall mining 短壁采煤法shot boring 钻粒钻进shot drill 钻粒钻机shrinkage 留矿sieve 筛silicate 硅酸盐silicatization 硅化酌siliceous rock 硅质岩石sill 底梁sink 开凿;下沉slurry 矿泥;洗涤用水stage 阶段stope 回采工祖叫做采场！！！stoping 回采stoping and filling 充填回采stoping drift 回采平巷stoping face 回采工祖stoping hole 回采炮眼stoping layout 采矿设计stoping limit 临界品位stoping machine 采矿机stoping method 回采方法storage 仓库sublevel 分段sublevel caving method 分段崩落开采法sublevel caving system 分段崩落开采法sublevel crosscut 中间水平石门sublevel drift 分阶段平巷sublevel interval 分阶段间距sublevel long hole benching 分层台阶深孔开采sublevel method 分段开采法sublevel mining 分段回采sublevel open stope method 分段无充填工祖采矿法sublevel roadway 分阶段平巷sublevel stoping 分段回采采掘subsurface flow 地下水流subterraneous quarry 地下采石场subvertical 立井subvertical shaft 暗竖井sulphate 硫酸盐sulphide 硫化物sulphide concentrate 硫化矿精矿sulphide dust explosion 硫化物尘末爆炸surface mine 露天矿山surface miner 露天矿工surface mining 露天开采surface mining method 露天采矿法surface plan 地面平面图surface plant 地面设备surface stripping 地表剥离surface subsidence 地表塌陷surface tension 表面张力surface transport 地面运输survey 测量survey mark 测量标记surveying 测量surveying compass 测量罗盘surveying equipment 测量仪器surveying instrument 测量仪器surveying marker 测量标surveying rod 测量标尺surveyor 测量员surveyor's rod 测量标尺susceptibility 磁化率;感受性syncline 向斜tailing 尾矿tailing elevator 尾矿提升机tailings 尾矿tailings disposal plant 尾矿处理装置tailings pond 尾煤沉淀池tails 尾矿take off the gangue 清理矸石tectonic 构造的telescopic conveyor 伸缩输传送带telescopic drilling post 伸缩式钻机柱telescopic prop 伸缩支柱tensile strain 拉伸变形tension 张力test pit 探井thickener 浓缩机thril 联络小巷thriling 联络小巷throat 巷道口topographic map 地形图track 轨道trailer 拖车train 系列trainroad 临时铁路tram 矿车trolley 矿车undercut level 底切水平underlayer 下伏层upper level 上水平upper limit 上限ventilate 通风ventilation raise 通风天井ventilation reversal 反向通风ventilation scheme 通风系统图vibrate 振动vibrated concrete 振实的混凝土vibrating ball mill 振动球磨机vibrating chute 振动式滑槽vibrating conveyor 振动输送机vibrating dryer 振动干燥机vibrating feeder 振动给矿机vibrating mill 振动磨碎机vibrating screen 振动筛vibrating sieve 振动筛vibrating system 振动系统vibrating table 振动台vibrodrill 振动钻机vibrodrilling 振动打钻vibrofeeder 振动给矿机viscidity 粘度volcanic rock 火山岩wall rock 围岩waste fill 废石充填waste heap 废石堆waste ore 废矿water drainage 排水water drainage roadway 排水平巷water drip 水滴water entry 排水平巷water filled charge 充水装药water flooding 注水法water proof 防水的water pump 水泵well 井winch 绞车working area 采区working bed height 采煤层厚度working bench 开采台阶working coditions 开采条件zinc 锌zircon 锆石zone 带zone of compression 压缩带zone of contact 接触带zone of fracture 破裂带zone of oxidation 氧化带。
英语培训班如何选择
Check if the current covers vary aspects of English language learning, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening
Textbook quality
Teacher qualifications
01
Verify the qualifications of the teachers, including their degrees, certificates, and any professional members
Teaching experience
How to choose an English training class
Understand your own needs and goals Compare the course content and teacher qualifications of different training classes Advisor the cost of training courses and additional services Trial listening and visiting training courses Refer to other people's evaluations and opinions Make choices and start learning
03
Find out if there is a mechanism for evaluating the teachers' performance and receiving feedback on their teaching methods
我能不能接受ai创作的歌曲英语作文
我能不能接受ai创作的歌曲英语作文Certainly, I can help you with that. Here is an English essay on the topic "Can I Accept AI-Generated Songs?" with a word count exceeding 1000 words, as requested.In today's rapidly evolving technological landscape, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into various creative domains has become a topic of intense discussion and debate. One such area that has garnered significant attention is the realm of music composition and production. The idea of AI-generated songs has sparked a range of reactions, from fascination to skepticism, leaving many individuals, including myself, to ponder the question: Can I accept AI-created songs?To begin, it is essential to acknowledge the remarkable advancements in AI technology that have enabled the generation of music. Through the use of sophisticated algorithms, machine learning models, and vast datasets, AI systems have demonstrated the ability to compose, arrange, and even produce music that bears striking similarities to human-created works. This technological breakthrough has opened up new possibilities in the music industry, offering the potential to enhance creativity, streamline productionprocesses, and even democratize the art of music-making.However, the notion of AI-generated songs raises a myriad of complex questions and concerns. One of the primary considerations is the issue of authenticity and artistic integrity. Music, at its core, is a deeply personal and emotive form of expression, often reflecting the unique experiences, emotions, and creative vision of the artist. When AI systems are tasked with generating music, there is a valid concern that the resulting compositions may lack the inherent human touch and emotional resonance that we have come to associate with great works of art.Furthermore, the potential displacement of human musicians and composers is a pressing concern. In an industry that already faces significant challenges, the introduction of AI-generated music could disrupt traditional creative and economic models, potentially leading to job losses and a diminished role for human artists. This raises ethical questions about the impact of AI on the livelihoods and creative opportunities of those who have dedicated their lives to the art of music.Another critical aspect to consider is the issue of artistic ownership and intellectual property rights. As AI systems become more sophisticated in their music-generating capabilities, the question of who holds the rights to the resulting compositions becomesincreasingly complex. Should the AI system itself be considered the "creator," or should the developers and engineers behind the technology be recognized as the owners? These legal and ethical considerations will undoubtedly shape the future of the music industry and the way we perceive and value creative works.Despite these concerns, there are also compelling arguments in favor of embracing AI-generated songs. Proponents suggest that AI can serve as a powerful tool to enhance and complement human creativity, rather than replace it entirely. By leveraging the computational power and pattern-recognition capabilities of AI, musicians and composers may be able to explore new musical frontiers, experiment with novel compositional techniques, and push the boundaries of their own creative expression.Moreover, AI-generated songs could potentially offer greater accessibility and democratization of the music-making process. By lowering the barriers to entry, AI-powered tools could empower individuals with limited musical training or resources to engage in the creative process, fostering a more inclusive and diverse musical landscape.Additionally, the integration of AI into the music industry could lead to advancements in areas such as music education, music therapy, and the preservation of musical heritage. AI-powered systems couldbe utilized to analyze and understand the underlying structures and emotional qualities of music, potentially providing valuable insights for educators, therapists, and musicologists.Ultimately, the question of whether one can accept AI-generated songs is a deeply personal and complex one, with no simple answer. It requires a careful consideration of the artistic, ethical, and practical implications of this technological advancement. As an individual, I find myself grappling with this question, acknowledging both the potential benefits and the valid concerns that surround the integration of AI into the creative realm of music.On one hand, I am intrigued by the possibilities that AI-generated songs may offer, particularly in terms of expanding the creative horizons and democratizing the music-making process. The idea of AI serving as a collaborative tool, rather than a replacement for human artists, holds a certain appeal. However, I cannot ignore the deep-seated concerns about the potential loss of artistic authenticity, the impact on the livelihoods of human musicians, and the complex legal and ethical issues that arise.In the end, I believe that the acceptance of AI-generated songs will depend on the specific context, the quality and emotional resonance of the music, and the way in which the technology is integrated and applied within the music industry. As with any technologicalinnovation, it is crucial to approach the integration of AI in music with a balanced and thoughtful perspective, weighing the potential benefits against the legitimate concerns and challenges.Ultimately, my stance on this issue remains one of cautious optimism.I am willing to keep an open mind and explore the ways in which AI can be harnessed to enhance and elevate the art of music, while also ensuring that the fundamental human elements of creativity, expression, and emotional connection remain at the core of the musical experience. As the landscape of music continues to evolve, I am committed to engaging in the ongoing dialogue and debate, striving to find a harmonious balance between the human and the artificial in the creation and appreciation of music.。
航海英语题库
0001. __D____ are published for the correction of Admiralty Charts．[7]下列哪项出版物用来改正英版海图A．Admiralty Sailing Directions 英版航路指南B．Admiralty List of Signals 英版信号表C．Mariner's Handbook航海员手册D．Admiralty Notices to Mariners英版航海通告0002. ___C___ gives a description of the combined Cardinal and Lateral Buoyage system including textual and diagrammatic explanations of the five types of marks；lateral；cardinal，isolated danger；safe water and special marks．下列哪项出版物用文字及图式详细地介绍了方位标及侧面标系统（包括5种标志：侧面标、方位标、孤立危险物标、安全水域标及特殊标）。
A．Ocean Passages for the World（NP136）世界大洋航路B．Symbols and Abbreviations used on Admiralty Charts，Chart 5011 英版海图图式及简写C．IALA Maritime Buoyage System（NP735）IALA航海浮标系统D．The Mariners Handbook（NP100）航海员手册0003. ___A___ gives daily predictions of the times and heights of high and low waters for over 230 standard and 6，000 secondary ports in the world．下列哪项出版物对全世界超过230个基准（主潮）港及6000个附潮港每日的潮高及潮时给出预报。
关于出入境管理的英语作文
关于出入境管理的英语作文Exit and entry management is an important window for public security organs to contact and serve the masses. Its business involves thousands of households and is closely related to the lives of the masses. The quality of its work directly affects the image of public security organs in the eyes of the masses. At present, the people have higher and higher expectations of improving the service level of window departments. How to do a good job and improve people's satisfaction is worth our police thinking deeply. In combination with the actual work, I would like to talk about some superficial understanding.To do a good job in service, we must improve our ideological understanding and firmly establish the sense of purpose of serving the people wholeheartedly. In order to do a good job, do a solid job and achieve results, first of all, the person who does it is required to have a correct psychological understanding of it, understand the work, understand it, and know why it is necessary to do this and the importance of doing it. Only then can he really be willing to do it,take the initiative to think about it, and work hard. Service is the soul of entry-exit work. Only by deeply understanding the importance of service, establishing a correct service concept, ideologically positioning yourself as a service provider, and truly lowering your attitude to the masses, can you achieve the goal of "relieving people's worries and serving the people". In work, there are often people who can't handle business smoothly due to incomplete procedures and other reasons, resulting in excitement. If they say something too much, we should think in another's position, stand on the other side's position, understand the psychology of the people, and say more words of understanding and explanation. No matter how complex and aggrieved the situation is, we can't be impulsive or emotional. To do a good job in mass work and resolve contradictions invisibly is a quality that every entry-exit staff must have. What the masses feel is not only blind management and rigid service, but also the sincere service of "new ideas, new services and new images". Only by making every staff member truly understand the significance of serving the people, can they be heart to heart, from passive service to active service and active service, so as to winthe understanding and praise of the masses.To do a good job in service, we must strengthen the study of business knowledge, constantly enhance business skills and improve service level. The exit and entry window is a department with strong business requirements. It is not enough to have good ideas and enthusiasm. How to truly understand the needs of the masses at the first time is crucial. Because the purpose of the masses is very strong, he is setting. As an important window unit of the public security organ, the environment of the exit entry service hall is the first impression of the masses. We should pay attention to creating a clean service environment, so that the people who come to handle business "have a bright eye and a boost of spirit". People oriented, constantly improve service facilities, set up business guides, guide the masses to handle relevant businesses, provide convenience for the masses who come to handle business as much as possible, and extend serious and high-quality services to the hearts of every party. So that they can feel the efficient and convenient services brought to them by the business hall and the warmth given to them by the police and staff, so as to narrow thedistance between them and the people, create a harmonious development situation of "always enthusiastic, civilized and synchronized with the times", and establish a new and bright good image of the police at the entry-exit window.。
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Lowering the entry level:Lessons from the Web and the Semantic Webfor the World-Wide-MindCiarán O’Leary1 and Mark Humphrys21 School of Computing, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin St, Dublin 8, Irelandcoleary@maths.kst.dit.ie, comp.dit.ie/coleary2 School of Computer Applications, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Irelandhumphrys@computing.dcu.ie, computing.dcu.ie/~humphrysAbstract. The "World-Wide-Mind" (WWM) is a scheme in sub-symbolic AI(numeric and behaviour-based AI, neural networks, animats, artificial life, etc.)for constructing complex agent minds (by which we just mean action-takingsystems) through multiple authors. Authors put their (sub-symbolic) agentminds online, and other authors use these minds as components in larger minds.This paper does not discuss in detail exactly what the WWM is for insub-symbolic AI, for which see [8], [9]. Instead it will treat this as anotherproblem domain in which to apply Semantic Web ideas. The substance of thispaper is taken up with considering how Semantic Web ideas can be appliedgiven some particular properties of this specific problem domain, namely: (1)We are trying to get existing sub-symbolic AI researchers to "publish" theiralgorithms online for remote re-use by others (as, essentially, Web Services). (2)The target audience are programmers, but not network programmers. (3) Thesealgorithms are often unique, not commodities. As a result, we are likely to bevery "forgiving" of whatever the researchers do put online.The standard approach with the Semantic Web has been to aim the technology atnetwork programmers, and assume that tools can hide this complexity fromnon-specialist users [7]. We argue that this will not work in this case. The Webitself showed a different approach, where the technology itself could beapproached by the non-specialist, at least at the entry level. We adopt thisapproach. We construct an extremely low entry level, which rejects: (a) modelsof programs online that require network programming or complex APIs, and: (b)models of data that are unforgiving - where data must be well-formed or will berejected. We explain why these ideas will not work in this problem domain.This simple entry level does not compromise usage of advanced Web Servicesand Semantic Web concepts at higher levels. The discussion of design decisionshere may have implications for other areas of the Semantic Web where thetarget audience may be programmers but not network programmers.1 IntroductionThe "World-Wide-Mind" (WWM) [9] is a scheme in sub-symbolic AI (numeric and behaviour-based AI, neural networks, animats, artificial life, etc.) for constructing complex agent "minds" (by which we just mean action-taking control systems) through multiple authors. Authors put their (sub-symbolic) agent minds online, and other authors use these minds as components in larger minds. This works in sub-symbolic AI because competition is resolved using schemes like competing numeric weights, rather than through explicit symbolic reasoning. So we can define a sub-symbolic communication protocol based on numbers which avoids (for the moment) the difficult problems of knowledge representation and "agent communica-tion languages" [10] of the symbolic AI level. We still want to put these programs online in a communicating network though, and it is here that ideas from Web Services and the Semantic Web will still be useful.This paper does not discuss in detail exactly what the WWM is for in sub-symbolic AI, for which see [8], [9]. Instead it will treat this as another problem domain in which to apply Semantic Web ideas - like other such domains of specialised research communities, such as chemistry (the Chemical Markup Language, ) or molecular biology (the RiboWeb Project, /projects/helix/riboweb.html).The substance of this paper is therefore taken up with considering how Semantic Web ideas can be applied given some unusual properties of this problem domain. The basic unusual feature of this problem domain is that it is aimed at programmers who are not network programmers.1.1 Particular properties of the WWM problem domainThe WWM problem domain has the following properties:1. We are trying to get existing sub-symbolic AI researchers to "publish" theiralgorithms online for remote re-use by others (as, essentially, Web Services).2. The target audience are programmers, but not network programmers (andunlikely ever to become network programmers). Any scheme that requires them to become network programmers (or indeed learn any new concepts) will fail (will fail in the sense that most algorithms will remain offline).3. These algorithms tend to be unique, not commodities. A business puttingairline-ticket systems online will hire programmers with generic, "commodity"skills in databases, networks, etc. But sub-symbolic AI is driven by unique indi-viduals whose work is often not easily replicable by anyone else. Often, few people may fully understand the algorithm. Indeed, one of the problems with this field is how few people try out each other’s algorithms [2], [3], [5]. In general, if the author does not put his algorithm online then no one will.4. Businesses will just hire network specialists to construct their web services. Butindividual sub-symbolic AI researchers will not or cannot. They must do it alone or not at all.5. An important consequence of this is that if, after lengthy persuasion, theresearcher Bloggs is finally persuaded to put the "Bloggs neural architecture"online, then we may use his server even if it deviates badly from official stan-dards (e.g. outputs badly-formed XML). We will have to be extremely tolerant of whatever he does publish, because we can’t get this service anywhere else. If Bloggs is important enough, then we will adapt to his server.This problem domain is clearly a long way from e-commerce. But many similar domains exist, especially within science, that are planned to be addressed by Seman-tic Web models. We now see how ideas from the Web and the Semantic Web apply to this problem domain.2 Lowering the entry levelOne of the defining features of the Internet over the last 15 years can be seen as the attempt to entice large numbers of people to put their data and programs online. This attempt is ongoing, and much data and programs remain offline.A protocol or scheme is by definition successful if large numbers adopt it. This is the only definition of success that the WWM is interested in. There may, of course, be a tension between designing a rich, functional protocol and a protocol that will be adopted (the Hypertext 91 conference famously came down on the first side of these two when rejecting the paper describing the Web). But, in the case of the WWM at least, if adoption is not widespread then most of the functionality is wasted.2.1 The WebThe Web has clearly been the paradigmatic success story in terms of adoption, persuading millions of people to put their data online. Most of these use publishing tools to do so, but one can also publish on the Web using just a text editor and a couple of markup tags. One can also "publish" a program on CGI with a text editor and knowledge of just one HTTP header line (Content-type) and a couple of markup tags. No new programming language need be learnt. In summary, the entry level is very low.2.2 The Semantic WebThe Semantic Web has made a deliberate decision to raise the entry level. The stan-dard approach has been to aim the technology at network programmers, Semantic Web experts, and other specialists, and assume that tools can hide this complexity from non-specialist users. For instance, users who want semantic markup in their pages are not expected to insert it by hand. They are expected to use web authoring tools [7]. As a result, the technology is forbidding for the non-specialist, even for programmers.2.3 The WWMBut the world is not divided into network programmers and non-programmers who just want to mark up pages. The WWM problem domain illustrates a class of applica-tions that has been given little attention by Semantic Web researchers - programmers, who are not network programmers, yet whose programs could usefully go online. Such programmers may be willing to learn a few XML tags in order to get their programs online, but the idea that they would be willing to learn about well-formed-ness, DTD’s and Schemas (let alone more advanced concepts like ontologies) is totally unrealistic. For most of them, this (putting their algorithms online) is inciden-tal to their main careers, and will not happen if it requires a big investment. This aspect - of appealing to an audience of programmers, yet one that will resist learning new programming tools or standards - is what makes this audience unusual. (Though we suspect there may be other audiences like this that the Semantic Web will need to address.)Our approach, therefore, is to take the "Web" approach and lower the entry level so these programmers can approach the technology directly, even if they do not use any of the advanced concepts. This simple entry level should not preclude the use of more advanced concepts at higher levels of the system.2.4 WWM Mind servers and World serversA word needs to be said about what we envisage by putting sub-symbolic agent minds "online". We envisage authors putting (sub-symbolic) minds online as "Mind servers" to which messages can be sent from remote clients. A typical message for a Mind server would be "Given that the input state is x, what output state do you gener-ate?". The typical "input state" here will be, say, an n-dimensional vector of real numbers, such as the input to a neural network (e.g. a visual pattern, or the combined vector of sensory input of a robot). The "output state" could represent a classification (e.g. a decision on the class to which the visual or auditory pattern belongs) or an "action" (e.g. commands sent to robot joints or motors). This will also typically be an n-dimensional vector of real numbers, as in the output layer of a neural network. This will cover many problems and applications in sub-symbolic AI, but we will still leave the definition of input and output open and extensible, so that other definitions may be used.We envisage that the problem that the mind is attempting to solve can also be put online, separate from any specific attempt to solve it. We call this a "World server". This may receive messages such as "What is the current state x of the world?" (the data structure that will be sent as the input state to the Mind server).Again, for detailed discussion of how this can be applied to existing problems and architectures in sub-symbolic AI (including how multiple-Mind-server systems can be built) see [9], or in considerable detail, [8]. What this paper is concerned with is given we have such a requirement for a system of remote invocation, and given the specific nature of the audience we are aiming at, what technology to use?3 Remote Invocation technologies3.1 Rejecting local installationWe are setting up a system whereby researchers can re-use each other’s sub-symbolic minds (and problem worlds). First note that we have rejected the solution of local installation. Given the huge diversity of, and incompatibility of, operating systems, platforms, files, libraries, versions, environments, programming methodologies and programming languages in use in sub-symbolic AI, we view it as highly unlikely that local installation could lead to widespread re-use. We clearly reject the idea, for example, of asking all sub-symbolic AI researchers to use a certain programming language (e.g. Java) or platform. How can one avoid these compatibility problems and allow researchers use whatever platform they want? By remote invocation. We look here at some of the major schemes for remote invocation.3.2 Java RMI and JiniJava RMI [/products/jdk/rmi] is a Java-only mechanism for locating and invoking services across a network. It allows for a Java object, hosted on any node on the Internet, to be the subject of remote invocations from clients located elsewhere. A client contacts a registry which provides a remote reference to the server object. It then downloads a stub object which represents the server object. From that point on the stub handles all communication with the server object - this is completely trans-parent to the programmer. Jini [/jini] is an architecture built on top of Java RMI which allows for publication of services and automatic notification of events. Jini applications are grouped together into a federation, where they make services available to other members of the federation. Clients wishing to use a service provide a serialised Java service object to a central lookup service, requesting similar Java objects, which are then provided. Java provides two simple solutions to the problem of remote objects and services. The majority of the requirements for a distributed service architecture are made transparent to Java programmers. It is however, a pure Java solution, and as such is not available for use by non-Java applications.3.3 CORBACORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture) [] is a language-independent and platform-independent standard for remote invocation that predates either of the Java technologies. This is the OMG (Object Management Group) [] standard for remote method invocation. Since it is not tied to any platform, it cannot provide the luxury of complete transparency, thus making the creation of a CORBA application somewhat more complex than a distributed Java application. CORBA provides a new set of standards for communication (IIOP), interface description (IDL) and marshalling of data (XDR). The creation of a CORBA application requires that the client and server be fitted out with an installation of a CORBA product, such as Iona’s Orbix [/products].3.4 Web ServicesWeb services are a rapidly emerging standard for remote invocation over the existing network of HTTP servers (rather than requiring that a new network be set up). Web services by their nature are completely open (since they work over the Web), and available to all programmers. The three main protocols which form the core of Web Services are independently regulated by the World Wide Web Consortium and their members. These protocols fulfill the main requirements for a distributed object or service architecture, such as the ones we have seen above. SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) [/TR/SOAP] is the communication protocol, providing the message format and the encoding of complex data types. It is a lightweight protocol built on top of XML, and makes use of several components of XML, such as names-pacing, and the data typing of XML schema. UDDI (Universal Description, Discov-ery and Integration) [] provides a means for discovery of services, analogous to discovery in Jini. Since it comes from the e-commerce community, it is primarily a classification and inquiry scheme for business web services. Services are registered with a set of information divided between white pages (address and contact informa-tion), yellow pages (business category) and green pages (technical information). Users can send queries to the registry for the service that they require using the inquiry API with find and get messages. WSDL (Web Service Description Language) [/TR/wsdl] is an XML based language used to describe web services. It describes services at an abstract level, as a connection between two abstract network end points. A WSDL operation ties a request and response together, and provides the various pieces of information required to describe the service. The service is then bound to a particular implementation, by indicating the transport mechanism to be used (most typically SOAP), as well as the actual location of the service.The design of web services was inspired by a desire to make distributed comput-ing as simple as possible, prompting the following quote from Byte magazine: "Does distributed computing have to be any harder than this? I don’t think so." [16]. And indeed they are correct, it does not have to be any harder than this, unless the designer of a distributed system wants to have distributed garbage collection, activa-tion of objects, objects by reference or other more advanced features. What web services give us is the lowest common denominator. We can write an object using the language of our choice. Anyone in the world can locate and invoke methods on that object once we put it on a web server that is SOAP enabled, and publish its location with a UDDI registry using WSDL. Even the final two steps are not mandatory. Any object accessible through SOAP can be a part of a distributed object system. While it is simple to create a service using SOAP, one must still use an installation of a SOAP interface such as Apache SOAP [/SOAP]. The protocol is based on XML and as such will always need some third party APIs or software in order to process and generate it correctly. This is what made the web service protocols and standards unattractive for our purposes. While recognising the achievement of the web service community, we still feel that for constructing the simplest possible entry level for programmers for the WWM, it is better to create a cut down version of the web service protocols than to insist upon adoption of them by people who may have no interest in the Web or network programming.3.5 DAML-SWhile proposing a simpler entry level for the WWM, we intend this to co-exist with the incorporation of advanced concepts at higher levels. One of these concepts is description and discovery of services. Entities within the WWM will need to be aware of all the services that other entities are making available. Our protocol, that we will describe below, allows for various (sub-symbolic AI) entities to query each other in order to see what they can do. If one entity says that it can do X, then all other entities will need to share the same understanding of what X means. Web services and WSDL don’t provide us with this. A client can be told that a service will accept two strings and return a single integer, but there are no semantics involved in the definition of the service. The closest we get to this is in UDDI where the yellow pages insist upon a business categorisation of the service.DAML-S [1] is an initiative from the DAML Services Coalition (see below) that intends to create an ontology for web services. It is quite different from the standard web service protocols. It intends to include semantics in the definition of services, so that clients can be sure that the service they are invoking is providing the functional-ity that they require. DAML-S describes a service using a Service Profile (for saying what it does), a Service Model (for saying how it works) and a Service Grounding (for saying how to communicate with it). In defining the ontology for services DAML-S makes use of a number of the protocols used on the Semantic Web. DAML (DARPA Agent Markup Language) [] is a language used for describe resources on the semantic web in order to allow better understanding by agents. It is built on top of RDF (Resource Description Framework) [/RDF/], which in turn is an application of XML. Various other protocols exist for creating ontologies, and marking resources up with semantics. Some of these (such as SHOE [6]) are a great deal simpler than RDF, and as such make themselves more attractive to us for our requirements. We do not intend to include any semantic description of services at the lowest layer of the WWM, but we will do so at layers above that. This layered approach will be explained in detail below.4 Layered Architecture of the WWMThe WWM web services (the Mind and World servers) will have to support a fixed set of messages. Examples of these messages are new run, end run, get state, etc. These form the minimal set of operations that a service must provide. However, services will typically have extra messages that they can support. These messages will be non standard, and will vary across servers, and will be decided upon by the creator of the service. An example of such a message could be get neural architec-ture, which will return information about the architecture (e.g. the number of hidden layers) of a neural network. This message will be supported by a service which provides access to a neural network, but would have no reason to be supported by other services. It would be impossible for us to define a full set of messages that capture all possible behaviours of all services in sub-symbolic AI, so we decided instead to standardise only those messages that must be supported by everyone. It was necessary to standardize these messages so that client software provided by thecreators of the WWM could interact with the services. All other (non-standard) messages will be used as the various services communicate with each other.Our requirements for the WWM are three-fold. We need a way for the various services to be able to find out what (non-standard) messages are supported by other services. Also, the various services must be able to interpret the data produced by each other. Most importantly, all standards and rules for communication must be kept as simple as possible so as not to discourage involvement.Fig.1. Layered Architecture of the WWMAs a result of our third requirement it was decided that the WWM will be imple-mented as three separate layers, as shown in Fig.1. The lowest layer (layer 1) provides a simple entry level for anyone interested in creating a service. The middle layer (layer 2) provides a facility for those who wish to describe their services in a more structured fashion. XML Schema can be used here to ensure that services are described correctly, and that the data being shared is consistent among services. The upper layer (layer 3) allows for the full integration of semantic web technologies. Ontologies will be created to describe services, in line with DAML-S as described above. Layer 1 is the only layer as yet implemented. This layer will be the subject of the next section. Layers 2 and 3 will be discussed in the section following that.5 The WWM entry levelThe very basic requirements for a distributed service architecture are transport proto-col, mechanism for invocation of service, message format and discovery protocol. We require as simple as possible a solution for each of these, as well as a simple data representation scheme, for the lowest layer of the WWM. Each of these will be described in turn below, but it is imperative to remember that for each decision we made, our fundamental concern was keeping the entry level as simple as possible, so that we are in a position to encourage sub-symbolic AI researchers to make use of our service architecture.5.1 Simple Transport ProtocolWeb services use HTTP for transport. All other communication protocols such as SOAP, are built on top of this. We avoid SOAP because of complexity, favouring AIML, as discussed below, but retain HTTP, because of its obvious benefits, such as simplicity and ubiquity.Fig.2. Requirements for a service. Create CGI Script to listen for requests, which are handed on to the server, using (in this example) a series of simple file operations. Server here maintains state using a file for each runid.5.2 Simple Invocation of ServiceFig.2 shows how a WWM service is designed and invoked. Because of our choice of HTTP as a transport protocol, we can use the CGI facilities of any web server as an interface. A service author simply writes a CGI script which reads in messages and makes the appropriate call to their application (the WWM server). Synchronisation and communication between the CGI script and the application is probably the most complicated part of the architecture. There are obviously many different solutions, depending on time, level of expertise etc. A simple example using lock files is given in [14]. The serviceauthor should also ensure that their service can interact with several different clients (many runs) at the same time. This obviously is only the concern of authors who create stateful services, i.e. ones that need to keep informa-tion about the run across several invocations (the obvious analogy is with cookies in web applications). Once again, there are a number of different ways that this could be handled. The protocol messages (to be discussed below) will include a value called runid, which is intended to uniquely identify a particular run as started by a client. The server could manage persistence of information using simple files named using the runid.5.3 Simple Message FormatWe created a protocol called AIML (Artificial Intelligence Markup Language) which consists of a core of eight simple messages and a mechanism for each service to add extra messages based on the operations they provide.AIML is an XML-like language, however it is not XML. The XML specification dictates that any document which does not obey the rules of well-formedness cannot be called XML. While this is perfectly acceptable for situations where documents are generated by network professionals (or generated by programs written by network professionals), as is the case in e-commerce, we feel that for the purposes of the WWM this is unnecessarily strict and could easily be fatal to the level of uptake. Instead we aim to tolerate situations where the messages being exchanged are incor-rectly generated and even cater for situations where the data being generated is entirely incompatible with the protocol. The aim is to get the people involved in sub-symbolic AI research to publish their software in order to allow others experi-ment with it. At the entry level we do not want to impose great restrictions on those wishing to get involved. We do not want to encourage our generic researcher Bloggs to break standards, but realistically, whatever Bloggs puts online we will adapt to.We have subsetted XML to get rid of everything except the tags. The tags we use do not have to be grouped together in a well formed fashion, rather they should be grouped together to give a sufficient indication to the user of the intended meaning of the message. This is not a unique endeavour. Common XML [15] is a stripped down version of XML that identifies the most useful parts of XML for certain applications. Similarly, MinML [17] subsetted XML leaving out everything but elements and text, in order to create a language suitable for embedded systems. Others who use XML have found difficulty with its strictness [12], but seem satisfied with applications which inform the author of where the problem exists.5.3.1 Basic AIML messagesThe eight basic AIML messages that form the AIML protocol are as follows: NewRun, EndRun, GetState, GetAction, TakeAction, TunnelMessage, Success and Error. The actual meaning of these messages is not important here. Rather we focus on the generation and exchange of the messages using our loosely defined set of rules. We will show one example. An AIML NewRun message should be represented in the following way:<aiml version=1.1><request type="NewRun"></request></aiml>When this message is sent to a service the following response should be returned, indicating that the request was successful, and a new run was started: <aiml version=1.1><response type="Success" runid="1234"><param name="id" value="0001"/><param name="alttext" value="New Run Started"/></response></aiml>AIML responses should include two parameters indicating the status code for the response and a natural language explanation of this (e.g. "everything worked fine"). The message should not be rejected if this was omitted however, as the message still contains valuable information i.e. the run id. Similarly, all AIML messages should be wrapped up with AIML tags indicating the version of AIML being used, but once again, if these are omitted it would still be wise to attempt to extract the meaningful information. Finally, if the document is not well formed, and say the closing tag for the response tag is omitted, the message will still contain the data we require, so we do not reject the message outright, but attempt instead to extract the useful informa-tion. In fact, the minimum amount of data that we would expect back from such a request would be:<response type="Success" runid="1234">The only absolute requirement for the response is that the runid be supplied, so we may even be satisfied with a message being returned containing the following text: runid="1234"If this data is returned then we can be satisfied that the request was successful since a runid has been allocated. While it would be more desirable to have the whole message, and it would definitely prevent any misinterpretation due to assumptions made in the absence of certain tags, we believe that simply rejecting messages for reasons like this could fatally damage the uptake of the WWM project.。