Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools__ of Modern Linguistics
—Chapter 12 Theories and Schools ofLinguisticsWang Yao @ SDUTThe Prague School 2Introduction 13The London School American Structuralism 45Transformational-Generative GrammarRevisions or Rebels?6Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) 索绪尔The Swiss linguist is often referred to as “father of modern linguistics” “a master of a discipline which he made modern”.Saussure lectured on GeneralLinguistics in the Universityof Geneva.C. Bally and A Sechahaye collected notes and put them together to produce---Course in General Linguistics《普通语言学教程》in 1916.Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology.Arbitrariness of the sign & Language is an institution LinguisicsW. D. Whitney Sociology E. Durkheim Language is one of the “social facts”---ideas in the collective mind of a society The continuity of a collective psyche---the unconscious (Oedipus Complex)Psychology S. FreudLanguage is an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon. Among the various aspects and different perspectives, linguists need to ask what he is trying to describe.Saussure believes language is a system of signs.Sound (signifier) + ideas (signified) = sign (a system of convention)/kæts/CatsSaussure was also influenced by Western economic theories of the time since linguistics and economics were sciences of studying values.Dichotomy:langue-parole; syntagmatic-paratagmatic; synchronic-diachronicDichotomy---absence/virtual systems (stable & invariable) and presence/actual systems (unstable & variable)langue:the structure of a system that gives the potential for the words or utterances to existParole:what people actually say or what appears on the page1) Saussure provided a general orientation, a sense of the task of linguistics which had seldom been questioned.2) He influenced modern linguistics in the specific concepts. Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concepts: his ideas of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue-parole, synchrony-diachrony, syntagmatic-aradigmatic relations.Saussure’s fundamental perception is of revolutionary significance, and it is he that pushed linguistics into a brand new stage and all linguistics in the twentieth century are Saussurean linguistics.FormalismPerspectiveThe Prague School The London School IntroductionThe Formal Perspective The American Structuralism The Transformational-Generative GrammarPrague Linguistic Circle:Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-2000).The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.The school practised a special style of synchronic linguistics. The most important contribution: sees language interms of function.IntroductionThree Important Points1) It stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.2) Language is systemic in that no element of Language can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated in isolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same language system.3) Language is functional in that it is a tool forperforming a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.N. Trubetzkoy: Principle ofPhonology(1939)Phonology and Phonological Oppositions The Prague School’s Major Contribution:phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology.Phonology and Phonological OppositionsN. Trubetzkoy: Principle of PhonologyPhonetics & Phonology: parole & langue.Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system asdistinct from the sounds actually produced.A phoneme may be defined as the sum of thedifferential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.N. Trubetzkoy:Principle of PhonologyIn classifying distinctive features, Trubetzkoyproposed three criteria: 1) their relation to the whole contrastive system; 2) relations between the opposing elements; and 3) their power ofdiscrimination. These oppositions are referred to as phonological oppositions.Phonology and Phonological OppositionsBilateral Opposition:the features two phonemes share belong only to themE.g. /p/ and /b/ share the feature of “bilabial” Multilateral Opposition:a more loosely established relationshipE.g. /a/ and /i/ share the feature of vowels, which is shared by any other pairs of vowels.Phonological OppositionsProportional Opposition:two phonemes areproportional if the same contrastive features also serve as the differentiating criterion for other pairs of phonemes.E.g. /p/ and /b/ share the feature of “sonority”, which also exists between /k/ and /g/Isolated Opposition:the contrastive feature is unique to the pairE.g. /v/ and /l/, the former is “labial -dental fricative”, whereas the latter is “lateral voiced”.Phonological OppositionsPhonological OppositionsPrivative Opposition:one member of a contrastive pair may be characterised by the presence of a certain feature, the other by its absence.E.g. /p/ and /b/, the former has “aspiration”, whereas the latter is “lack of aspiration”.Gradual Opposition:the pairs share different degrees of a featureE.g. /u/ and /o/, for sharing the same feature of tongue height of the vowel is a third vowelPhonological OppositionsEquipollent Opposition:the pair is not in gradual opposition, nor in privative oppositionE.g. /t/ and /p/, /t/ and /k/Neutralisable Opposition:the opposition occurs when two sounds contrast in some position but not in others E.g. /p/ and /b/ do not contrast after /s/Constant Opposition:the pair of sounds occurs in all possible positions without neutralising effectE.g. /t/ and /d/ is constant in all positions for consonants1) He showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of the phoneme.2) He defined the sphere of phonological studies.3) He revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.4) He put forward a set of methodologies forphonological studies.Trubetzkoy’s ContributionsFunctional Sentence Perspective (FSP)FSP:A theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the roles of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse.The point of departure, called the theme , is the ground on which the speaker and the hearer meet.The goal of discourse, called the rheme , presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. Movement from theme to rheme reveals themovement of the mind itself.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)Therefore, the functional sentence perspective (FSP) aims to describe how information is distributed in sentences.It deals particularly with the effect of the distributionof known (given) info and new info in discourse.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)The known information:information that is not new to the reader or hearer.The new information:what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.Sally stands on the table.ThemeRheme On the table standsSally .ThemeRhemeFunctional Sentence Perspective (FSP)Grammatical Sentence Pattern (GSP) Semantic Sentence Pattern (SSP)Communicative Sentence Pattern (CSP) Johnhas written a novel.SubjectVerb Object (GSP)AgentAction Goal (SSP)Theme Transition Rheme(CSP)Three Levels of a SentenceCommunicative Dynamism (CD) J. FirbasLinguistic communication is dynamic, not static.CD measures the amount of infoan element carries in a sentence.The degree of CD is the effectcontributed by a linguistic element.For Example He was cross.CD: The lowest degree of CD is carried by he , and the highest degree of CD is carried by cross , with the degree carried by wasranking between them.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Theoretically, any element---sentence, phrase, word, morpheme---may be singled out in order to establish a sharp contrast.E.g. John was reading the newspaper .The only element conveying new information has significant semantic content, whereas all the otherelements conveying known information are determined by the context.The contextually dependent elements carry the lowestdegree of municative Dynamism (CD)Contextual dependence or independence is determined by the very purpose of the communication. E.g.John has gone up to the window .I have read a nice book .He was hurrying to the railway station.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and/or the object and/or adverbial provided either the verb or the object and/or adverbial are contextually independent.This is because a known or unknown agentexpressed by the subject appears to becommunicatively less important than an unknownaction expressed by the finite verb and/or anunknown goal (object or adverbial of place) at ortowards which the action is directed.For example,A man broke into the house and stole all the money.The ultimate purpose of the communication is to state the action and/or its goal, not the agent.A man broke into the house and stole all the money. Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)However, if the subject is followed by a verb expressing “existence or appearance on the scene” and is contextually independent, then it will carry the highest degree of CD, because an unknown person or thing appearing on the scene is communicatively more important than the act of appearing and the scene itself, e.g.An old man appeared in the waiting room at fiveo’clock.An old man appeared in the waiting room at fiveo’clock.If the subject is contextually dependent, a contextually independent adverbial of time or place becomes an important local and temporal specification, carrying greater degree of CD than both the subject and the finite verb, as inThe old man was sitting in the waiting room. The old man was sittingin the waiting room.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)The semantic contents and relations contribute to the degree of CD and they are not directly related to the positions the elements occupy within the linear arrangement.Not all semantic contents and relations are capable of signalling degrees of CD in the same way.E.g.1) He went to Prague to see his friend .In order to see his friend , he went to Prague.2) He gave a boy an apple .He gave an apple to a boy.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)Firbas defined FSP as the distribution of various degrees of CD.The initial elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD, and with each step forward, the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest.Contextually dependent elements are always thematic.Non-thematic elements do not always depend on thecontext, and not every contextually independent element is non-thematic.B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).M. A. K. Halliday (1925-), student of Firth.All three stressed the importance ofcontext of situation and the systemaspect of Language.The London School is known asSystemic Linguistics and FunctionalLinguistics.Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action,rather than as a counterpart of thought”. The meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which it occurs.E.g. no writing in primitive communitieschildren learning their languagesMalinowski’s TheoriesMalinowski’s TheoriesUtterances and situations are bound up inextriably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words.Three types of situational context:situations in which speech interrelates with bodilyactivity;narrative situations;situations in which speech is used to fill a speechvacuum—phatic communion.Malinowski’s TheoriesSituations in which speech interrelates with bodily activityThe meaning of a word is not given by the physical properties of its referent, but by its functions.Malinowski’s TheoriesNarrative situationsThis can be further distinguished between “the situation of the moment of narration” and “the situation referred to by the narrative”.The first case is made up of the respective social, intellectual and emotional attitudes of those present, and the second case derives its meaning from the context referred to.Although there is no relationship between the meaning of narration and the situation in which language is used, narration can change the hearer’s social attitudes and emotions.Malinowski’s TheoriesSituations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum—phatic communionIt refers to cases of language used in free, aimless, social intercourse.Phatic Communion---the use of language is not the least related to human activities, and its meaning cannot possibly come from situations in which language is used, but from the atmosphere of sociability and the fact of the personal communion of these people.Malinowski’s TheoriesCoral Gardens and Their Magic1) He prescibed the data for linguistic studies, and the real linguistic data are the complete utterances in actual uses of language.2) In order to assign meaning to a sound, one has to study the situations in which it is used.Firth’s Theories---Context of SituationFirth regarded Language as a social process, a means of social life rather than simply as a set of agreed-upon semiotics and signs.In order to live, human beings have to learn andlearning Language is a means of participation insocial activities.Language is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means of acting and living.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation Language is both inborn and acquired.The object of linguistic study is language in use.The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of language in order to establish corresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of language, explain their relations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between these elements and human activities in the environment of language use.Firth’s Theories---Context of SituationFirth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological studies:because human beings are inseparable from cultural values, and L is an important part of cultural values, linguistics can help reveal the social nature ofhuman beings.Meaning is use, thus defining meaning as the relationship between an element at any level and its context on that level.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation Therefore the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts:the relationship of each phoneme to its phoneticcontext;the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;the morphological relations of each word;the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;the relationship of the sentence to its context ofsituation.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation There are five levels of analysis: 1) phonological; 2) lexical and semantic; 3) morphological; 4) syntactic; and 5) context of situation.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation Phonological level of analysis---phonological functions Lexical and semantic level of analysis---referentialmeaning and collocative meaningMorphological level of analysis---inflectionsSyntactic level of analysis---the syntagmatic relationship of grammatical categories or colligationContext of situation---non-linguistic elements such as objects, behaviour, and events, together with the effects of linguistic behaviour。
英语课件Chapter12 Schools of Ls
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• Context of situation includes the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment.
• 1. It begins from the first meeting of V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926.
• 2. Three important points: • (1) synchronic study of lg • (2) systemic character of lg • (3) lg is functional
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• (3) revealing the interdependent relations between phonemes by studying syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes
• (4) a set of methodologies for phonological studies, such as the method of extracting phonemes and studying phonological combinations
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics(1)
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics[注：第九、十、十一章无测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the function that the child use s to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in alinguistic structure.15. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18. Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of __________ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was __________.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is __________.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __________ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of __________.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __________ Age.28. __________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his __________ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics?36. What is behaviorism? What is behaviorism in linguistics? What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield? Does behaviorism have any limitations? If yes, what are they?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics?Key:I.1~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCCII.11~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTFIII.21. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or is dominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.V. VI. Omit.。
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
Lecture 11
Saussure’s ideas on language
• Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, they must be part of a system of conventions, part of a system of signs. This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the signifier and the signified. Some important distinctions Saussure made in linguistics include langue vs. parole, syntagmatic vs. paradigmatic, and synchronic vs. diachronic.
Important concepts
• Theme – the point of departure of a sentence, which is equally present to the speaker and hearer; • Rheme -- the goal of discourse which presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer; • Known/ given information -- information that is not new to the reader or hearer; • New information -- what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.
theories and schools of modern linguistics
A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure ---- theme. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer----rheme. The movement from the initial notion(Theme) to the goal of discourse(Rheme) reveals the movement of the mind itself.
Functional Grammar
It puts forward three metafunctions of language: The ideational function The interpersonal function The textual function
The ideational function
Main ideas
Emphasis on the synchronic study of language; Emphasis on the systemic character of language; Emphasis on the function of language;
Trubetzkoy(1939): principle of phonology
Functional sentence perspective (FSP): to describe how information is distributed in sentences. FSP Known/given information New information in discourse
语言学专八考研真题及答案
专八语言集锦（05年——14年专八真题及解析归纳）目录1、2005年 (1)2、2006年 (2)3、2007年 (4)4、2008年 (6)5、2009年 (8)6、2010年 (10)7、2011年 (11)8、2012年 (12)9、2013年 (13)10、2014年 (14)11、附加语言学考研题 (15)2005年38.（考查点：main branches of linguistics) Syntax is the study ofA. language functionsB. sentence structuresC. textual organizationD.word formation答案：B。
解析：Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences,是关于形成和理解正确英语句子的原则。
也就是句子结构。
故选择B。
39.（考察点：design features of language) Which of ale following is NOTa distinctive feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. ProductivityC. Cultural transmissionD. Finiteness答案：D。
解析：题问下面四个选项中，哪一个不是人类语言的主要特征？除Finiteness(有限性)外，选项中的其它的三项Arbitrariness（任意性），Productivity（能产性）和Cultural transmission（文化传递性）在语言学概述部分都提到了。
故选择D。
40. （考察点：人物）The speech act theory was first put forward byA. John SearleB. John AustinC. Noam ChomskyD. M.A,K. Halliday答案：B。
Schools of Modern Linguistics 现 代 语 言 学 流 派
Schools of Modern Linguistics现代语言学流派Ferdinand de Saussure and his Work▪father of modern linguistics▪establish the structural study of language▪emphasize the arbitrary nature of linguistic sign▪emphasize the relational nature of language units▪make several pairs of distinctions▪Saussure‟s most influential work: Course in General Linguistics (1916)▪g ive definition of language▪outline the scope of linguistics▪present principles for phonology and writing systems▪General principles▪Synchronic linguistics▪Diachronic linguistics▪Geographical linguistics▪Retrospective linguisticsThe Arbitrary Nature of the Linguistic Signs▪ language as a system of signs: the sign as a union of the signifier and the signified▪no natural or inevitable connection between the signifier and the signified▪an arbitrary way of organizing the world into concepts and categories▪two important characteristics of linguistic signs:▪the arbitrary relation between the signifier and the signified▪the linear nature of the signifiedThe Relational Nature of Language Units⏹no essential core of meaning for a signified to be the proper signified for that signifier⏹signifiers as members of system defined by their relations to the other members of thatsystem⏹language units as relational identity⏹the comparison between language and chessSaussure‟s Dichotomies⏹Langue and parole⏹Synchronic and diachronic linguistics⏹Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsLangue and Parole▪Langue is the system of a language▪it is what the individual assimilates when he learns a language;▪it is social and abstract;▪It enables the members of a speech community to communicate linguistically.▪Parole is actual speech▪it is individual and concrete;▪it is the realization of the language system.Distinction between langue and parole⏹separate what is social from what is individual and what is essential from accidental⏹lead to the distinction between phonetics and phonology⏹phonetics studies speech sounds from a physical point of view⏹phonology studies the functional units within the linguistic system⏹lead to the distinction between utterance and sentence⏹an utterance is a unit of parole⏹ a sentence is a unit of langueSynchronic and Diachronic Linguistics⏹Synchronic linguistics:concerned with language at one point in time⏹Diachronic linguistics: concerned with the development or evolution of language⏹Distinction between synchronic and diachronic study: synchronic study is given priority⏹there cannot be logical comparisons or diachronic studies without synchronicstudies⏹notion of language change should be carefully used⏹there is a close connection between the study of diachronic change andsynchronic variationSyntagmatic and Paradigmatic Relations⏹Syntagmatic relations:⏹relations a linguistic element enters into with other elements in a serial or linearstructure in writing or in the temporal stream of speech⏹relations of cooccurrence⏹relations that link the whole structure to its parts and vice versa⏹Paradigmatic relations:⏹relations that obtain between elements⏹Priority is given to paradigmatic relations in modern linguistics.Saussure‟s Contributions to Semiotics⏹Be the first to define the symbolic nature of human language.⏹Sign:an intersection or relationship or form and meaning, where form is somethingconcrete, and meaning is something mental or cognitive.⏹Three types of signs: icon, index, and symbol.⏹Icon: a sign whose form has actual characteristics of its meaning;⏹Index: a sign whose form has characteristics which are only associated in naturewith its meaning;⏹Symbol:a sign whose form is arbitrarily or conventionally associated with itsmeaning.Saussure‟s Contributions to Semiotics⏹with respect to the study of the syntactic and semantic dimensions of texts⏹ a rich working hypothesis demonstrating the systematic character of language (orliterature) at each particular period of life⏹The application of the two categories of parole and langue to literatureChapter Two European Functionalism The Prague SchoolIntroduction♦one of the most influential schools of linguistic thought in pre-war linguistics♦the approach to the study of language as a synchronic system♦the importance of the social function of language♦three points are of special importance:–the synchronic study of language–emphasis on the systemic character of languageContributions of The Prague School♦distinction between phonetics and phonology–phonetics belongs to parole–phonology belongs to langue–the notion of the phoneme as an abstract unit of the sound system ♦the functional conception of language as manifested in the analysis of sentences –Mathesius‟s distinction between theme & rheme•the theme, which is a fact or facts already known•the rheme, which contains all the new information to be transmitted –others‟ investigation of the functions of languagePhonology and Phonological Oppositions♦Trubetzkov‟s distinction between phonetics and phonology♦Trubetzkov‟s notion of phoneme–it has discriminative power–it cannot be analyzed into smaller segments–it can only be determined by distinctive features♦phonemes as being composed of a number of phonologically significant distinctive featuresPhonology and Phonological Oppositions♦Trubetzkov‟s nine phonological oppositions:–Bilateral opposition（双边对立）–Multilateral opposition（多变对立）–Proportional opposition（均衡对立）–Isolated opposition（孤立对立）–Privative opposition（否定对立）–Gradual opposition（分级对立）–Equipollent opposition（等价对立）–Neutralizable opposition（抵消对立）–Constant opposition（永恒对立）Trubetzkov‟s Con tributions to Phonological Theory♦distinctive functions of speech sounds and an accurate definition for the phoneme♦the sphere of phonological studies♦the interdependent relations between phonemes♦methodologies for phonological studiesJokobson‟s Concept o f Distinctive Features♦The distinctive features are explicitly regarded as binary choices and hence they could be listed as paired oppositions, e.g. …vocality‟ v. …consonantality‟, …vocality‟ v. …non-vocality‟.♦These features were defined with reference not only to articulatory positions but also to acoustic properties of speech-sounds.♦It was hoped that the proposed list of distinctive features would be universal. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)♦Interests in FSP:–Mathesius (1924, 1939)–Firbas (1960‟s)–Halliday (1967, 1968, 1970)♦Definition and scope of FSP:–an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain–the effect of the distribution of known (or given) information and new information in discourse.♦Firbas‟s notion of Com municative Dynamism (CD):–Linguistic communication is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon.–CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence(e.g. He was angry.)–The various elements of an utterance is thought to have varying degrees of communicative dynamism.Firbas: concept of “context”♦区分了四种语境：–交际双方共有的经验知识（一般语境）；–语言交际正在进行时的直接语境（范围稍窄）；–刚刚出现的上文（范围更窄）；–句子本身（范围最窄，“语境依赖”指的是这种语境）。
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(3) Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics Influenced by Bloomfield’s Language, American linguists such as Z. Harris, (Methods in Structural Linguistics) C. Hockett (A Course in Modern Linguistics), and H. L. Smith further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism.
Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics
2007/12/16
1.
Ferdinand de Saussure
2. The Prague School 布拉格学派 The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistic and its most important contribution is that it sees language in terms of Function.
(2) Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)
3. London School The man who turned linguistics into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J. R. Firth, the first professor of General Linguistics in Great Britain. Firth was influenced by the anthropologist B. Malinowski. In turn, he influenced his student, the wellknown linguist M. A. K. Halliday. The three all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.
(1) Firth’s theories His first contribution is that he insisted that the object of linguistics is language in actual use. His second contribution is his method of prosodic analysis, called prosodic phonology. （韵律音位学）
117. Of the following linguists, _____ should not be grouped into American school. A. Firth B. Sapir C. Bloomfield D. Boas Answer: A
139. __D___ is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics. A. Saussure B. Halliday C. Chomsky D. Labov Answer: D
Firth’s second contribution to linguistics is his method of prosodic analysis, called ____. A. prosodic phonology B. feature geometry C. optimality phonology D. supersegmental phonology Answer: A
89. The well-known formula: S was put forward by ___. A. Bloomfield B. Firth C. Hockett D. Harris Answer: A
r…..s
RБайду номын сангаас
130. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian ____. A. Otto Jespersen B. Daniel Jones C. A. J. Ellis D. A. M. Bell Answer: A
(2) Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar
4. American Structuralism It is under the leadership of the anthropologist F. Boas. (1) Early period: Boas and Sapir (2) Bloomfield’s theory
(1) Phonology and phonological oppositions 音位学和音位对立 The Prague School is the best known for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Trubetzkoy（特鲁别茨柯依）developed the notion of “phoneme”.
160. Systemic-Functional Grammar, one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century, is put forward by _____. A. Chomsky B. Halliday C. Firth D. Malinowski Answer: B
111. OF the following linguistics, ____ should b grouped into Prague School. A. Bloomfield B. Saussure C. Jakobson D. Firth Answer: C
107. ____ practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function. A. The London School B. American structuralism C. The Prague School D. The TG Grammar Answer: C
142. B. L. Whorf was the student of _____. A. Bloomfield B. Firth C. Halliday D. Sapir Answer: D
Of the following linguists, _____should be grouped into London school. A. Firth B. Bloomfield C. Boas D. Trubetzkoy Answer: A
5. Transformational-Generative Grammar (1) The Innateness Hypothesis (2) Generative Grammar (3) The Classic Theory (4) The Standard Theory (5) The Extended Standard Theory (6) Later Theories