How to write the body of a thesis Ss
how_to_write_a_thesis_How to Write a Thesis - A Personal Experience
The Writing Process
1. Define a schedule with dates for writing every chapter of the thesis (This is important since it will push you to work continuously. It will also allow you to check whether more time is needed to complete the writing). Create (empty) pages for every chapter, section and subsection of the thesis. Insert the papers and slides that you wrote into the thesis. Start by writing your most recent work.
The Thesis
• Contents
Acknowledgement 2 pages, 572 words Abstract 1, 292 1. Introduction 9, 2806 2. Background 34, 11481 3. The User Hints Framework 10, 3147 4. User Hints for Graph Clustering 16, 4699 5. User Hints for Directed Graph Drawing 29, 9095 6. A Focus and Constraint-Based Genetic Algorithm 7. User Hints for Map Labeling 36, 10909 8. General Remarks 20, 7307 9. Conclusion 4, 1179 Appendix A: Optimization Table 9, 1483 Appendix B: Included CD-ROM 17, 2356
how to write the body part
Cause
and effect
Because, because of, as, for, owing to, since, due to, thanks to, as a result of, so, therefore, thus, accordingly, for this reason, hence, consequently, so that, result in, it follows that…,
Begin with a thesis, or point. Support your thesis with specific evidence.
The two most important methods of organization
1. time or chronological order.
summary
In a word, In brief, In conclusion, In short, In summary, To conclude, To sum up, All in all, From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw that conclusion that… Given those factors I have outlined, I believe that…Βιβλιοθήκη explanation
To define, in definition, to explain, in other words, to clarify, in clarification, with regard to, as..suggests, concerning, as for, in terms of
How to Write Paper-Thesis
Slide 5
University of Science and Technology Beijing
Title, Authors' Names, and Institutional Affiliations
1. Function: Your paper should begin with a Title that briefly describes the contents of the paper. Use descriptive words that you would associate strongly with the content of your paper: the alloy studied, the equipment/process used or studied, the treatment, the parameters measured, etc. A majority of readers will find your paper via electronic database searches and those search engines key on words found in the title. 2. Format: • The title should be centered at the top of page 1 (DO NOT use a title page - it is a waste of paper for our purposes); the title is NOT underlined or italicized. • the authors' names (PI or primary author first) and institutional affiliation are double-spaced from and centered below the title. When more then two authors, the names are separated by commas except for the last which is separated from the previous name by the word "and". For example: Effects of Minor Addition and Cooling Rate on the Microstructure of Cast Magnesium - Silicon Alloys Shu-Zu Lu, S. Bennett, P. Quimby and D. Visser Department of Materials Science and Engineering Michigan Tech University Houghton, MI 49931, USA
How to write a thesis statement
Thesis StatementsThis handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can discover or refine one for your draft.IntroductionWriting in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you'll make in the rest of your paper.What is a thesis statement?A thesis statement:∙tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.∙is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.∙directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself.The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.∙makes a claim that others might dispute.∙is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may notexplicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)How do I get a thesis?A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a "working thesis," a basic or main idea, an argument that you think you can support with evidence but that may need adjustment along the way.Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming.How do I know if my thesis is strong?If there's time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following:∙Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument thatmisses the focus of the question.∙Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose?If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it's possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.∙Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesiscontains words like "good" or "successful," see if you could be morespecific: why is something "good"; what specifically makessomething "successful"?∙Does my thesis pass the "So what?" test?If a reader's first response is, "So what?" then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.∙Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering?If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It's o.k. to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing asnecessary.∙Does my thesis pass the "how and why?" test? If a reader's first response is "how?" or "why?" your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the readera better take on your position right from the beginning. ExamplesSuppose you are taking a course on 19th-century America, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: Compare and contrast the reasons why the North and South fought the Civil War. You turn on the computer and type out the following:The North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons, some of which were the same and some different.This weak thesis statement restates the question without providing any additional information. You will expand on this new information in the body of the essay, but it is important that the reader know where you are heading. A reader of this weak thesis might think, "What reasons? How are they the same? How are they different?" Ask yourself these same questions and begin to compare Northern and Southern attitudes (perhaps you first think, "The South believed slavery was right, and the North thought slavery was wrong"). Now, push your comparison toward an interpretation—why did one side think slavery was right and the other side think it was wrong? You look again at the evidence, and you decide that you are going to argue that the North believed slavery was immoral while the South believed it upheld the Southern way of life. You write:While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.Now you have a working thesis statement! Included in this statement is a reason for the war and some idea of how the two sides disagreed over this reason. As you write the essay, you will probably begin to characterize these differences more precisely, and your working thesis may start to seem too vague. Maybe you decide that both sides fought for moral reasons, and that they just focused on different moral issues. You end up revising the working thesis statement into a final one that really captures the argument in your paper:While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended their own right to self-government.Compare this to the original weak thesis statement. This final one presents a way of interpreting evidence that illuminates the significance of the question. Keep in mind that this is one of many possible interpretations of the Civil War—it is not the one and only right answer to the question. There isn't one right answer; there are only strong and weak thesis statements and strong and weak uses of evidence.Let's look at another example. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain's novel Huckleberry Finn. "This will be easy," you think. "I loved Huckleberry Finn!" You grab a pad of paper and write:Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.Why is this thesis statement weak? Think about what the reader would expect from the essay that follows: you will most likely provide a general, appreciative summary of Twain's novel. The question did not ask you to summarize; it asked you to analyze. Your professor is probably not interested in your opinion of the novel; instead, she wants you to think about why it's such a great novel—what do Huck's adventures tell us about life, about America, about coming of age, about race relations, etc.? First, the question asks you to pick an aspect of the novel that you think is important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.Here's a working thesis statement with potential: you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation; however, it's stillnot clear what your analysis will reveal. Your reader is intrigued, but is still thinking, "So what? What's the point of this contrast? What does it signify?" Perhaps you are not sure yet, either. That's fine—begin to work on comparing scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck's actions and reactions. Eventually you will be able to clarify for yourself, and then for the reader, why this contrast matters. After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain's Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave "civilized" society and go back to nature.This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.Works consultedWe consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.Anson, Chris M. and Robert A. Schwegler. The Longman Handbook for Writers. 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 2000.Hairston, Maxine and John J. Ruszkiewicz. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers. 4th ed. New York: HarperCollins, 1996.Lunsford, Andrea and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook. 3rd ed. New York: St. Martin's, 1995.Rosen, Leonard J. and Laurence Behrens. The Allyn & Bacon Handbook. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1997.。
How to write a thesis
almost every profession relies on it. Teachers do research to find out
how their students can learn better. Restaurant managers do
research to find out what their customers might like. As an
undergraduate, we should know how to solve a problem, make a
decision or analyze a situation by seeking out relevant information,
evaluating its usefulness, and combining it with our observation and
3. 毕业论文的撰写可以培养和提高学生的思维能力。 4. 毕业论文的撰写可以提高学生的写作水平。 5. 毕业论文的撰写可以培养学生初步的科研能力，为撰写更
高级的学术论文奠定了基础。
5
How to choose a research topic?
1. 符合专业培养目标
2. 论题要有学术性
e.g.论单词记忆法( 下面不是论文，而是综述，即归纳某一 主题。要尽量避免）
do the investigation.
•What factors should be considered when we choose a job?
•Salary, place, helpful for further development, circumstances…
•After collecting all the information, we may still discuss it with our
how to write a thesis
Before you prepare to start your thesis, you should ask yourself whether you have known the purpose of the thesis clearly, and make sure that the framework of the thesis has been in your mind.In this paper, I mainly focus on two aspects about thesis writing. One is the purpose of a thesis, the other is about its content. At the end, this paper addresses some matters need to be attentioned during the writing.The purpose of a thesis might have to satisfy one or more of the following criteria. It shows that you has read and understood a body of research literature; it provides evidence that you is capable of carrying out original research and has carried out original research. It also represents a significant contribution to the field, which is worth checking what is expected by your institution.Next, we consider the content of a thesis. Firstly, a thesis must be self-contained and must stand on its own as a complete account of the author's work on the subject of investigation. Secondly, making good organization is particularly important to a thesis. A thesis is formatted like a book, broken into chapters rather than sections, and it may include more than one topic. Thirdly, when writing a thesis, you should generally include details in it. It is important to demonstrate understanding of the subject, and phrases such as "it is easily shown that" and "we omit the proof" used in the presentation of original results may seem suspicious when you have no track record in the subject. It should not be padded with unnecessary material, but results that would not normally be published can be included, either because they might be of use to future workers or because you might want to refer to them in a paper based on the thesis. Fourthly, a thesis has a fairly rigid structure. In the first one or two chapters the problem being addressed must be clearly described and put into context. You should demonstrate a sound knowledge and understanding of the existing work on the topic by providing a critical survey of the relevant literature. If there is more than one possible approach to the problem, the choice of method must be justified. For a computational project the method developed or investigated in the thesis would normally be compared experimentally with the major alternatives. The last one, at the end of the thesis, conclusions must be carefully drawn and the overall contribution of the thesis assessed. It is a good idea to identify open problems and future directions for research, since being able to do so is one of the attributes required of a researcher. In many cases the key requirement that a thesis necessarily have to present is the development and communication of original ideas using sound techniques.When you write a thesis, it is important to avoid inadvertently committing plagiarism. If you copy text word for word from another source you must put it in quotation marks and cite the source. If you find yourself copying, or paraphrasing, someone else's proof of a theorem, ask yourself if you need to give the proof--if it is not your own work, will it add anything to the thesis? Examiners will be particularly alert to the possibility of plagiarism, so be careful to avoid committing this sin.。
how to write a thesis
4. 英语毕业论文的段落
一个段落通过一些互相关联的句子发挥一个观点。这一观点由一 个主题句引出。主题句就是该段的主要思想。主要思想是由一系 列证实主题的互相关联的句子而发展起来的，最后由一个结尾句 收尾。一个叙述有力的段落，必须前后一致而连贯。
5. 英语毕业论文的主题句 主题句必须生动感人，发人深思，因为读者是否愿意继续读下去 是取决于主题句的。作者必须时刻牢记，他要努力引起并保持读 者的注意和兴趣。听众出于礼貌得把讲演一直听完，而读者则与 听众不同，他在任何时候都可以停止读下去，而一旦他不打算继 续读一篇论文，作者是毫无办法使读者重新注意那篇论文的。 段落的发展方法。段落的主要部分都是作者用来证实主题句的。 如果段落发展无力或不完整，就是作者没能把问题说清楚。因此 段落的发展必须充分。只有两三句话的段落就像一份偷工减料的 三明治那样不能令人满意。 6. 英语毕业论文的结束句 每个段落都需要有一个结束句，一个让读者知道作者已经叙述完 毕的句子。结尾应该是一个合乎逻辑的结束，它实质上告诉读者： 看，我已经证实了我的主题句。 一致性和连贯性。段落中的每一个句子都与主题句有关即可达到 一致性，这就是说，每一个句子都是主题句的进一步的发展和证 实。连贯性指句与句之间的逻辑联系。
II. 英语毕业论文提纲
论文提纲应尽量做到全面缜密，理顺所要论述内容，避免以后反复修改。纲 要可以使作者一目了然地看出他的论文是否前后一致。主题是纲要的关键， 因为它简明地陈述了作者的目的。 正式纲要（哈佛纲要）中，各级纲目的格式依次为：I，A，1，a，(1)，(a)。 任何纲要如不严加遵守则毫无用处。在确定了英语毕业论文选题，撰写了英 语毕业论文提纲后，学生应对毕业论文的质量标准有一定的了解。
3. 英语毕业论文的引言段
引言段也许是整个英语毕业论文的最重要的一部分。需要花费最大的 精力。正是这一段，将决定读者是否要将全文读完。一个枯燥乏味的 开篇，如“在本文中我将讨论……”，会使读者很快就转向别的论文 上去。引言段当然应包含论文的主旨，论文的展开方法并确定论文的 基调。从纯写作技巧的角度看，导言段中的每一个句子都能够成为正 文中每一个段落
HowtoWriteaThesisStatement
HowtoWriteaThesisStatementHow to Write a Thesis StatementI. What is Thesis Statement.“A thesis statement is a single sentence, preferably a simple declarative sentence that expresses the basic idea around which the paper will dev elop.”— Webster University Writing Center.“A thesis statement is a very specific argument that guides your paper. Generally, a thesis statement consists of two parts:1. A clearly identifiable topic or subject matter, and2. A succinct summary of what you have to say about that topic.”—Vanderbilt University Writing Center. II. How to Generate a Thesis Statement.A. Analyzing MethodSugar consumption.Reducing sugar consumption by elementary school children.More attention should be paid to the food and beverage choices available toelementary school children.Experts estimate that half of elementary school children consume nine timesthe recommended daily allowance of sugar.Because half of all American elementary school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar, schools should be required to replace the beverages in soda machines with healthy alternatives.B. Questioning M ethod“topic—question—thesis’’topic:Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a great novel. questions：Why is it such a great novel?What do Huck’s adventures tell us about life,about America,aboutcoming of age,about race relations,etc.？thesis statement：a. In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,Mark Twain develops a contrastbetween life on the river and life on the shore.b.Through its contrasting river and shore scenes,Mark Twin’s The Adventures ofHuckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of Americandemocratic ideals,one must leave“civilized’’Society and go back to nature.III. How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak OneA. A strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand.Eg:weak:There are some negative and positive aspects to beauty-slimming tea.strong: Because beauty-slimming tea promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses apotential danger to customers.B. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.Eg:weak: My family is an extended family.strong: While most American families would view consanguineous marriage asa threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like myown, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in anextended family.C. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.Eg：weak: Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet and Web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.strong: Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using Web pages that offerboth advertising and customer support.D. A strong thesis statement is specific.Eg:weak: World hunger has many causes and effects.Strong: Hunger persists in western area because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.IV. Avoiding Common Errors in Thesis Statements.A. Don’t clutter your thesis with such expressions as“in my opinion,”“Ibelieve,”and “in this essay I’ll argue that….”Eg:weak: My thesis states that the federal government devote more money to solar energy research.strong: The federal government should devote more money to solar energy research.B. Don’t express your thesis in the form of a question unless the answer isalready obvious to the reader.Eg:weak: Why should every college student be required to take two years of foreign language?strong: Chemistry majors should be exempt from the foreign-language requirement.V. ReferencesGiltrow, J. (2002). Academic Writing. NY: Broadview Press.Swales, M.& Feak, B. (1994). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. NY: The University of Michigan Press.黄国⽂. 英语学术论⽂写作[M]. 重庆: 重庆⼤学出版社, 2011穆诗雄. 英语专业毕业论⽂写作[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2012⽥贵森. 英语专业毕业论⽂写作教程[M]. 北京: 北京理⼯⼤学出版社, 2011。
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在论证中，还应注意这样两点：
1.过渡衔接。论证过程中随着层次的展开，中 间环节的出现，间接论据的运用，使复杂处 清晰，隐蔽处显露，以达到连贯思路，承上 启下的效果。 2.有时需要用说明的方法。比如在论证中，不 易了解或易产生误会的地方，就必须加以解 释。有时需要用叙述的方法。比如叙述别人 或自己的主张等。但无论是说明还是叙述， 都必须能直接地或间接地起论证作用。
也称并列递进式结构或纵横交叉式结构。有些论文的层次关系特别复杂，不能只 用一种单一的结构形式，需要把并列式和递进式结合起来，形成一种混合的结构 形式。采用混合式结构，又有两种形式：一是在并列的过程中，在每一个并列的 面上，又展开递进；一是在递进的过程中，在每一个递进层次上，又展开并列。
并列式结构示例
• 例：题目：《力求完美》
引论：欲坐完美人，谈何容易，但我们应该力求 完美。 本论 1.力求完美，在于你的自信。 2.力求完美，在于你的谦虚。 3.力求完美，在于你的执着。 结论：完美的生命，在于“力求”二字。
递进式结构示例
例：题目：《多为他人着想》
引论：由雷锋精神引出论点—要为他人着想。 本论：1.为什么要为他人着想。 2.怎样为他人着想。 结论：多为他人着想。
(二)结论严谨，条理清楚
• 本论的篇幅长，容量大，层次较多，头绪纷繁， 如果不按一定的次序来安排文章内容，就会层次 不清，结构混乱，大大降低表达的效果。
• 根据层次之间的不同关系，可以把本论部分的结 构形式划分为并列式、递进式和混合式等三种类 型。
(二)结论严谨，条理清楚
又称平列式结构或横式结 构。它的特点是，围绕中 心论点划分为几个分论点 和层次，各个分论点和层 次平行排列，分别从不同 角度、不同侧面论证中心 论点，使文章呈现出一种 多管齐下、齐头并进的格 局。 又称推进式结构或纵式结 构。它对需要论证的问题， 采取一层深于一层的形式 安排结构，使层次之间呈 现一种层层展开、步步深 入的逻辑关系，从而使中 心论点得到深刻透彻的论 证。
驳论的方法
常用的驳论方法有：
A.直接反驳。即运用论据或推理，直接证明对方论点是 片面、虚假或错误的，这是驳论中最常用的方法。 B.反证法。为了证明对方的论点是错误的，可以先证明 与其相矛盾的另一论点是正确的。 C.归谬法。先假定对方的论点是对的，以此为前提，推 导出一个明显荒谬的结论，从而证明对方论点是错误 的。
论文写作的基本方式是用论据对论点进行论证， 论点、论据、论证是毕业论文的三大基本要素。
本论的三要素
1.论点 2.论据 3.论证
论点
（1）论点的定义
（2）论点的层次
（3）论点的结构
（4）论点的基本要求
论据
(1)论据的概念
论据是用来证明论点的材料和依据。论据要 真实、充分、典型、新鲜，要与论点统一。
• 论证或反驳的方法有很多种，究竟用那一 种或哪几种，要根据论证的实际需要来确 定。一般来说，单纯地只用一种论证方法 是很少见的，在多数情况下，需要将集中 论证或反驳的方法结合起来，才能取得好 的论证效果。
本论写作的具体步骤
1、通读材料并充分理解材料
2、明确论点和选定材料
3、拟定本论的详细提纲（略） 4、按照提纲写本论
How to write the body of a thesis ?
怎样写论文本论？
怎样写论文本论？
一、本论基本概念 二、撰写本论的三要素 三、本论写作的具体步骤 四、本论的基本要求
正文是论文的核心内容，它包括: 序论、本论和结论。
本论是论文的主体部分，是分析问题、
论证观点的主要部分，也是最能显示作 者的研究成果和学术水平的重要部分。 论文所体现的创造性成果或新的研究结 果，都将在这一部分得到充分的反映。 一篇论文质量的高低，主要取决于本论 部分写得怎样。
论证
（ 1 ）论证的定义：论证就是作者利用论据证明论点的 正确性或敌对论点错误性的过程和方法，是作者对所 要解决的问题进行分析、解决的过程。本论部分最主 要的任务是组织论证，以理服人。为此，必须围绕论 点，运用论据，展开充分的论证。 （2）论证的分类： 一般分为立论和驳论两大类型
立论：
正面阐述自己的观点，证明它的正确性，从 而把论点确立起来的过程就叫立论，也叫做 证明。
Thank you!
5、检查与修改
本论部分的要求
论证充分，说服力强 结构严谨，条理清楚
观点和材料相统一
(一)论证充分，说服力强 • 本论部分最主要的任务是组织论证， 以理服人。作者要千方百计地证明自 己的观点是正确的、可信的。为此， 必须围绕论点，运用论据和多种有效 的论证方法（如：立论、驳论）展开 充分的论证。论证就是要用论据来证 明论点的正确性或证明敌对论点错误 性的过程和方法。
常用的证明方法有：
例证法 引证法 分析法 演绎论证
驳论
所谓驳论，是以有力的论据反驳别人的论点，证明别人的论 点是错误的、荒谬的，从而证明自己观点正确性的一种论证 方法。驳论可分为驳论点、驳论据和驳论证三种。 反驳论点：直接反驳对方论点本身的片面，虚假或谬误，这 是波轮中最常用的方法。 反驳论据：揭示对方论据的错误，以达到推到对方论点目的。 因为错误的论据必然会引出错误的论点。 反驳论证：揭露对方在论证过程中的逻辑错误，如大前提、小 前提与结论的矛盾，对方各论点之间的矛盾，论点 与论证之间的矛盾等等。
(三)观点和材料相统一
将观点和材料有机 地结合起来，以观 点统帅材料，以材 料证明观点。
材料应按照各自所要证 明的观点来安排，随着 观点间逻辑关系及排列 顺序的明确，材料自然 也各得其位
但是，在同一内容层次之中的观点与材料应怎样安排，
究竞是先出观点还是先列材料，在起草时不能不斟酌 一番。为了避免雷同，应该有所变化。一般是先摆观 点，后列材料；有时也可以先列材料，再摆观点；还 可以边摆观点边列材料，夹叙夹议，由浅入深。总之， 要把材料和观点紧紧地糅合在一起，有机地统一起来， 为表现文章的中心服务。
Attention
The body, the biggest and most important part of the paper, is where the writer elaborates his or her ideas. It is advisiable to divide the body into several sections with or without headings or subheadings. But the writer should take care not to use too many headings or different kinds of numerals before sections and paragraphs, for they may confuse rather than help the reader.
混合式结构示例
以《英语情感教学与对策》为例:
I.序论 II.对情感教育内涵的浅思 A．情感教育内涵 B．情感教育与英语学习的关系 III.影响外语学习的情感因素 A．态度；B．动机；C．自信心；D．语言焦虑 IV. 调动积极情感因素的对策 A．培养学习兴趣，激发学习动机； B．创设愉悦情境，降低学习焦虑； C．关注学生的情感，增强学生的自信。 V.结论
(2)论据的分类
A.事实论据:真实的事实、数据材料、虚构的事 实（如神话、寓言、民间故事等）、可靠的 史实以及亲身经历等。事实在论文中论据作 用十分明显，通过分析事实，论证其道理。 B.理论论据:是读者比较熟悉的，或者是为社会 普遍承认的，它们是对大量事实抽象，概括 的结果。它包括名人名言、格言、谚语、俗 语、成语及科学上的公理、规律等。