英语语言学linguisticschapter3练习答案
语言学教程各章节练习及答案
Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct andstandard”behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they shouldday and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language： Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facialexpression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways: Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [ ]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resemblinga smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to thetask of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive ina particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝ ]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation. 3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated bythe bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wantedto do this to day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationshipbetween expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical conceptor a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more wordsin a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategoriesSyntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relationsbetween its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmaticand paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for.The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first.In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the treediagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units,words and sentences in particular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entitya word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym) semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really thesame, one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words aresynonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they maynot be considered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalkis a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed toa constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of asentence with determinate sense and reference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guidingprinciple the Cooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows:"make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’sknowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one ofthe four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin”is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?”he answered “Yes”but does not actuallydo it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door”is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.” What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。
Linguistics Chapter 3：Morphology
root
affix
inflectional affix derivational affix
morphemes
free morpheme bound morpheme
Lexical morpheme functional morpheme
bound root
affix
inflectional affix derivational affix
Basic notions of morphology
(1)
Morpheme —the minimal unit of meaning It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.
词素-最小的有意义的单位，语言中最小的构词单位
粘着词素指必须和至少一个自由或粘着词素一起 出现的词素。
morphemes
free morpheme bound morpheme
Lexical morpheme functional morpheme
Lexical morphemes —the free morphemes which carry the content of messages we convey. e.g. N. (modernization) V. Modernize Adj. (modern)
出现在词干之前的叫前缀。
Suffix — morphemes that occur only after root or stem, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -tive, -tion, etc.
出现在词干之后的叫后缀。
英语语言学第1-3章课后练习题答案之欧阳术创编
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypothesesthus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used toconvey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting soundsare arranged and combined to formwords;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combinedto form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approachthus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language asprimary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writingis learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially differentfrom animal communication system?（2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
语言学答案Chapter1-3
Chapter 1 -3Chapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning incommunication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arrangedand combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammaticallypermissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. V oicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. The transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differe ntly from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [ɫ] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [˜] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but inspit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transc ription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p hɪt] and spit is transcribed as [spɪt].4. English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. (1) [ʤ] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ](4) [ ɪ] (5) [ɔ:] (6) [p](1) voiced alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [ɫ], [p h] and [p].8. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [ɫ], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequentialrules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” t endency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [ŋ]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. (1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of…fr ee‟”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. (1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organizedcommunity. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing resu lts opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. (1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。
英语语言学(江西师范大学)智慧树知到课后章节答案2023年下江西师范大学
英语语言学（江西师范大学）智慧树知到课后章节答案2023年下江西师范大学江西师范大学第一章测试1.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.答案:错2.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.答案:错nguage is used to record the facts, which is the informative function oflanguage, also called ideational function in the framework of functionalgrammar.答案:对4.Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.答案:对5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use,it is said to be _______.答案:descriptive6.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?答案:Meaningfulnessnguage is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connectionbetween _______ and meanings.答案:sounds8.Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at languagefrom a ________ point of view.答案:sociological…psychological9.According to Jakobson, ___________ are the functions of language?答案:referential;conative;metalingual10.Which of the following belongs to the main branches of linguistics?答案:Morphology;phonetics;Semantics第二章测试1.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into differentcategories.答案:错2.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequenceof two or more phonemic segments.答案:对3.What is the difference between the fields of phonetics and phonology?答案:Phonetics is concerned with the physical and physiological aspects ofsounds, while phonology is concerned with sounds as parts of language.4.Question: Which of the following sounds is velar ?答案:A.g5.Which of the following sounds is not alveolar?答案:f6.Would it be useful to compare German and English when trying to establishhow English was spoken in the past?答案:Yes, because English and German are related and each may have a more conservative pronunciation in some points.7.In German, the word 'Kind' (child) has the plural form Kind-er. In the letter dis actually pronounced as [t], but in the plural form one pronounces it as a [d].Which phonological feature is involved in this alternation?答案:Voice8.English and German have relatively large vowel inventories. What reasondoes the discussion provide for this?答案:These languages tend to have a simpler syllable structure than otherlanguages, and need more differences between vowels.9.How do features help us understand and explain the path of languageacquisition?答案:Children try to find out how speech sounds can be built up offeatures.;Children do not acquire sounds, but rather features.;Children become gradually aware of features.10.Which three of the following parameters are relevant for consonant sounds?Please check all that apply.答案:Voicing;Manner of articulation;Place of articulation第三章测试1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as ____.答案:lexical words2.Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _____morpheme.答案:inflectional3.______ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existingwords by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.答案:back-formation4.The stem of the word “disagreements” is ________.答案:disagreement5.All of them are meaningful except for ________.答案:phoneme6.“Fore” in “foretell”is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.答案:错7.The words “whimper”, “whisper”and “whistle”are formed in the way ofonomatopoeia.答案:对8.In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to thenumber of morphemes.答案:错9.Back-formation is a productive way of word-formation.答案:错10.Inflection is a particular way of word-formation.答案:对第四章测试1.Prase structure rules have ______ properties.答案:recursive2.The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.答案:finite3.The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to formgrammatical sentences.答案:combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.答案:ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.答案:subordinator6.An ________ can further be divided into two types: subordination andcoordination.答案:endocentric construction7.What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”?答案:Exocentric8.The head of the phrase “behind the door”is __________.答案:none9.The phrase “on the shelf”belongs to __________ construction.答案:exocentric10.The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to exposethemselves.”is a __________ sentence.答案:simple第五章测试1.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references indifferent situations.答案:对2.In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherentrelation to the physical world of experience.答案:错3.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all itscomponents.答案:错4.Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but rankeddifferently according to their degree of formality.答案:对5.________ is not one of seven types of meaning advanced by Geoffrey Leech.答案:derogatory meaning6.Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.答案:synonyms7.___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected intomeaning components, called semantic features.答案:Componential analysis8.“teacher” and “student” are ______________.答案:converse antonyms9._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.答案:Reference10.“John killed Bill”_______ “Bill didn’t die.”答案:is inconsistent with第六章测试1.It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if thecontext of language use was left unconsidered.答案:对2.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in thestudy of meaning the context of use is considered.答案:对3.Utterances always take the form of complete sentences.答案:错4.Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.答案:错5.Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.答案:错6.The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditionalsemantics.答案:intrinsic7. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is oftenstudied in isolation.答案:grammatical8.__________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is theconsequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.答案:A perlocutionary act9.__________ is advanced by Paul Grice.答案:Cooperative Principle10.When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______might arise.答案:conversational implicatures第七章测试1.Halliday is hailed as the father of modern linguistics.（）答案:错。
语言学教程前三章练习题及答案
UNIT11.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?A.PsycholinguisticB.SociolinguisticsC.Macrolinguistics正确答案C，得2分2.(单选题，2 分)()refers to the system of a language, i. e. the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of.municative competenceB.Linguistic potentialnguepetence正确答案C3.(单选题，2 分)The function of the sentence "Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ().A.interrogativeB.performativeC.directivermative正确答案D，得2分4.(单选题，2 分)By()we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.A.displacementB.dualityC.arbitrarinessD.creativity正确答案D，得2分5.(单选题，2 分)When language is used to get information from others. it serves an()function.A.interrogativeB.expressiveC.evocativermative正确答案D6.(单选题，2 分)The functions of language do NOT include ().A.metacognitive functionrmative functionC.phatic functionD.interpersonal function正确答案A，得2分7.(单选题，2 分)Saussure took a(n) ()view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ()point of view.A.semantic. linguisticB.psychological. sociologicalC.sociological.. psychologicalD.applied. pragmatic正确答案C，得2分8.(单选题，2 分)The actual production and comprehension of the speech by speakers of a language is called().A.performancenguage devicepetenceD.grammar rules正确答案A，9.(单选题，2 分)Saussure is closely connected with().nguepetenceC.paroleD.performance正确答案C，得2分10.(单选题，2 分)"A refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2, 000 years ago. " This shows that language has the design feature of().A.creativityB.arbitrarinessC.displacementD.duality正确答案C，得2分11.(单选题，2 分)According to F. de Saussure()refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.nguageB.performancengueD.parole正确答案C，得2分12.(单选题，2 分)The study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech is closely connected with().A.auditory phoneticsB.articulatory phoneticsC.acoustic phonetics教师批阅正确答案C，得2分13.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature?A.ArbitrarinessB.ConventionC.DualityD.Culture transmission正确答案B，我的答案：D得0分14.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.bangB.crashC.treeD.typewriter正确答案C，我的答案：A得0分15.(单选题，2 分)The study of language at one point in time is a()study.A.descriptiveB.diachronicC.synchronicD.historical正确答案C，得2分16.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson 's framework of language functions?A.The emotive function is to convey message and information.B.The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meaning.C.The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.D.The phatic function is to establish communion with others.正确答案D，我的答案：C得0分17.(填空题，2 分)____grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while____grammars tell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.正确答案：(1) Descriptive(2) prescriptive18.(填空题，2 分)The features that define our human languages can be called____features.正确答案：(1) design19.(填空题，2 分)The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of____ ____relation.正确答案：(1) convention20.(填空题，2 分)____ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.正确答案：(1) Pragmatics21.(填空题，2 分)Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as____ and.The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.正确答案：(1) langue, parole22.(填空题，2 分)Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and ____ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more with noticing than its arbitrariness.正确答案：(1) conventionality23.(填空题，2 分)Chomsky initiated the distinction between ____and performance.正确答案：(1) competence24.(填空题，2 分)Syntagmatic relation in fact is a____ relation.正确答案：(1) positional25.(填空题，2 分)Linguistics is usually defined as the____ study of language.正确答案：(1) scientific26.(填空题，2 分)Our language can be used to talk about itself. This is the____ function of language.正确答案：(1) metalingual27.(填空题，2 分)By____ is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.正确答案：(1) duality28.(填空题，2 分)Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ____ theory.正确答案：(1) yo-he-ho29.(填空题，2 分)Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the ____ it is associated with.正确答案：(1) meaning30.(填空题，2 分)Semantics and ____ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning.正确答案：(1) pragmatics31.(填空题，2 分)The relation between them is____.正确答案：(1) arbitrary32.(填空题，2 分)By____, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.正确答案：(1) creativity33.(填空题，2 分)In linguistics, ____ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.正确答案：(1) syntax34.(填空题，2 分)Modern linguistic is ____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.正确答案：(1) descriptive35.(填空题，2 分)____ mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.正确答案：(1) phonetics36.(填空题，2 分)One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ____ and performance.正确答案：(1) competence37.(填空题，2 分)The most important function of language is ____function.正确答案：(1) informative38.(填空题，2 分)____ refers to the role language plays in communication(e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations(e. g. Religious, legal).正确答案：(1) Function39.(填空题，2 分)When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather thanexchanging information or ideas, its function is ____function.正确答案：(1) phatic40.(填空题，2 分)The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community is____.正确答案：(1) langue41.(判断题，2 分)It is conclusive that Chinese is regarded as the primeval language.正确答案错，得2分42.(判断题，2 分)Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study正确答案错，得2分43.(判断题，2 分)Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.正确答案错，得2分44.(判断题，2 分)Wherever humans exist,language exists.正确答案错，得2分45.(判断题，2 分)The bow- wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.正确答案对，得2分46.(判断题，2 分)According to Saussure, the relation between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary.正确答案对，得2分47.(判断题，2 分)When language is used to get information from other,it serves an informative function.正确答案错，得2分48.(判断题，2 分)Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.正确答案错，得2分49.(判断题，2 分)The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES.正确答案对，得2分50.(判断题，2 分)Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meaning.对UNIT21.(单选题，1 分)The vowel()is a low back vowel.A./i:/B./e/C./u/D./a:/教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分2.(单选题，1 分)Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation?A.[w]B.[f]C.[z]D.[v]教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分3.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is true of an allophone?A.An allophone changes the meaning of the word.B.There is no possibility of an allophone becoming a phoneme.C.A phone can be the allophone of all English vowel phonemes.D.There are no restrictions on the distribution of an allophone.教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分4.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following CANNOT be considered as minimal par?A./s / /T/B./ai/ /Oi/C./s/ /z/D./p/ /b/教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：C 得0 分5.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A.voiced labiodental fricativeB.voiced labiodental stopC.voiceless labiodental fricativeD.voiceless labiodental stop教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分6.(单选题，1 分)The consonant /s / in the word “smile” can be described as:().A.Voiceless oral alveolar fricativeB.voiced oral bilabial fricativeC.voiceless nasal bilabial liquidD.voiced oral alveolar plosive教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分7.(单选题，1 分)Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence.A.residentB.restartC.resolutionD.resignation教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分8.(单选题，1 分)()is the smallest meaningful unit of language.A.PhoneB.PhonemeC.MorphemeD.Syllable教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分9.(单选题，1 分)An aspirated P and an unaspirated p are()of the p phoneme.A.analoguesB.allophonesC.tagmemesD.morphemes教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分10.(单选题，1 分)()refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.A.RhymeB.StressC.ToneD.Coda教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分11.(单选题，1 分)Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A.Acoustic phoneticsB.articulatory phoneticsC.None of themD.auditory phonetics教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分12.(单选题，1 分)A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a givenlanguage is a().A.phonemeB.allophoneC.phoneD.word教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分13.(单选题，1 分)()is one of the suprasegmental features.A.stopB.toneC.voicingD.deletion教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分14.(单选题，1 分)Which one is different from others according to places of articulatory?A.[p]B.[m]C.[b]D.[n]教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分15.(单选题，1 分)Classification of English speech sounds in terms of manner of articulation involves the following EXCEPT(). DA.affricatesB.bilabialC. lateralD.fricative教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分16.(单选题，1 分)Of the consonants/p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /m/ /z/and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar?A./p/B./t/C./g/D./k/教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分17.(单选题，1 分)Of the three cavities, ()is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speech sounds.A.none of themB.oral cavityC. pharynx cavityD.nasal cavity教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分18.(单选题，1 分)What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A.Glottal stopB.VoicedC.ConsonantD.Voiceless教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分19.(单选题，1 分)The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in()and vocabulary.A.grammarB.structureC.pronunciationage教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分20.(单选题，1 分)Which of the allowing is not a minimal pair?A./keit/ /feit/B./sai / sei/C./li:f/ /fi:l/D./sip/ /zip/教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分21.(填空题，2.5 分)Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of____and manner of articulation.正确答案：(1) place22.(填空题，2.5 分)The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are ____allophones教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) allophones23.(填空题，2.5 分)____are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.正确答案：(1) Consonants24.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /k/ can be described with "voiceless,____,stop”.教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) velar25.(填空题，2.5 分)According to ____, when there is choice as to where to place consonant put into the onset rather than the coda.(1) the Maximal Onset Principle26.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /b/can be described with" ____, bilabial,stop”.正确答案：(1) voiced27.(填空题，2.5 分)____transcription should transcribe all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades. Narrow28.(填空题，2.5 分)Most speech sounds are made by movements of the tongue and the lips, and these movements are called ____, as compared to those made by hands. These movements of the tongue and lips are made____ _so that they can be heard and recognized.正确答案：(1) gestures(2) audibles29.(填空题，2.5 分)Stress refers to the degree of ____used in producing syllable.force教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) force30.(填空题，2.5 分)In phonological analysis the words fail -veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes/f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating____minimal pairs教师批阅得0 分正确答案：(1) minimal pair31.(填空题，2.5 分)The syllable structure in Chinese is ____or____or ____正确答案：(1) CVC(2) CV(3) V32.(填空题，2.5 分)Voicing refers to the ____of the vocal folds.(1) vibration33.(填空题，2.5 分)____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.正确答案：(1) Assimilation34.(填空题，2.5 分)In English, the two words cut and gut differ only in their initial sounds and the two sounds are two different ____and the two words are a____pair.正确答案：(1) phonemes(2) minimal35.(填空题，2.5 分)In ____assimilation, a following sound is influencing a preceding sound.正确答案：(1) regressive36.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /p/can be described with____, bilabial,stop”.正确答案：(1) voiceless37.(填空题，2.5 分)In English, consonant clusters in onset and coda positions disallow many consonant combinations, which is explained by the work of____.正确答案：(1) sonority scale38.(填空题，2.5 分)Phonetic similarity means that the____of phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.正确答案：(1) allophones39.(填空题，2.5 分)In English there are a number of ____which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.正确答案：(1) diphthongs40.(填空题，2.5 分)The present system of the____derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967) and his colleagues at University of London.正确答案：(1) cardinal vowels41.(判断题，1 分)There are two nasal consonants in English.正确答案错，得1 分42.(判断题，1 分)In English, we can have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC.正确答案对，得1 分43.(判断题，1 分)In the sound writing system, the reference of the grapheme is the phoneme.正确答案对，得0 分44.(判断题，1 分)Phonology studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received.正确答案错，得1 分45.(判断题，1 分)The “Minimal Pair” test that can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences in meaning do not work well for all languages.正确答案对，得1 分46.(判断题，1 分)The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modifications to acquire the quality of a speech sound.正确答案对，得1 分47.(判断题，1 分)Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.正确答案对，得0 分48.(判断题，1 分)Sound [p] in the word"spit "is an unaspirated stop.正确答案对，得1 分49.(判断题，1 分)Speech sounds are those sounds made by human beings that have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives.正确答案对，得1 分50.(判断题，1 分)Tones in tone language are not always fixed. For example, tones in Chinese never change.正确答案错，得1 分51.(判断题，1 分)The International Phonetic Alphabet uses narrow transcription.正确答案对，得0 分52.(判断题，1 分)All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.正确答案对，得1 分The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communications are all phonemes.正确答案错，得1 分54.(判断题，1 分)Broad Transcription is intended to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades.正确答案错，得1 分55.(判断题，1 分)It is sounds by which we make communicative meaning.正确答案错，得0 分56.(判断题，1 分)All the suffixes may change the position of the stress.正确答案错，得1 分57.(判断题，1 分)The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.正确答案错，得0 分58.(判断题，1 分)The speech sounds which are in complementary distribution are definitely allophones of the same phoneme.正确答案错，得1 分59.(判断题，1 分)Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some morphological resemblance.正确答案错，得1 分60.(判断题，1 分)A syllable can be divided into two parts, the NUCLEUS and the CODA.正确答案错，得1 分61.(判断题，1 分)The last sound of "top can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are not in complementary distribution.正确答案对，得1 分62.(判断题，1 分)All syllables contain three parts: onset, nucleus and coda.正确答案错，得1 分63.(判断题，1 分)Larynx is what we sometimes call “Adam’s apple”.正确答案错，得1 分64.(判断题，1 分)Chinese is a tone language.正确答案对，得1 分65.(判断题，1 分)A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.正确答案对，得1 分When preceding /p/, the negative prefix “in-” always changes to “im-” .正确答案对，得1 分67.(判断题，1 分)The last sound of "sit"can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are not in complementary distribution.正确答案对，得0 分68.(判断题，1 分)The initial sound of"peak "is aspirated while the second sound of"speak"is unaspirated. They are in free variation.正确答案错，得1 分69.(判断题，1 分)[p] is voiced bilabial stop.正确答案错，得1 分70.(判断题，1 分)Pure vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.正确答案错，得0 分UNIT31.(单选题，1 分)“-s” in the word “books” is ().A.a stemB.an inflectional affixC.a derivational affixD.a root教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分2.(单选题，1 分)other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.A.Poly-morphemic wordsB.Free morphemesC.Bound morphemes教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分3.(单选题，1 分)Of the following sound combinations, only() is permissible according to the sequential rules in English.A.ilmbB.miblC.ilbmD.bmil教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：C 得0 分4.(单选题，1 分)Which two terms can best describe the following pairs of words: table-- tables, day+ break-- daybreak?A.inflection and derivationpound and derivationC.derivation and inflectionD.inflection and compound教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分5.(单选题，1 分)()is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A.morphologyB.morphemeC.grammarD.syntax教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分6.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following words are formed by blending?A.televisionB.bunchC.girlfriendD.smog教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分7.(单选题，1 分)The word UN is formed in the way of().A.acronymB.clippingC.InitialismD.blending教师批阅正确答案C，我的答案：A 得0 分8.(单选题，1 分)Language has been changing, but such changes are not so obvious at all linguistic aspects except that of().A.phonologyB.lexiconC.semanticsD.syntax教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分9.(单选题，1 分)There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is knownas a(n) ().A.derivational affixesB.free formC.free morphemeD.inflectional affixes教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分10.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is not a boundary to morpheme? ()A.-putB.-mitC.-tainD.-ceive教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分11.(单选题，1 分)()modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A.AffixesB.PrefixesC.SuffixesD.Roots教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分12.(单选题，1 分)The words that contain only one morpheme are called().A.free morphemeB.affixesC.bound momsD.roots教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：D 得0 分13.(单选题，1 分)Wife", which used to refer to any woman, stands for a married woman" in modem English. This phenomenon is known as().A.semantic narrowingB.semantic broadeningC.semantic shiftD.semantic elevation教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分14.(单选题，1 分)() are added to an existing form to create a word, which is a very common way in English.A.derivational affixesB.inflectional affixesC.stemsD.free morpheme教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分15.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is under the category of “open class”? ()A.ConjunctionsB.NounsC.PreparationD.determinants教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分16.(单选题，1 分)Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as().A.lexical wordsB.invariable wordsC.grammatical wordsD.function words教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：C 得0 分17.(单选题，1 分)The word “selfish” contains two().A.morphsB.phonemesC.allomorphsD.morphemes教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分18.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following ways of word-formation does not change the grammatical class of the stems?()A.coinageB.inflectionpoundD.derivation教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分19.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is an inflectional suffix?()A.-aryB.-ifyC.-istD.-ing正确答案D，得1 分20.(单选题，1 分)() is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A.MorphemeB.SyntaxC.MorphologyD.Grammar教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分21.(单选题，1 分)()is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.A.MorphemeB.RootC.WordD.Allomorph教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分22.(单选题，1 分)The number of morphemes in the word “girls” is().A.fourB.twoC.oneD.three教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分23.(单选题，1 分)() at the end of stems can modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.free morphemesD.roots教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分24.(单选题，1 分)Compound words consist of()morphemes.A.freeB.either bound or freeC.boundD.both bound and free正确答案A，得1 分25.(单选题，1 分)Derivational morpheme contrasts sharply with inflectional morpheme in that the former changes the() while the latter does not.A.speech soundB.formC.MeaningD.word class教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分26.(单选题，1 分)A prefix is an affix which appears().A.in the middle of the stemB.below the stemC.before the stemD.after the stem教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分27.(单选题，1 分)() is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.A.AffixB.SuffixC.StemD.Prefix教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分28.(单选题，1 分)The words that contain only one morpheme are called().A.bound morphemeB.free morphemeC.rootsD.Affixes教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：C 得0 分29.(单选题，1 分)The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is().A.morphemicB.prefixesC.semanticD.grammatical教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分30.(单选题，1 分)()refers to the way in which a particular verb changes for tense, person, or number.A.DerivationB.InflectionC.affixationD.Conjunction教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分31.(单选题，1 分)Those that affect the syntactic category and the meaning of the root as well are ().A.prefixesB.suffixesC.stemsD.affixes教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：D 得0 分32.(单选题，1 分)() is the smallest meaningful unit of language.A.PhonemeB.WordC.AllomorphD.Morpheme教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分33.(单选题，1 分)The number of the closed-class words is() and no new members are regularly added.A.fixedrgeC.smallD.limitless教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分34.(单选题，1 分)Words like pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles are()items.A.open-classB.variable wordsC.closed-classD.lexical words教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分35.(单选题，1 分)Bound morphemes do not include().A.wordsB.rootsD.suffixes教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分36.(单选题，1 分)Inflectional morphemes manifest the following meaning EXCEPT().A.caseB.numberC.toneD.tense教师批阅正确答案C，我的答案：D 得0 分37.(单选题，1 分)It is true that words may shift in meaning, i.e. semantic change. The semantic change of the word tail belongs to().A.widening of meaningB.meaning shiftC.narrowing of meaningD.loss of meaning教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分38.(单选题，1 分)The word “hospitalize” is an example of() in terms of word formation.poundB.inflectionC.clippingD.derivation教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分39.(单选题，1 分)The morpheme “vision” in the word “television” is a /an().A.inflectional morphemeB.bound formC.free morphemeD.bound morphine教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分40.(单选题，1 分)The compound word "bookstore"is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound().A.is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD.None of the above正确答案D，得1 分41.(单选题，1 分)The morpheme “ vision” in the common word “television” is a(n)().A.bound formB.bound morphemeC.free morphemeD.inflectional morpheme教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分42.(填空题，1 分)____is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. It is the minimum free form.正确答案：(1) Word43.(填空题，1 分)Words can be classified into variable words and invariable words. As for variable words, they may have ____changes. That is, the same word my have different grammatical forms but part of the word remainsrelatively constant.inflective教师批阅得1 分正确答案：(1) inflective44.(填空题，1 分)Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ____and ____ root.正确答案：(1) affix(2) bound45.(填空题，1 分)A word formed by derivation is called a____and a word formed by compounding is called a____.正确答案：(1) derivative(2) compound46.(填空题，1 分)According to Leonard Bloomfield, word should be treated as the minimum ____.morpheme教师批阅得0 分正确答案：(1) conjunction47.(填空题，1 分)Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by。
《语言学》前三章部分答案
Chapter I IntroductionIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventionsand the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2：PhonologyIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; itis concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speakinga language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.Chapter 3：MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivationalaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu-lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by the mselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.。
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Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfilm e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + film b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results o pposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1)-s, the third person singular, present simple tense(2)-ed, the past tense(3) has –ed, the present perfect(4) are+v-ing, the plural form; the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(1) go, goes, going, gone (inflection)go- the root formgo+es, simple present, 3rd person singulargo+ing, present participlegone, past participle(2) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)dis-, prefix (added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal-y, suffix (added after the verbs to form nouns) denoting a state or an action or its result-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing that perform a specified action or activity-able, an adjective suffix added to verbs meaning able to be-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of –able, meaning having the quality as in manageability（可处理性）and suitability（合适性）.(3) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’ (a mixture of inflection or derivation)Derivation: invent+-orInflection: inventor’s, inventors’ indicating possessive case(4) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)-cy, added to the nouns ending with “t” to form another noun denoting a state governed in such a way.-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaning related to or in resemblance with…-ize, a suffix added to the noun to form verbs denoting the conversion, transforming.6. The following sentences contain both derivational andinflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)。