lecture+12+language+and+society
language-and-society
8. Language and Society 8.1 the scope of sociolinguisticsLanguage is a social fact. Sociolinguistics is the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts. In view of language as a primary means of communication among individual speakers of a society, sociolinguists are concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communitiesincluding regional, ethnic and social groups. Sociolinguists are also concerned with the impact of extralinguistic factors on language use, such as age, gender, profession, and social status.8.1.1 the relatedness between language and society1)social function of language:Apart from its function in communication, language is also used to establish and maintain social relationships;2)Language reveals the socialbackground of the speaker; 3)Language reflects the physicaland social environments of a society4)various social factorsdetermine the individual speaker’s use of language8.1.2 speech community and speech varietyvariety/variationspeech community: a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.Speech variety (language variety): any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Varieties of language can be classified in respect of their user and use. Socialinguists generally distinguish regional dialects, social dialects and register.8.2 varieties of language8.2.1 dialectal varieties regional dialect:linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.(language variety according to the user)Although geographical barriers are the major source of regional variation of language, loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change are among other reasons of such variation.Linguistic variation may occur at all levels of language (phonological, lexical, morphological, syntactical, semantic), the most distinguishable linguisticfeature of a regional dialect is its accent.Y ou don’t know what you’re talking about (Scottish English: Ye dinnae ken whit yer haverin’ about)/ kœy 13na:u22tso35jat5ts‘a:n53 ŋο13/ (语概6)sociolet (social dialect): linguisitic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (p.115).U non-UHave a bath take a bath Bike, bicycle cycleLuncheon dinner Riding horse riding Sick illMad mental Looking-glass mirror Writing-paper note-paper Wireless radio Lavatory-paper toilet-paper Rich wealth Vegetables greens Pudding sweetScotch Scottish (encyc. P.39)fig.8.2.1: relation between social variation and regional variationheadache: skullhead, head-wark,head-warch, sore head, etc.8.2.2 language and social factors genderIn some languages such as English, German, French, and Russian, women are supposed to use more oftern:emotive adjectives and adverbs:super, lovely, terribly,aufullyexclamations: Goodness me, Oh,dear;intensifiers: so, such (It was so busy)expressions like: I’m afraid…I’m not sure…. Maybe I amwrong but…etc.abundant use of tags: the lessonis terribly interesting,isn’t it?strategies: women have been found to ask more questions, make more use of positive and encouraging ‘noises’, use wider intanational range and a more marked rhythmical stress, and make greater use of the pronouns you and we. They usually tend to use standard form of the languageon many occasions.By contrast, men are much more likely to interrupt, to dispute what has been said, to introduce more new topics and to make more declarations of fact or opinions. (encyc. P.21)agedevelopmental patterns in language acquisitionat phonological, lexical, syntactical, and semantic and pragmatic levels as well. Idiolect: personal dialect of an individual speaker thatcombines elements regarding regional, social, gender, an age variations. Personal variety of a dialectEthnic dialectAn ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences. Black English: an ethnic dialecte.g. (p.118)drop of final consonant; deletion of copula;double negationother syntactical features (hu,p. 202)8.2.3 registerlanguage variation according to use. That is, we typically use certain recognizable configurations of linguistic resources in certain contexts. There are three main dimensions (variables) of variation which characterize any register:what is being talked about (field of discourse), the people involved in the communication and the relationship between them(tenor of discourse) and how the language is functioning in the interaction (mode of discourse) (p.120)8.3 Standard dialectA particular variety of language which wins literary and cultural supremacy over the others and gains some kind of institutional support from government administration and news media, and also from individuals who write grammars and books on correct usage.Features of the standard dialect: (p. 123)8.4 Pidgin and CreolePidgin: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages, with a markedly reduced grammatical structure, lexicon and stylistic range, and a much narrower range of functions. It grows up among people to talk to each other, for trading and other reasons. It is the native language of no one.Most pidgins are based onEuropean languages –English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese—reflecting the history of colonialismCreole is a pidgin language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community. The switch of pidgin involves a major expansion in the structural linguistic resources available, esp. in vocabulary, grammar, and style, which now have to cope with the everyday demands made upon a mother tongue by its speakers. Pidgins are by nature auxiliarylanguages, learned alongside vernacular languages which are much more developed in structure and use. Creoles, by contrast, are vernaculars in their own right.8.5 bilingualism and diglossia bilingualism: (p.124)diglossia: a language situation in which two markedly divergent varieties, each with it own set of social functions, coexist as standards throughout a community. One of these varieties is used in ordinary conversation; the otheris used for special purposes, primarily in formal speech and writing. It has become conventional in linguistic to refer to the former as ‘low’, and the latter as ‘high’。
语言学-language-and-societyppt课件
• 文体的差异主要是通过不同的发音、不同 的语法结构或不同的词汇选择来实现的。
• 文体不仅可以指一个人对言语的习惯性使 用，也可以指具有相同职业背景的人所共 有的言语使用特征。
.
• As far as the situational variation in language use concerned, the diversity and richness of some stylistic variants available for a person to choose when engaged in different types of communicative events.
三句不离本行
.
How does language relate to society
• 2）The social environment can also be
reflected in language, and can often have an effect on the structure and the vocabulary.
※ Macro-studies ※ Micro-studies
.
Sociolinguistics
Macro(宏观)-studies —— the sociolinguistics of society (语言社会学) :
To know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members
.
Language is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfill an important social function – to maintain social relationship between people.
Lecture12 Language and Social Culture(I)
Definition of Dialect
A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class.
Dialect VS language
1.
2.
3.
Dialect is a variation of language different enough to be classed as a separate entity, but not different enough to be classed as a separate language. Sometimes a dialect rises in status and becomes the standard variety of a country. When the speakers of two dialects belong to two countries, it is more likely that the dialects become two languages.
Regional Dialects
A regional dialect refers to the language variety used in a geographical region. When people are separated from each other geographically, dialectal diversity develops. When enough differences give the language spoken in a particular region, for example, the city of Chicago or New York its own "flavor," that version of the language is called a regional dialect. A regional dialect differs from language in that the former is considered a distinct entity, yet not distinct enough from other dialects of the language to be regarded as a different language.
Language and Society(1)
Idiolect and dialect
• The unique characteristics of the language of an individual speaker are referred to as the speaker’s idiolect. • Dialect refers to a variety of a language whose grammar differs in systematic ways from other varieties.
Social dialect
• When we look at the language used by two speakers A and B, we can estimate roughly their relative social status:
•
Speaker A I did it yesterday. He hasn’t got it. It was she that said it.
– Groups of people distinguish themselves from other groups by geographical, educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age of the ethnic affiliation of its members.
Dialects or languages
• However, to define “mutually unintelligible” is itself a difficult task.
– Danes speaking Danish and Norwegians speaking Norwegian and Swedes speaking Swedish can converse with each other. However they are regarded as separate languages because they are spoken in separate countries. – The various languages spoken in China, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, although mutually unintelligible, have been referred to as dialects of Chinese because they are spoken within a single country and have a common writing system.
Lecture 12
Racial attitudes and language processing
How do beliefs about race affect language processing? Rubin (1992): Issue: American students often complain about the accents of non-native teaching assistants. Is it really because of the bad accents, or is this just a sort of racism? Subjects: Two classrooms of undergraduates Materials: An audio tape of a native speaker of American English (female, white) giving a class lecture. Design: In one classroom, students were told that the speaker on the tape was the white American woman shown on a slide. In the other classroom, students were told that the speaker was the Chinese woman shown on a slide Results: There were significant differences across the two groups in the students' comprehension of the lecture and in their judgment of teaching ability, and students who saw the Chinese picture actually claimed they had trouble because of the speaker's "foreign accent"!
Language and society
Ethnic dialect （种族方言）
An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional difference; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population. Blank English
Language and society
--Dialectal varietiesຫໍສະໝຸດ made by Zephyr
Dialectal varieties(方言变体）
Idiolect（个人语言） Idiolect（个人语言） Temporal dialect（时间方言） dialect（时间方言） Regional varieties(地域变体) varieties(地域变体) Social dialect（社会方言） dialect（社会方言） Standard dialect（标准方言） dialect（标准方言） NonNon-standard dialect（非标准方言） dialect（非标准方言） Ethnic dialect （种族方言）
Regional Social Gender Age Sound quality Pitch Speed
Temporal dialect（时间方言） dialect（时间方言）
Temporal dialect refers the variety of language associated with a particular period time. Distinction: Old English ,Early Modern English , Modern English , Victorian English ,Elizabethan English
(完整版)TheRelationshipbetweenLanguageandSociety语言和社会的关系
The Relationship between Language and SocietyLanguage is not just the words said by people every day, it is both a scientific system and a social activity. It is the major bond of people’s communication in society.Although 2 people from the same place, their languages aren’t the same. One’s language reflects one’s social statues and his or her speech community. A speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms, rules and expectation regarding the use of language. Investigating language from this perspective is known as sociolinguistics. It deals with the inter relationship between language and society. Language can be regarded as a social activity. The internal authority refers to the acquisition of a language or dialect by an individual when mixed with his fellow speakers of the same speech community. External authority means that society, through language teachers, institutions, mass media, textbooks and dictionaries, imparts the knowledge of language to learners at schools or in controlled environment.Language as a social activity has its own planning. Language planning refers to the systematic attempt to solve communication problems by studying the various language or dialects people use in the same one community and by developing a realistic policy concerning the proper selection and appropriate use of these languages and varieties. A standers language is usually a prestige dialect/language widely accepted. A national language is the language to be used nationwide in a newlyliberated country or a multinational one. An official language, similar to a standard or national language, is used in formal, official situations.As a major bond of people’s communication, language is closely connected with society. Many factors lead to the differences in language. Even though from the same social class, people’s language also have their own characters for the differences in ages and sex. For example, in some cultures, there are much more marked differences between male and female speech. Female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than male speakers with the same general social background. That is, forms such as I done it, it growed and he ain’t can be found more often in the speech of males, and I did it, it grew and he isn’t in the speech of females. The different ethnic backgrounds also cause the variation of language. When a group of people have low social statues, their language may be regarded as the bad language. For example, when black people use the double negative constructions knowing nothing , they are often criticized.Differences in society and location may form one’s language characters. At the same time , the situation of using the language also cause the variation of language. Different situation requires us use different writing style and forms different register, such as the words used only for a special group of people, which known as jargon. All dialects and registers are regarded, or ought to be deemed, as grammatically welled-formed by their speech communities, i.e. each community has its own sub-grammar. But a particular variety or language sometimes enjoys an established reputation in society. The relative reputation of a variety of speech depends upon the social and economic status of professions and regions that use it.Code-switching means that a speaker does not have to follow a certain variety or dialect all the time but that he can turn from the standard language to the sub-standard one, from one dialect to another, from one accent to another, from formality to informality, from politeness to impoliteness, even from one language to another in a bilingual or multilingual community.As a member in society, it is important for us to know situation of using a language. When we contact with others, we must know clearly our role, such as father, son, husband or boss, only in this way , can we perform well in our work and daily life.。
Languageandsocialclass语言与社会阶层
Language and social classIf you are an English-speaker you will be able to estimate the relative social status of the following speakers solely on the basis of the linguistic evidence given here:Speaker A Speaker BI done it yesterday I did it yesterdayHe ain't got it He hasn't got itIt was her what said it It was her that said itIf you heard these speakers say these things you would guess that B was of higher social status than A, and you would almost certainly be right. How is it that we are able to do this sort of thing?The answer lies in the existence of varieties of language which have come to be called socialclass dialects. There are grammatical differences between the speech of these two speakers which give us clues about their social backgrounds. It is also probable, although this is not indicated on the printed page, that these differences will be accompanied by phonetic and phonological differences- that is to say, there are also different social-class accents. The internal differentiation of human societies is reflected in their languages. Different social groups use different linguistic varieties, and as experienced members of a speech community we have learnt to classify speakers accordingly. Why does social differentiation have this effect on language?We may note parallels between the development of these social varieties and the development of regional varieties: in both cases barriers and distance appear to be relevant. Dialectologists have found that regional-dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers, such as mountains, swamps or rivers: for example, all local-dialect speakers in the areas of Britain north of the river Humber (between Lincolnshire and Yorkshire) still have a monophthong in words like house ('hoose' [hu:s], whereas speakers south of the river have had some kind of [haus]-type diphthong for several hundred years. It also seems to be the case that the greater the geographical distance between two dialects the more dissimilar they are linguistically: for instance, those regional varieties of British English which are most unlike the speech of London are undoubtedly those of the north-east of Scotland - Buchan, for example. The development of social varieties can perhaps be explained in the same sort of way - in terms of social barriers and social distance. The diffusion of a linguistic feature through a society may be halted by barriers of social class, age, race, religion or other factors. And social distance may have the same sort of effect as geographical distance: a linguistic innovation that begins amongst, say, the highest social group will affect thelowest social group last, if at all. (We must be careful, however, not to explain all social differences of language in these entirely mechanical terms since, as we saw in Chapter 1, attitudes to language clearly play an important role in preserving or removing dialect differences.)Of the many forms of social differentiation, for example, by class, age, sex, race or religion, we shall concentrate in this chapter on the particular type of social differentiation 35 illustrated in the examples of speakers A and B - social stratification. Social stratification is a term used to refer to any hierarchical ordering of groups within a society. In the industrialized societies of theWest this takes the form of stratification into social classes, and gives rise linguistically to social-class dialects. (The whole question of social class is in fact somewhat controversial, especially since sociologists are not agreed as to the exact nature, definition or existence of social classes [...].)Social-class stratification is not universal, however. In India, for example, society is stratified into different castes. As far as the linguist is concerned, caste dialects are in some ways easier to study and describe than social-class dialects. This is because castes are stable, clearly named groups, rigidly separated from each other, with hereditary membership and with little possibility of movement from one caste to another. [...].In the class societies of the English-speaking world the social situation is much more fluid, and the linguistic situation is therefore rather more complex, at least in certain respects. Social classes are not clearly defined or labelled entities but simply aggregates of people with similar social and economic characteristics; and social mobility - movement up or down the social hierarchy - is perfectly possible. This makes things much more difficult for any linguist who wishes to describe a particular variety - the more heterogeneous a society is, the more heterogeneous is its language.For many years the linguist's reaction to this complexity was generally to ignore it - in two rather different ways. Many linguists concentrated their studies on the idiolect - the speech of one person at one time in one style - which was thought (largely erroneously [...]) to be more regular than the speech of the community as a whole. Dialectologists, on the other hand, concentrated on the speech of rural informants, and in particular on that of elderly people of little education or travel experience, in small isolated villages, [...mainly because] there was a feeling that hidden somewhere in the speech of older, uneducated people were the 'real' or 'pure' dialects which weresteadily being corrupted by the standard variety [...] (It turns out that the 'pure' homogeneous dialect is also largely a mythical concept: all language is subject to stylistic and social differentiation, because all human communities are functionally differentiated and heterogeneous to varying degrees. All language varieties are subject to change. There is, therefore, an element of differentiation even in the most isolated conservative rural dialect.) From: c. 2 in P. Trudgill, Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language and Society,London, Penguin, 1983 (rev. ed.), pp. 34-35.SCUOLA SUPERIORE DELL'UNIVERSITA' DEGLI STUDI DI UDINEESAME DI AMMISSIONE PER LA CLASSE UMANISTICAPROVA SCRITTA DI LINGUA INGLESEA.A. 2004/2005Nome e cognome: ______________________________________________________________ Read the attached text ("Language and social class") and do the exercises below.Part A: Approaching the textExercise 1: In the attached text there are 7 indented paragraphs. Match each thematic section below (1., 2., 3., 4.) with the paragraph(s) which is / are conceptually related to it.Ex. 1. Native speakers' language awareness (par. __No. 6-7___)DO NOT INSERT THE SAME PARAGRAPH INTO MORE THAN ONE SUB-HEADING1. Native speakers' language awareness (par. __________ )2. Effects of social differentiation on grammar and phonology (par. __________ )3. Analogies between regional and social dialects (par. __________ )4. Social-class dialects: relativity and complexity (par. __________ )Exercise 2: Match each connective below with the function it performs in the text by filling the corresponding blank with eithera (for Additive)b (for Concessive)c (for Causal)or d (for Contrastive).(PAY ATTENTION TO THE REFERENCE LINE IN BRACKETS AND WRITE ONLY ONE LETTERIN EACH BLANK)1. although (l. 11) _______2. for example (l. 20) _______3. whereas (l. 22) _______4. also (l. 23) _______5. however (l. 31) _______6. since (l. 39) _______7. on the other hand (l. 55) _______8. therefore (l. 62) _______Part B: Intensive readingExercise 3: Read the text carefully and tick ( ??) the appropriate answer:1. What is the overall function of the chapter from which this excerpt has been taken???to put forward a new theory to explain the development oflinguistic varieties??to investigate the influence of social stratification onlanguage use??to explore the relationships between social accents andsocial dialects2. This text is an extract from a textbook called Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language and Society. Can you guess which of the following topics is NOT likely to be dealt with systematically in the book???How Languages Are Learned??Language and Context??Language and Ethnic GroupExercise 4: Making reference to the text, decide whether the following statements are TRUE (T), orFALSE (F), or INCOMPLETE (I) paraphrases of the information conveyed in the text (N.B.: the various statements appear in the order in which the information is presented in the text):1. According to the author, social-class accents distinguish social differences in spoken language ( __ )2. Social differences of language may be determined by social barriers and socialdistance ( __ )3. Social stratification in the West can be compared to caste society in the East,each having its own characteristic traits ( __ )4. For many years a lot of linguists wrongly considered the idiolect to be less subject tochange than the speech of the community as a whole ( __ )5. According to the author, original, uncorrupted dialect forms can be found amongstthe most elderly and isolated segment of a population ( __ )Exercise 5: The following is a list of synonyms for words/expressions which appear in the text in the paragraph indicated in brackets and in the order given on the list. Find the corresponding words/expressions and write them down, together with their respective line number:1. assess [verb] (par. 1) _________________ (line ___ )2. indications / signs / hints (par. 2) __________________ (line ___ )3. skilled / knowledgeable [adj.] (par.2) __________________ (line ___ )4. consequently / as a result of this (par. 2) __________________ (line ___ )5. pertinent (par. 3) _________________ (line ___ )6. borders [pl. noun] (par. 3) _________________ (line ___ )7. marsh / wet land (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )8. circulation (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )9. stopped (past participle) (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )10. influence [verb] (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )11. debatable (par. 4) _________________ (line ___ )12. unchanging (par. 5) __________________ (line ___ )13. variable [adj.] (par. 6) _________________ (line ___ )14. scale (par. 6) __________________ (line ___ )15. disregard / neglect [verb] (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )16. illiterate [adj.] (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )17. constantly / progressively (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )Part C: Guided writingExercise 6: Re-read the text's lines indicated in brackets and then complete the following paraphrases by circling ONE word/expression for each missing item:(ll. 14-16) Sociolinguistic competence involves being able to classify speakers (like / as) belonging to different social groups on the grounds of the linguistic variety they use(ll. 27-29) Social class, age, race and religion, (among / between) other factors, may prove to be powerful barriers (who / which) prevent the diffusion of a linguistic feature throughsociety.(ll. 52-53) For many years there (has been / was) a general tendency to ignore language variation. Exercise 7: What follows is an extract (pp. 39-40) from the follow-up of the text "Language and Social Class". It describes the results of a large-scale survey of the speech of New York conducted by the American linguist William Labov in 1966 and evaluates them against previously- held views.Complete the extract by choosing one option for each missing item from the list below:(1) developed by Labov have proved to be very significant for the study of social-class dialects andaccents. The methods of traditional dialectology (2) be adequate for the description of caste dialects(though even this is (3)) since (4) individual, however selected, stands a fair chance of (5) not too different from the caste group as a whole. But it is not possible to select any single speaker and to generalize from (6) to the rest of the speakers in his social-class group. This was an importantpoint(7) was demonstrated (8) Labov.The speech of a single speaker (his idiolect) may differ considerably from those of (9) like him. (10), it may also be internally very inconsistent. The speech of (11) New Yorkers appeared to vary in a completely random and unpredictable manner. [...] Sometimes they would say beard and bad in the same way, sometimes they would (12) a difference. Linguists have traditionally called this 'free variation'. Labov (13) , however, that the variation is not free. Viewed against the backgroundof the speech community as a whole the variation was not random but determined by extralinguisticfactors in (14) predictable way. That is, the researcher could not predict on any one occasion (15) anindividual would say cah or car, but he could show that, if he was of a certain social class, age and sex, he (16) one or other variant approximately x per cent of the time, on average, in a given situation. The idiolect might appear random, but the speech community was quite predictable.(1) a. The methods b. Methods c. A method(2) a. will b. may c. need to(3) a. doubtless b. doubting c. doubtful(4) a. any b. some c. no(5) a. being b. be c. to be(6) a. his b. he c. him(7) a. who b. whom c. that(8) a. by b. from c. since(9) a. other b. the other c. others(10) a. Therefore b. Moreover c. Nevertheless(11) a. most b. the most c. most of(12) a. do b. make c. cause(13) a. show b. shown c. showed(14) a. a quite b. quite a c. quite(15) a. that b. how c. whether(16) a. used b. would use c. would have usedExercise 8: Given that "all language is subject to stylistic and social differentiation, because all human communities are functionally differentiated and heterogeneous to varying degrees", DISCUSS (in approx. 200 words) the impact of globalisation on language from a sociolinguistic point of view. Use the space below.。
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(1) The relatedness between language and society. (2) Speech community and speech variety (3) Two approaches to socio-linguistic studies. (4) Varieties of language: Dialectal varieties ; register and the degree of formality
2. The Scope of Sociolinguistics
2.1 Definition
– Socio-linguistics is the sub-field of linguistics
that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. – So there are two approaches to sociolinguistic studies
– nguage is inseparable from social activities of
man.
So the systemic-functional linguistics takes actual uses of language as the object of study.
– Psycholinguistics—the study of how
language is related to mind.
– Socio-linguistics—the study of how language
is related to society.
So these studies are referred to as the ―Macro-linguistics‖( 宏观语言学) or ―Applied Linguistics‖( 应用语言学)
2.3.Speech Community and Speech Variety
For General linguistics,a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.(like English, French or Chinese) This would include any group of people, wherever they might be, and however remote might be the possibility of their ever wanting or being able to communicate with each other, all using the same language.
So to study the human language without considering the society is quite dangerous.
―Systemic-Functional Linguistics‖(系统功能语 言学)or ―Functional Grammar‖(功能语法)
Lecture 12
Language and Society
教学目标及基本要求
Let the students know the scope of sociolinguistics. Let the students know the varieties of language.
教学重点Teaching focus
Structural linguistics and mentalist linguistics are both formal linguistics or descriptive linguistics. The focus is on the study of forms of language. They separated the language from culture and society etc.
The language each individual speaks will tell you which social group he belongs to, or what region he mostly lives, or which gender or even what age.
The Systemic –Functional linguistics is based on two facts:
– nguage users are actually making choices in a
system of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction.
Micro-socio-linguistics or Sociolinguistics proper: We look at society from the point of view of an individual member within society, the socio-linguist’s goal is to show how specific differences in pronunciation or grammar lead members of a speech community to make judgment about the education or economic status of a speaker. So the major goal of micro-linguistics is the varieties of language(研究语言的变体)
The goal of socio-linguistic study of a speech community is to relate the significant language varieties to the significant social groups and situations. So the speech community is the abstract ―space‖ studied in socio-linguistics.
Micro-Linguistics(微观语言学): or the General Linguistics(普通语言学)
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology Syntax Semantics
Since the 1960s,this formal linguistics or the micro –linguistics began to lose the popularity. American anthropologist D. Hymes, British linguist M.A.K. Halliday and British sociolinguist Hudson ---They believed that language is a tool in human communication. ----Language is also used to establish and to maintain social relatiplinary field began to appear:
– Pragmatics—the study of how speakers uses
sentences to offer successful communication in certain context.
A small social network ( such as regular patrons of a coffee shop) forms a speech community.
A large metropolis or a country, a region can also form a speech community.
The structural linguists believed that language forms or structures should be the focus while meaning is neglected.
In the late 1950s, American linguist Noam Chomsky began to reject the structural approach. He began to study the ― universal grammar‖ in human brain or linguistic competence. He believes that language is a mental phenomenon. Language is innate and human specific. Language is universal. He put forward the TG grammar. The task of the linguist is to discover the rules from the speaker’s performance.
The Rise and Development of Socio-linguistics