ARA Cost Volume Profit Question
会计英语chapter9
Chapter 9 planning and control9-1 cost-volume-profit analysisRelevant Glossary(1)cost-volume-profit(CVP)analysis 本量利分析(2)contribution margin 边际贡献(3)variable expense 变动成本(4)fixed expense 固定成本(5)contribution margin ratio(CM ratio) 边际贡献率(6)equation method 等式法(7)break-even point 盈亏平衡点(8)contribution margin method 贡献毛益法(9)margin of safety 安全边际(10)m argin of safety percentage 安全边际率(11)operating leverage 经营杠杆(12)S ales mix 混合销售Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is one of the most powerful tools that managershave at their command. It helps them understands the interrelationship between cost,volume and profit in an organization by focusing on interactions between thefollowing five elements:(1)Price of products(2)V olume or level of activity(3)Per unit variable costs(4)Total fixed costs(5)Mix of products soldContribution margin is the amount remaining from sales revenue after variableexpenses have been deducted. Thus ,it is the amount available to cover fixedexpenses and then to provide profits for the period. Notice the sequence here——contribution margin is used first to cover the fixed expenses, and then whateverremains goes toward profit . if the contribution margin is not sufficient to cover thefixed expenses, then a loss of occurs for the period.The percentage of contribution margin to total sales is referred to as the contribution margin ratio(cm ratio). This ratio is computed as follows:CM ratio =CM/salesCVP analysis is sometimes referred to simply as break-even analysis. This is unfortunate because break-even analysis is only one elements of CVP analysis. Breaking-even analysis can be approached in two ways——fist, by the equation method; and second, by the contribution margin method. The equation method centers in the contribution approach to the income statement. The format of this statement can be expressed in equation from as follows:Sales——(variable expense +fixed expenses)=profitsRearranging this equation slightly yields the following equation, which is widely used in CVP analysis:Sales=variable expense + profitsAt the breaking-even point, profits will be zero. Therefore, the breaking-even point can becomputed by finding that point where sales just equal the total of the variable expenses plus the fixed expenses.The contribution margin method is actually just a variation of the equation method already described. The approach centers on the idea discussed earlier that each unit sold provides a certain amount of contribution margin that goes toward the covering of fixed costs. To find how many units must be sold to break even, one must divide the total fixed costs by the contribution margin being generated by each unit sold:There are several assumptions underlying the simplest form of CVP analysis——such as the breaking-even formulas. The major assumption as follows:(1)selling price is constant throughout the entire relevant range. The price of a product or servicewill not change as volume changes.(2)Cost are linear throughout the entire relevant range. and they can be accurately divided intovariable and fixed elements. The variable element is constant per unit, and the fixed element is constant in total over the entire relevant range.(3)In multiproduct companies, the sales mix is constant.(4)In manufacturing companies, inventories do not change. The number of units producedequals the number of units sold.There is a variation of this method that uses the CM ratio instead of the unit contribution margin. The result is the break-even in total sales dollars rather than in total units sold.Fixed expense / CM ratio =break-even point in total sales dollarsThis approach to break-even point analysis is particularly useful in those situations where a company has multiple product lines and wishes to compute a single break-even point for the company as a whole.CVP formulas can be used to determine the sales volume needed to achieve a target net profit figure. And a second approach would be to expand the contribution margin formula to include the target profit.This approach is simpler and more direct than using the CVP equation. In addition, it shows clearly that once the fixed costs are covered, the unit contribution margin is fully available for meeting profit requirements.The margin of safety is the excess of budgeted (or actual ) sales over the break-even volume sales. It states the amount by which sales can drop before losses begin to be incurred. The formula for its calculation is as follows:Total sales——break-even sales=margin of safety percentageThe margin of safety can also be expressed in percentage form. This percentage is obtained by dividing the margin of safety in dollar terms by total sales:Margin of safety in dollar / total sales =margin of safety percentageTo the scientist, leverage explains how one is able to move a large object with a small force. To the manager, leverage explains how one is able to achieve a large increase in profits with only a small increase in sales and/or assets. One type of leverage that manager uses to do this is known as operating leverage.Operating leverage is a measure of the extent to which fixed costs are being used in an organization. It is great in companies that have a high proportion of fixed costs in relation to variable costs. Conversely, operating leverage is low in companies that have a low proportion of fixed costs in relation to variable cost. If a company has high operating leverage (that is, a highproportion of fixed costs in relation to variable costs), then profits will be very sensitive to changes in sales. Just a small percentage increase (or decrease) in profits.The degree of operating leverage at a given level of sales is computed by the following formula:Contribute margin / net income =degree of operating leverageThe degree of operating leverage is a measure, at a given level of sales, of how a percentage change in the sales, of how a percentage change in sales volume will affect profits.The preceding section have given us some insights into the principles involved in CVP analysis, as well as some selected examples of how these principle are used of CVP concepts in analyzing sales mix.The term sales mix means the relative combination in which a company’s products are sold. Managers are try to achieve the combination, or mix, that will yield the greatest amount of profits. Most companies have several products and often these products are not equally profitable. Whereas this is true, profits will depend to some extent on the sales mix that the company is able to achieve. profits will be greater if high-margin items make up a relatively large proportion of total sales than if sales consist mostly of low-margin items.Changes in the sales mix can cause interesting (and sometimes confusing) variations in a company’s profits. A shift in the sales mix from high margin items can causes the reverse effect——total profits may increase even though total sales decrease. Given the possibility of these types of variations in profits, one measure of the effectiveness of a company’s sales force is the sales mix that it is able to generate. It is one thing to achieve a particular sales volume; it is quite a different thing to sell the most profitable mix of products.The analysis of CVP relationships is one of management’s most significant responsibilities. Basically, it involves finding the most favorable combination of variable costs, fixed costs, selling price, sales volume, and mix of products sold. We have the trade-offs between variable costs and fixed costs, and between selling price and sales volume. Sometimes these trade-offs are desirable, and sometimes they are not. CVP analysis provides the manager with a powerful tool for identifying those courses of action that will improve profitability.9-2 budgeting: profit planning and control system(1) Budget n. 预算(2) Responsibility accounting 责任会计(3) Master budget 全面预算(4) Operation budgets 经营预算(5) Continuous or perpetual budget 滚动预算(6) Self-imposed budget 自愿预算(7) Production budget 产品预算(8) Capital budgeting 资本预算A budget is a detailed plan for the acquisition and use of financial and other resources over a specified period. It represents a plan for the future expressed in formal quantitative terms. The act of preparing a budget is called budgeting. The use of budgets to control a firm’s activities is known as budgetary control.The master budget is a summary of all phases of a company’s plans and goals for the future. It set specific targets for sales, production, distribution, and financing activities, and it generally culminates in a projected statement of net income and a projected statement of cashflows. In short, it represents a comprehensive expression of management’s plans for the future and how these plans are to be accomplished.The budgets of a business firm serve much the same function as the budgets prepared informally by individuals. Business budgets tend to be prepared informally by individuals. Business budgets tend to be more detailed and to involve more work, but they are similar to the budgets prepared informally by individuals in most other respects. Like personal budgets, they assist in planning and controlling expenditures; they also assist in predicting operating results and financial condition in future periods.The basic idea behind responsibility accounting is that each manager’s performance should be judged by how well he or she manages those items——and only those items——under his or her control. Each manager is then held responsibility for deviations between budgeted goals and actual results. In effect, responsibility accounting personalizes accounting information by looking at costs from a personal control standpoint. This concept is central to any effective profit planning and control system. Someone must be held responsible, or the cost will inevitably grow out of control.Budgets covering acquisition of land, buildings, and other items of capital equipment (often called capital budgets ) generally have time horizons that extend many years into the future. The later years covered by such budgets may be quite indefinite, but the lengthy time horizon is needed to assist management in its planning and to ensure that funds will be available when purchases of equipment become necessary. As time passes, capital equipment are needed, but find that no funds are available to make the purchases.Operation budgets are ordinarily set to cover a one-year period. The one-year period should correspond to the company’s fiscal year so that the budget figures can be compared with the actual results. Many companies divide their budget year into four quarters. The first quarter is then subdivided into months, and monthly budget figures are established. Theses near-term figures can usually be established with considerable accuracy. The last three quarters are carried in the budget at quarterly totals only. As the year progresses, the figures for the second quarter are broken down into monthly amounts, then the third quarter figures are broken down, and so forth. This approach has the advantage of requiring periodic review and reappraisal of budget data throughout the year.Continuous or perpetual budgets are used by a significant number of organizations. A continuous or perpetual budget is a 12-mouth budget that rolls forward one mouth (or quarter) as the current month (or quarter) is completed. In other words, one month (or quarter) is added to the end of the budget as each month (or quarter) comes to a close. This approach keeps managers focused on the future at least one year ahead. Advocates of continuous budgets believe that managers using this approach to budgeting have less danger of becoming to focused on short-term results as the year progresses.Once self-imposed budgets are prepared, are they subject to any kind of review? The answer is yes. Even though individual preparation of budget estimates is usually critical to a successful budgeting program, such budget estimates cannot necessarily be accepted without being questioned by higher levels of management. If no system of checks and balances is present, the danger exists that self-imposed budgets will be too loose and will allow too much slack. The result will be inefficiency and waste. Therefore, before budgets are accepted, they must be carefully reviewed by immediate superiors. If changes from the original budget seem desirable, the items in question are discussed, and compromises are reached that are acceptable to all concerned.In essence, all levels of an organization should work together to produce the budget since top management is generally unfamiliar with detailed, day-to-day operations, it should rely on subordinates to provide detailed budget information. On the other hand, top management has a perspective on the company as a whole that is vital in making broad policy decisions in budget preparation. Each level of responsibility in an organization should contribute in the way that it best can in a cooperative effort to develop an integrated budget document.The master budget is a network consisting of many separate but interdependent budgets, this network is illustrated in exhibit 9-1Exhibit 9-1The sales budget is usually based on a sales forecast. A sales forecast generally encompasses potential sales for the entire industry, as well as potential sales for the firm preparing the forecast. Factors that are considered in making a sales forecast include the following:1.The company’s past sales volume.2.Unfilled back orders3.The company’s pricing policy for the budget period.4.The company’s marketing plans for the budget period.5.The company’s market share.6.Economic conditions in the industry.7.General economic conditions.Sales results from prior years are commonly used as a starting point in preparing a sales forecast. Forecasters examine sales data in relation to various factors, includingprices, competitive conditions, availability of supplies, and general economic conditions.Projections ate then made into the future based in those factors that the forecasters feelwill be significant over the budget period. In-depth discussions generally characterizedthe gathering and interpretation of all data going into the sales forecast. Thesediscussions, held at all levels of the organization, develop perspective and assost inassessing the significance and usefulness of data.Statistical tools such as regression analysis, trend and cycle projection, and correlation analysis may be used in sales forecasting, in addition, some firms have foundit useful to build econometric models of their industry or of the nation to assist inforecasting problems. Such models hold great promise for improving the overall qualityof budget data.The sales budget is the starting point in preparing the master budget. As shown earlier in exhibit 9-1 nearly all other items in the master budget, including production,purchases, inventories, and expenses, depend on it in some way. The sales budget isconstructed by multiplying the expected sales in units by the selling price. After thesales budget has been prepared, the production re requirements for the forthcomingbudget period can be determined and organized in the form of a production budget .afterthe production requirements have been computed, a direct material budget can beprepared. The direct materials budget details the raw materials that must be purchased to fulfill the production budget and to provide for adequate inventories. Preparing a budget of this kind is one step in a company’s overall material requirements planning (MRP).MRP is an operations management tool that uses a computer to assist the manager in overall materials and inventory planning. The objective of MRP is to ensure that the right materials are on hand, in the right quantities, and at the right time to support the production budget. The direct labor budget is also developed from the production budget. Direct labor requirements must be computed so that the company will know whether sufficient labor time is available to meet production needs. To compute direct labor requirements, the number of nits of finished product to be produced each period (month, quarter, and so on) is multiplied by the number of direct labor-hours required to produce a single unit. Many different types of labot may be involved. If so, then computations should be by type of labor needed. The direct labor requirements can then be translated into expected direct labor costs. How this is done will depend on the labor policy of the firm. However, many companies have employment polic ies or contracts that prevent them from laying off and rehiring workers as needed. The manufacturing overhead budget provides a schedule of all costs of production other than direct materials and direct labor. These cost should be broken down by cost behavior for budgeting purposes and a predetermined overhead rate developed. This rate will be used to apply manufacturing overhead to units of product throughout the budget period. A computation showing budgeted cash disbursements for manufacturing overhead should be made for use in developing the cash budget. Since some of the overhead costs do not represent cash outflows, the total budgeted manufacturing overhead costs must be adjusted to determine the cash disbursements for manufacturing overhead. The selling and administrative expense budget lists the budgeted expenses for areas other than manufacturing. In large organizations, this budget should be a compilation of many smaller, individual budgets submitted by department heads and other persons responsible for selling and administrative expenses. As illustrated in exhibit 9-1, the cash budget pulls together much of the data developed in the preceding steps. It is a good idea to restudy exhibit 9-1 to get the big picture firmly in mind before moving on.The cash budget is composed of four major sections: the receipts section, the disbursements section, the cash excess or deficiency section and the financing section.the receipts section consists of a listing of all of the cash inflows, except for financing, expected during the budget period. Generally, the major source of receipts will be from sales. The disbursements section consists of all cash payments that are planned for the budget period. These payments will include raw materials purchases, direct labor payments, manufacturing overhead costs, and so on, as contained in their respective budgets. In addition, other cash disbursements such as equipment purchases, dividends, and other cash withdrawals by owners are listed. The cash excess or deficiency section is computed as follows:Cash balance, beginning………………………………………………×××Add receipts ……………………………………………………×××Total cash available before financing………………………×××Less disbursements ………………………………………………×××Excess (deficiency of cash available over disbursements)……………………×××the financing section provides a detailed account of the borrowings and repayments projected to take place during the budget period. It also includes a detail of interest payments that will be due on money borrowed.。
AnalysisofCost,Volume,andPricingtoIncreaseP
Chapter 3
Operating Leverage
How a small percentage increase in sales volume can produce a significantly higher percentage increase in profitability.
Jeff's Computers
Contribution Income Statement
For the K6 Model
Total Per Unit
Sales (400 units)
$200,000 $ 500
Less: variable expenses 120,000
300
Contribution margin
Copyright © 2003 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, Canada
Estimating the Sales Volume Necessary to Attain a Target Profit
Calculate volume in units:
Sales Volume in Units
=
Fixed Costs + Desired Profit Contribution Margin Per Unit
At the break-even point profits equal zero.
3-12
Copyright © 2003 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, Canada
$250,000 $ 500
Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis 量本利分析
target profit. 4. Using a cost-volume-profit chart and a profit-volume chart,
First, select the highest and lowest
levels of activity.
Difference in Total Cost Variable Cost per Unit = Difference in Production
Mixed Costs
Production Total (Units) Cost
Total Direct Materials Cost Cost per Unit
Variable Costs
$300,000 $250,000 $200,000 $150,000 $100,000
$50,000
0
10 20 30
Units Produced (000)
Number of Units of Model JS-12 Produced
Mixed Costs
Production Total (Units) Cost
June July August September October
1,000 1,500 2,100 1,800
750
$45,550 52,000 61,500 57,500 41,250
Actual costs incurred
Mixed Costs
The rental charges for various hours used within the relevant range of 8,000 hours to 40,000 hours are as follows:
cost volume profit 会计补充内容
Week 14Lessons 27 & 28INTRODUCTION TO COST BEHAVIOURCOST –VOLUME – PROFIT© 2015College of BusinessTo successfully manage any business you must understand how costs respond to changes in sales volume and the effect of the interaction of costs and income on profit.The way a specific cost reacts to changes in activity levels is called cost behavior. Costs may stay the same or may change proportionately in response to a change in activity. Knowing how a cost reacts to a change in the level of activity makes it easier to create a budget, prepare a forecast, determine how much profit a new product will generate.Cost behavior refers to the way different types of production costs change when there is a change in level of production.Fixed costsFixed costs are those that stay the same in total regardless of the number of units produced or sold, within the relevant range. These costs will incur even if no units are produced. For example rent expense, straight-line depreciation expense, etc.Straight-line depreciation is an example of a fixed cost. It does not matter whether the machine is used to produce 1,000 units or 10,000,000 units in a month, the depreciation expense is the same because it is based on the number of years the machine will be in service.However, fixed costs per unit changes as fewer or more units are produced.Total Fixed Cost $30,000 $30,000 $30,000÷ Units Produced 5,000 10,000 15,000Fixed Cost per Unit $6.00 $3.00 $2.00Variable costsVariable costs are the costs that change in total each time an additional unit is produced or sold.With a variable cost, the per unit cost stays the same, but the more units produced or sold, the higher the total cost. This also means that total variable cost decreases when less units are producedDirect materials is a variable cost. If it takes one yard of fabric at a cost of $5 per yard to make one chair, the total materials cost for one chair is $5. The total cost for 10 chairs is $50 (10 chairs × $5 per chair) and the total cost for 100 chairs is $500 (100 chairs × $5 per chair).Variable costs change in direct proportion to the level of production.. Although variable in total, these costs are constant per unit. For exampleTotal Variable Cost $10,000 $20,000 $30,000÷ Units Produced 5,000 10,000 15,000Variable Cost per Unit $2.00 $2.00 $2.00Graphically, the total fixed cost looks like a straight horizontal line while the total variable cost line slopes upward.The graphs for the fixed cost per unit and variable cost per unit look exactly opposite the total fixed costs and total variable costs graphs. Although total fixed costs are constant, the fixed cost per unit changes with the number of units. The variable cost per unit is constant.When cost behavior is discussed, an assumption must be made about operating levels. At certain levels of activity, new machines might be needed, which results in more depreciation, or overtime may be required of existing employees, resulting in higher per hour direct labor costs.The definitions of fixed cost and variable cost assumes the company is operating or selling within the relevant range (the shaded area in the graphs) so additional costs will not be incurred.Mixed costsSome costs, called mixed costs, have characteristics of both fixed and variable costs.To analyse cost behavior when costs are mixed, the cost must be split into its fixed and variable components.For example, a company pays a fee of $1,000 for the first 800 local phone calls in a month and $0.10 per local call made above 800. During March, a company made 2,000 local calls. Its phone bill will be $1,120 ($1,000 +(1,200 × $0.10)).Another example of mixed cost is delivery van cost which has a fixed component of depreciation cost of trucks and a variable component of fuel expense.Cost–Volume–Profit (CVP)CVP is part of cost accounting, which forms a part of management accounting. Management accounting is about planning, decision making and controlling the strategies and operational pans of the business.Cost accounting is the accounting system and controls that will provide accurate, timely and relevant cost information for:- a. establishing the cost of a product or serviceb. providing information for management decisionsCVP analysis requires that all the company's costs, including manufacturing, selling, and administrative costs, be identified as variable or fixed.A critical part of CVP analysis is the point where total revenues equal total costs (both fixed and variable costs). This is known as the breakeven point. At this breakeven point, a company will experience no income or loss.Break-even point also known as Break Even AnalysisThe break-even point represents the level of sales where net income equals zero.In other words, the point where sales revenue equals total variable costs plus total fixed costs.The assumptions underlying CVP analysis are:∙The behavior of both costs and revenues is linear throughout the relevant range of activity.∙Costs can be classified accurately as either fixed or variable.∙Changes in activity are the only factors that affect costs.∙All units produced are sold (there is no ending finished goods inventory).∙When a company sells more than one type of product, the sales mix (the ratio of each product to total sales) will remain constant.∙Sales price per unit is constant.∙Variable costs per unit are constant.∙Total fixed costs are constant.∙If a company sells more than one product, they are sold in the same mix.The components of CVP analysis are:∙Level or volume of activity∙Unit selling prices∙Variable cost per unit∙Total fixed costs∙Sales mixSome of the key relationships on CVP analysis include:-1. Contribution Margin2. Contribution Margin Ratio3. Mathematical equation - Break Even Point in Units/Dollars4. Target Income5. Margin of Safety1. Contribution marginThe contribution margin represents the amount of income or profit the company made before deducting its fixed costs.Said another way, it is the amount of sales dollars available to cover (or contribute to) fixed costs.The contribution margin is sales revenue minus all variable costs. It may be calculated using dollars or on a per unit basis.2. Contribution margin ratioWhen calculated as a ratio, it is the percent of sales dollars available to cover fixed costs. Once fixed costs are covered, the next dollar of sales results in the company having income. ExampleSales $750,000 (250,000 units)Total variable costs $450,000,Therefore:-Contribution margin is$300,000.Unit sale price is $750,000/250,000 = $3Variable Unit Price is $450,000/250,000 = $1.80Contribution margin per unit $3 - $1.80 = $1.20Contribution Margin ratio$1.20/$3 = 40% or $300,000/$750,000 = 40%The $1.80 per unit or $450,000 of variable costs represent all variable costs including costs classified as manufacturing costs, selling expenses, and administrative expenses. Similarly, the fixed costs represent total manufacturing, selling, and administrative fixed costs. Assume fixed costs is $300,000Break Even Income StatementUsing the information from the previous example and assuming that fixed costs are$300,000, the break-even income statement shows zero net income.This income statement format is known as the contribution margin income statement and is used for internal reporting only.3. Mathematical EquationCan be expressed as breakeven point in Units or Dollarsa. Breakeven Point in UnitsFormula: Sale price per unit x number of Units(P)Less Variable cost per Unit x Number of Units(P)Less Fixed Costs= NILP represents the number of sales to make neither a profit or a loss Example Total Unit Sales 250,000Sales Price per Unit $3Total Variable Costs 450,000b. Breakeven Point in DollarsFormula: Break Even Sales Dollars = Total Fixed CostsContribution Margin RatioUsing the same amounts as in the previous example, we can determine the break even sales dollar:-Example Total Unit Sales 250,000Sales Price per Unit $3Total Variable Costs 450,000Fixed Costs $300,000= $300,000 = $750,0000.40In other words, the break-even point in sales dollars of $750,000 is calculated by dividing total fixed costs of $300,000 by the contribution margin ratio.4. Targeted incomeCVP analysis is also used when a company is trying to determine what level of sales is necessary to reach a specific level of income, also called targeted income.To calculate the required sales level, the targeted income is added to fixed costs, and the total is divided by the contribution margin ratio to determine required sales dollars.Required sales ($) = Fixed costs +Target IncomeContribution Margin RatioAlternatively the total is divided by contribution margin per unit to determine the required sales level in units.Required sales (Units) = Fixed costs + Target IncomeContribution Margin per unitExample:Total Unit Sales 250,000Sales Price per Unit $3Total Variable Costs 450,000Fixed Costs $300,000Variable cost per unit 450,000/250,000 = $1.80Variable cost as a percentage $1.80/$3 = 60%of unit selling priceContribution margin $300,000Contribution margin per unit $300,000/250,000 = $1.20Contribution Margin ratio $1.20/$3 = 40% or$300,000/$750,000 = 40%Target income $60,000.Required Sales ($) = $300,000+ $60,000 = $360,000 = $900,0000.40 0.40OrRequired Sales (units) = $300,000+ $60,000 = $360,000 =300,000$1.20 $1.20The required sales level is $900,000 and the required number of units is 300,000.This above calculation of targeted income ignores any tax effect.5. Margin of SafetyRefers to the excess of actual or expected sales above the break-even point. It indicates the amount that sales can drop before a loss is incurred.It can be expressed in dollars, units or as a ratio.a. Margin of Safety in DollarsFormula:- Actual(expected sales)($) – Break Even Sales ($)b. Margin of Safety in UnitsFormula:- Margin of Safety($)Sales Unit Pricec. Margin of Safety as a RatioFormula:- Margin of Safety ($)Actual (expected sales)$Example:Expected Sales (Unit) 300,000Expected Sales ($) $900,000 (300,000 x$3)Sales Price per Unit $3Break Even Sales (Unit) 250,000Break Even Sales ($) $750,000a. Margin of Safety in Dollars$900,000 - $750,000 = $150,000b. Margin of Safety in Units$150,000 = 50,0003c. Margin of Safety as a Ratio$150,000 = 16.67%$900,00What the above results are telling us is that the business will still be profitable as long as sales do not drop by more than 50,000 units or 16.67% next month.。
ACCA-F2重要考点解析
ACCA-F2重要考点解析ACCA-F2重要考点解析2016年ACCA即将迎来一年四次考试，我们将第一时间公布考试相关内容，请各位考生密切关注应届毕业生ACCA，预祝大家顺利通过ACCA考试。
今天为大家带来的是ACCA F2重要考点解析1.Target cost= target selling price –target profit = market price – desired profit margin.2.cost gap= estimated cost – target cost.3.TQM :①preventing costs② appraisal costs③ internal failure costs④external failure cost3.Alternative costing principle: ①ABC(activity based costing)②Target costing③Life cycle ④TQMspeyre=5.Paashe price index=7.Fisher =8.Time series: ①trend②seasonal variation: ⑴ 加法模型sum to zero; ⑵ 乘法模型sum to 4 ③cyclical variation④random variation9.pricipal budget factor 关键预算因子：be limited the activities10.budget purpose :①communication ②coordination ③compel the plan④motivative employees ⑤resource allocation11.Budget committee 的功能：①coordinated②administration12.Budget : ①function budget ②master budget : 1. P&L ; 2. B/S ; 3. Cash Flow13.Fixed Budget: 不是在于固不固定，而是基于一个业务量的考虑，financail expression.Flexible Budget: 包含了固定成本和变动成本，并且变动成本的变化是随着业务量的变化而改变。
ACCA F5 Cost volume profit
ACCA F5 Cost volume profit (CVP) analysis本文由高顿ACCA整理发布，转载请注明出处1. 在多产品环境中的盈亏平衡分析如果要在一个生产多产品的企业中采用盈亏平衡分析，那么就要假定销售组合是恒定的并且所有的产品都有着同样的C/S ratio。
基于以上的假设，学员们就可以计算每产品组合的加权平均贡献，这也就意味着在产品组合中单位贡献最大的产品也会给产品组合的加权平均贡献带来最大的影响。
但是当所有的产品组合有着同样的C/S ratio的时候，就不会影响盈亏平衡分析的结果。
2. 多种产品的盈亏平衡点总的来说，在一个产品组合中，盈亏平衡点的计算公式可以按照Fixedcosts/Contribution per mix来计算。
下面，网校就利用一道例题来为学员们讲解计算的步骤。
PL produces and sells two products. The M sells for $7 per unit and has a total variable cost of $2.94 per unit, while the N for $15 per unit and has a total variable cost of $4.5 per unit. The marketing department has estimated that for every five units of M sole, one unit of N will be sold. The organization’s fixed costs total $36,000.现在就需要学员们和网校一起来计算一下PL的盈亏平衡点。
第一步，需要计算每个产品每个单位的贡献：M N$ per unit $ per unitSelling price 7.00 15.00Variable cost 2.94 4.50Contribution 4.06 10.50第二步，计算整个产品组合的贡献。
COST03CostVolumeProfitRelationships(成本管理会计.pptx
6 Use CVP analysis to plan costs
6 All revenues and costs can be added and compared without taking into account the time value of money.
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Cost-Volume-Profit Assumptions and Terminology
operating income using the equation, contribution margin, and graph methods
3-3
Learning Objectives
4 Incorporate income tax considerations into CVP analysis
3 - 10
Learning Objective 2 Explain essential features of
CVP analysis
3 - 11
Essentials of Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis
n Assume that Dresses by Mary can purchase dresses for $32 from a local factory; other variable costs amount to $10 per dress.
4 The unit selling price, unit variable costs, and fixed costs are known and constant.
Cost-Volume-ProfitAnalysis成本-数量-利润分析
成本－數量－利潤的假設
Cost-Volume-Profit Assumptions
3. When graphed, the behavior of total revenues and total costs are linear (straight-line) in relation to output level within a relevant range (and time period).
▲總收入－總成本 ＝營業利益 ＝0
▲總收入－變動成本－固定成本 ＝營業利益 ＝0
損益兩點平分析
2.邊際貢獻法(contribution margin method)
∵@S×Q － @V×Q － F ＝ 0
(@S － @V)×Q ＝ F
F
∴Q ＝
@S － @V
F ＝
@CM
固定成本 ＝
每單位邊際貢獻
損益兩點平分析
瞭解如何使用CVP分析制定 決策，及何以敏感性分析可以 協助經理人員處理不確定性
損益兩平點之管理用途
(一)利潤規劃
1.規劃不同銷貨之利潤 （預計銷貨額－損益兩平點銷貨額）×
邊際貢獻率 ＝ 預計淨利 ＊當銷貨超過損益兩平點時，超過之
數只超過變動成本即可，有剩餘則 為淨利。
損益兩平點之管理用途
2.規劃預計利潤應有之銷貨 （1）預計固定利潤數 （2）預計變動利潤數
＝營業利益
損益兩點平分析 （考慮到營業利益目標 ）
2.邊際貢獻法 (contribution margin method)
固定成本＋營業利益 Q＝
每單位邊際貢獻
Learning Objective 4
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Cost – Volume- Profit Question
Swanky Hotels Ltd offer three different types of rooms in each hotel across their chain. They are
currently setting the 2010 budget based on 2009 figures and have asked you to help out.
The details for each room can be found below.
Standard Room King Room Presidential Room
Rate Per Night $240 $360 $600
Room servicing costs (per room) $80 $100 $140
Hotel overhead (per room) $20 $30 $40
Marketing Expense (per room) $20 $30 $60
Total number of stays 2009 60000 36000 24000
Fixed hotel costs are $12 180 000 and marketing and administration costs of $5 100 000.
As a part of the hotel accounting department you have been asked to help out.
Assume tax rate of 30%
Required
1.Calculate the after tax profit for 2009
2.Calculate the break-even point in total room nights and the number of each type of room that
must be sold at break even for both 2009
3.Calculate the number of rooms of each type that will need to be sold in 2009 for an after tax
profit of $9 744 000
4.Assuming the same sale mix with 140 000 stays. Swanky Hotels decides it can reduce the costs
of servicing each room by $20 per room regardless of the type of room. In addition it can also save on fixed hotel costs by $2 000 000. Calculate the contribution margin for each room and the new after tax profit.。