TheTransformation in Translation
_中国科技翻译_2014年总目录_
………………………………………………………………………… LIU Yuanfu，WANG Xi and CAO Xin 3 （ 1） Mistranslations in Translating Technical Terms and the Eliminating Strategies …………………… YANG Xianming 3 （ 5） Translationese in EST Translation： Its Manifestations and Correspondent Solutions ……………… LIANG Chunmei 3 （ 9） Text-intentionality and Sci-Tech Translation ………………………………………………………… LIU Yingping 3 （ 13） Understanding the Concept“Image-metaphor and Analogy”： Essential Know-hows for TCM’s English Translation
transformation
• “Coming! ” Away she skimmed over the lawn, up the path, up the steps, across the veranda, and into the porch.
• “来啦！”她转身蹦着跳着地跑了，越过草 地，跑上小径，跨上台阶，穿过凉台，进 了门廊。
an "of + abstract noun" construction serving as the predicative of the original sentence
• The matter is of no significance. • 这事无关紧要。
practice
Some abstract nouns indicating qualities or characteristics of a person or a thing form a subject-predicate relation • We are deeply convinced of the correctness of this policy and firmly determined to pursue it. • 我们深信这一政策是正确的，并有坚定的 信心继续奉行这一政策。
• 他久仰班纳特太太几个小姐的年轻 美貌，很希望见见他们。
a verb-object or subject-predicate relation with possessive pronoun • On account of his long delay, he started in a flying run down the lane westward. • 因为他己经耽搁了许久了，所以现 在飞跑着往里面的小路上追去。 《德伯家的苔丝》
英语翻译转换法
Part of speech conversion
要点一
Noun verb conversion
conversion method • The advantages, disadvantages, and
improvement directions of translation conversion method
01
Overview of Translation Conversion Method
Adjusting presence structure
Modifying presence structure to accommodate voice changes, such as rearranging phrases or clauses
Tense transition
Shifting tense
Inserting
appropriate
connections (e.g., connections,
adapters)
to
clarify
relationships between ideas
and enhance coherence
Voice conversion
Active to passive
Using temporary markers
Inserting words or phrases that indicate time (e.g., "yesterday," "in the future") to clarify tense usage
英语翻译中跨文化视角转换及翻译技巧
英语翻译中跨文化视角转换及翻译技巧【摘要】这篇文章将探讨跨文化翻译中的重要性和技巧。
在我们将介绍跨文化翻译的重要性，并说明本研究的背景和目的。
在我们将讨论文化差异对翻译的影响以及跨文化视角在翻译中的应用。
我们还将探讨翻译技巧与策略，以及语言表达的灵活运用和文化因素与翻译的互动。
在我们将强调跨文化视角转换的重要性，探讨翻译技巧对文化传播的影响，并提出未来研究方向。
通过本文的研究，读者将更好地理解和应用跨文化视角转换及翻译技巧，促进跨文化交流和理解。
【关键词】跨文化翻译、文化差异、跨文化视角、翻译技巧、语言表达、文化因素、文化传播、研究方向1. 引言1.1 跨文化翻译的重要性In today's globalized world, the importance of cross-cultural translation cannot be understated. As society becomes increasingly interconnected, the need for accurate and culturally sensitive translation services is more crucial than ever.Cross-cultural translation plays a vital role in bridging the gapbetween different languages and cultures, facilitating communication and understanding across borders.1.2 研究背景Cross-cultural translation is a rapidly growing field of study that investigates the complexities and challenges of conveying meanings across different cultures. The ability to accurately convey cultural nuances and subtleties in translation is essential for effective communication in a globalized world. The increasing globalization of communication and the growing demand for multicultural exchange have led to a heightened interest in cross-cultural translation.1.3 研究目的Through a comprehensive analysis of the application of cross-cultural perspectives in translation, we hope to provide insights into how translators can effectively navigate cultural nuances and ensure accurate and culturally sensitive translations. By exploring the strategies and techniques used in translation, we seek to highlight the importance of linguistic flexibility and cultural adaptability in achieving successful cross-cultural communication.2. 正文2.1 文化差异对翻译的影响文化差异对翻译的影响是一个非常重要的主题。
论英汉翻译中的中式英语.26
汉英翻译中的中式英语及其改善措施摘要：随着我国改革开放和全球经济一体化，我国与其他国家之间的交流与沟通越来越频繁。
英语已经发展为一门世界性语言，并且成为我国对外交流的主要工具；而翻译便成为必要的交流形式。
然而，在翻译过程中普遍存在“中式英语”的现象。
译者拘泥于原文字面，“对号入座”，使得译文生硬晦涩，不符合英语的习惯表达，并带有明显的汉语特征，因而不能被以英语为母语者所接受。
它的存在严重影响了翻译的质量以及我国的对外交流。
针对这一问题，本文对中式英语进行了较系统的研究，旨在给中国英语学习者一个借鉴，在翻译过程中尽量减少使用中式英语，提高汉英翻译的质量。
本文共分为五大部分，从三个方面对中式英语进行论述。
第一个方面从中式英语的定义入手，对中式英语进行了一个简单介绍，并分析了它的六种错误类型，通过大量例子，较详细的描述了汉英翻译中的中式英语的表现形式；第二个方面则利用对比分析指出其产生的根本原因，即中西思维模式的差异以及母语的干扰；第三个方面针对中式英语的产生原因及表现形式，提出了五大改善措施，以减少和避免汉英翻译中中式英语的现象。
关键词：中式英语；思维模式差异；母语的干扰Chinglish in Chinese-English Translation and Possible SolutionsAbstract: With China‟s reform and opening-up policy and economic globalization, Chinese people are communicating with foreign countries in every aspect. English has developed as a widely used language to fulfill international communication, and translation has become a necessary method. However, a phenomenon exists commonly in Chinese- English translation, that is, Chinglish. The translators just rigidly stick to original words, and their translations turn out to be obscure and not consistent with English habits or rules but with Chinese characteristics, which cannot be accepted by English native speakers. Consequently, Chinglish seriously affects the translation quality and our communication with the world, and the international status of our country.This paper is an attempt to study Chinglish in Chinese-English translation. It consists of three parts. Part one describes Chinglish with interlanguage and analyzes the basic causes of Chinglish that are thought pattern difference between Chinese and English and interference of mother tongue. From the aspects of six sorts of errors, part two demonstrates main manifestations of Chinglish in C-E translation with a large number of examples. Part three offers some possible solutions with an aim to reduce or evade Chinglish in Chinese-English translation to the largest extent.Key words: Chinglish; thought pattern difference; mother tongue interferenceTable of ContentsI. Introduction (1)II. Chinglish (1)A. Definition of Chinglish (1)B. Manifestations of Chinglish in Chinese-English Translation (2)1. Unnecessary Words (2)2. Rigid Translation (4)3. Misuse of Words (4)4. Incorrect Word Order (6)5. Incorrect Subject (7)6. Incorrect Negation (8)III. Basic Causes of Chinglish (9)A. Thought Patterns Differences (9)B. Mother Tongue Interference (11)IV. Possible Solutions to Chinglish in Chinese-English Translation (12)A. Knowing More about English Thought Patterns (12)B. Accumulating Chinglish Examples (13)C. Doing More Translation Practice (14)D. Adapting good ways in using dictionaries (14)E. Watching more English movies and TV drama programs (15)V. Conclusion (15)I. IntroductionSince English has developed as an international language, study on various English versions on the linguistics, culture and cognition has become an important subject in the international language study field.Scholars home and abroad have been devoting themselves to studying Chinglish for years. Li Wenzhong distinguished Chinglish from Chinese English. He thought that Chinese English was not a hypothesis but an objective phenomenon with expansive prospect and study value, while Chinese English was distorted English and would be gradually reduced or eliminated along with the wide use of English and Chinese English learners‟. On the basis of interlanguage, both Chinese English and Chinglish were interlanguage variations produced by Chinese and affected by Chinese culture, and they were inevitable. There are two causes of Chinglish. First, the misunderstanding of the original and for the second was being not familiar with English characteristics and adopting Chinese collocations and structures. Joan Pinkham, an American professional translator, systematically classified Chinglish manifestations and corrected them with specific analysis.The author of this paper agrees that Chinglish is objective and unavoidable for Chinese English learners but needs improvement. This paper studies Chinglish in Chinese-English translation, discussing its definition, causes and solutions with a large number of examples.II. ChinglishChinglish has existed for a long history, even since Chinese began to study and use English. In the early 1980s, some foreign experts pointed out that some phrases or structures in some published Chinese magazines and newspapers did not conform to Standard English actually. Because it manifests Chinese feature, they called this kind of English “Chinglish” (Ma Xuehong 79).A. Definition of ChinglishChinglish is defined by Joan Pinkham who is an American language expert in her book The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish: “Chinglish, of course, is that misshapen, neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as …English with Chinese characteristics”. It does not conform to Standard English and cannot be understood or accepted by English native speakers, so it is playing a negative role in communicating with English people.In the strict sense, Chinglish is the interlanguage of Chinese learners between Chinese and English. Two of the characteristics of interlanguage are cited: (Pinkham 32) (1)It is dynamic, and full of errors, and is in the process of constant change towards astandard target language system.(2)The learner‟s competence is transitional. It is subject to constant revision, passes through a number of stages, and forms the “interlanguage continuum”.Another feature is fossilization which is defined as a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Being Chinese, we generally cannot reach the same level of competence as English natives. Our “final state”grammar is not standard English grammar. Thus, certain rules and items “fossilize”. Typical errors are “he have…”and “she go to school yesterday”, etc.According to the definitions of Chinglish and interlanguage and the characteristics of interlanguage,a conclusion can be drawn that Chinglish is an interlanguage of Chinese learners of English, and is neither Chinese nor English but stands between them.B. Manifestations of Chinglish in Chinese-English TranslationIt has been discussed in chapter one that thought is the basis of language, so the thought pattern difference will affect the transformation of the languages. Translation is a language activity that reexpresses the thought of language by another language accurately and entirely. In this sense, translation should not be merely viewed as the transformation of languages, but also the transformation of thought patterns. Besides, the structure difference between the two languages will also affect the translation. When translating, many Chinese English learners only pay attention to the language replacement, neglecting the differences of thought patterns and structures. Consequently, Chinglish appears. For a clearer cognition of this phenomenon, this chapter classifies it to six sorts of errors that are rigid translation, unnecessary words, and misuse of words, incorrect word order, incorrect subject and incorrect negation.1. Unnecessary WordsA sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentence. It is said that any words which perform no function in the sentence—that is, which add nothing to the meaning—should be edited out.However, almost every text translated from Chinese into English contains unnecessary words. Namely, unnecessary words appear in a large number of phrases and sentences. Unnecessary words are thehallmark of Chinglish. Let‟s see the following examples.(1) 确保中美两国之间紧密的合作关系。
汉英翻译中意合与形合的转换
汉英翻译中意合与形合的转换【摘要】In the field of translation, the conversion between meaning-based translation and form-based translation plays a crucial role in ensuring the accuracy and fluency of translated texts. This article explores the importance of converting between meaning-based and form-based translation in Chinese-English translation. It discusses the differences between these two approaches, provides strategies for converting between them, analyzes case studies to illustrate effective conversion strategies, and explores the significance of employing these strategies in cross-cultural communication. By focusing on the conversion between meaning-based and form-based translation, translators can enhance the quality of their translations and achieve better communication outcomes. It is essential for practitioners to pay attention to this conversion in their translation practice to ensure the effectiveness and appropriateness of their translations.【关键词】汉英翻译、意合、形合、转换、翻译质量、跨文化交流、策略、案例分析、实践、重要性、意义。
英语翻译的方法
英语翻译的方法英语翻译是将一种语言的信息转化为另一种语言的过程。
翻译不仅仅是简单地转译单词和句子，还需要考虑词语的含义、语法结构、上下文以及文化背景等因素。
下面将介绍一些常用的英语翻译方法。
1. 直译法（Literal Translation）：直译法是将原文逐字逐句地翻译成目标语言，不考虑语法和语言特点。
这种方法简单直接，但可能导致翻译不符合目标语言的表达习惯和语法规则。
2. 逐句翻译法（Sentence-by-Sentence Translation）：逐句翻译法是按照原文的句子顺序逐句翻译。
这种方法可以保持原文的结构和顺序，但可能会忽略上下文的语境和顺序。
3. 意译法（Transliteration）：意译法是将原文所表达的意思翻译成与目标语言的表达方式最接近的词汇和句子。
这种方法更注重词语的意义和表达方式，可以更好地传达原文的意思，但可能会损失原文的细节和形式。
4. 适应法（Adaptation）：适应法是根据目标语言的语法和表达习惯来调整原文的翻译。
这种方法可以使翻译更符合目标语言的表达规范，但也可能改变原文的结构和意义。
5. 文化转化法（Cultural Transformation）：文化转化法是将原文的文化背景和特点转化成目标语言所对应的文化背景和特点。
这种方法更注重传达原文的文化内涵，但也需要对两种文化有深入的了解。
6. 修饰法（Modifiers）：修饰法是通过添加修饰词或从句来翻译原文，以更准确地传达原文的意思。
这种方法可以充分利用目标语言的语法和语言特点，并且在翻译中添加适当的修饰可以更好地表达原文的细节和含义。
7. 重组法（Recombination）：重组法是将原文的句子重组成不同的语序和结构，以符合目标语言的表达方式。
这种方法可以提高翻译的流畅性和可理解性，但需要保持原文的意义不变。
总之，英语翻译需要根据原文的特点和目标语言的表达习惯选择不同的翻译方法。
在翻译过程中，译者还需要注重语法和语言的准确性，并结合上下文和文化背景进行翻译，以保证翻译的质量和准确性。
本科生毕业论文自我评价范文（通用6篇）
本科生毕业论文自我评价范文（通用6篇）本科生自我评价范文篇1在回顾走过的这三年，发现自己在许多方面有了进步，同时许多方面也有待改进。
在学习上，脑子里持着进入大学后好好放松从重压下解放出来的思想，于是忽略了学习。
没有高中时候的主动性和积极性。
每次临近期末考，考前一周临时抱下佛脚，算是顺利通过。
但是自从吸取几次大学英语四级失败的惨痛教训之后，我发现在大学不学习是不行的。
必须努力地充实自己，花精力花时间在课外阅读上，提高自己的专业水平，开阔视野。
在课堂上，虽然不必要像高中那会那样全神贯注，但也不能经常走神，思想开小差。
在这一点上，我自认做的不好。
时常会被乏味的课堂气氛弄的困意大发。
作为营销专业的学生，必须增加自己的阅读量，开阔视野。
我坚信任何一个人的成功都不是偶然，事前必然经历过许许多多的努力，所以想在毕业之后收获更多，在大学期间就要付出更多!在思想道德上，一直追求人格的升华，注重自己的品行。
我崇拜有巨大人格魅力的人，并一直希望自己也能做到。
我自认为有良好的道德修养，有坚定的政治方向，热爱集体热爱人民热爱党热爱祖国，以务实求真的态度参与许多公益活动。
在生活上，崇尚朴实质朴的生活作风。
在大学期间，养成了良好的生活习惯。
比如从来没有无故夜不归宿。
平时比较平易近人，对人态度友好，与同学和朋友的相处融洽。
我一直相信，生活源于坚韧的信念。
只有具备坚强的意志，才能面对生活中出现的各种困难和挫折。
因此，个人的生活独立性和自理能力比较强，很多事情都力求自己解决，尽量不让别人帮忙。
一直相信人不是完美的，每个人必定有各自的缺点和优点，重要的是该怎么去正视自己的优缺点。
为人随和，诚实，性格坚毅是我的优点。
只要决定去做一件事，必定会认真的去完成。
从来都不喜欢和一些虚伪的人交往，虽然不能改变别人，但可以时常勉励自己坚持原则，为人诚实守信。
本科生毕业论文自我评价范文篇2In the study, the strict demands on themselves, with Kaoyan goal and knowledge of the strong pursuit of assiduous, studious, correct attitude, a clear goal, basically a solid grasp of a number of professional knowledge and skills, to the theory with practice;Professional knowledge of learning, but also pay attention to the expansion of knowledge in various fields, a wide range of subjects under the knowledge of other subjects, thereby enhancing their ideological and cultural quality, to become a good college students and make unremitting efforts. Through my hard work, in the last phase of the hospital was awarded a first-class scholarships, and was listed as the object of life.At work, a serious and responsible, have a better organizational capacity, served as the sub-League Committee Propaganda Department during the work, work hardship, hard working, strong sense of responsibility, many times, with the Minister of the outstanding completion of the CYL's propaganda activities and the Department of Various promotional activities. I combined their own expertise, positive for the Department of Zengguang, the Communist Youth League was held in the poster production contest and hand-copied many times in the award-winning newspaper. As a result of active efforts, outstanding achievements, was named the hospital "outstanding Communist Youth League", by the teachers and students alike.In life, to develop a good living habits, life is full and structured, a strict attitude towards life and good attitude to life and life style, warm and generous, honest and trustworthy, helpful, have their own good accident principle, can And students live in harmony; actively participate in various extracurricularactivities, which continue to enrich their own experience, has been in the winter social practice was named "advanced individual" title, and in the cultural and sports activities in many awards.As a 20xx college graduate, I understand my shortcomings and advantages, four years I set a correct outlook on life, values and world view, but more I learned a lot of books can not learn the knowledge, cultivation and ability. I can use enthusiasm and vitality, self-confidence and knowledge to overcome the difficulties of the post-graduate stage, and constantly realize the value of life and the pursuit of the goal, to achieve the future beautiful life!本科生毕业论文自我评价范文篇3Good morning, all appraiser committee members. I am Deng Ting and mysupervisor is Mrs Xu. With her constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. My deepest and heartfelt gratitude goes to Mrs. Xu. At the same time thank these teachers for participating in our oral defense in spite of being very busy. Now, it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.The title of my paper is On Translation of Loanwords . I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. We all know that loanwords also refer to the borrowing words, and it is a product of language contact. Since the 1980s, with the increasingly frequent contact and communications between China and the rest of the world, a lot of new things and ideas are introduced into China which is bound to cause loanwords from English into Chinese with unprecedented scope and speed. Loanwords involves in every field of social life in the new period,appearing new borrowing climax in the history. Which make the study on translation of loanwords be very necessary.Next, it is an outline of my paper. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into five parts. Part one presents an introduction for some scho lars’ researches on translation of loanwords from different angles. Part two provides an overview of loanwords including the definition of loan words, classification of loanwords, booming periods of loanwords from English to Chinese and the significance of loanwords translation. Part three present existing problems on translation ofloanwords: fake transliterated words may cause semantic fuzzy; many versions of translation for one single word often Lead to confusion in language use; some peculiar forms of loanwords cause obscure semantic expression; unconventionally formed loanwords will corrupt Chinese normalization. Part four on the basis of previous analysis we explore the loanword translation skills respectively fromprinciples and translation methods. Part five draws some conclusions that translation skills is necessary for us to achieve good translation. In addition, we mustcontinuously study and explore in all kinds of translation practices.Hope that it will help promote the reasonability and normative of the introductions of loanwords in future cultural exchanges.OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.本科生毕业论文自我评价范文篇4一篇优秀的论文不是写出来的，而是修改出来的，这需要的是耐心，还要用心。
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4.Sentence parts 句子语法成分
• Textbook P89 转句译法 • word------Sentence/clause • Textbook P95缩句译法 • sentence------word/phrase/
张仲景在长沙任太守时，一日，他来到一个小镇， 只见一家客店门外围着许多人，吵吵嚷嚷。原来昨 夜住店的一个顾客银子被人偷了，正闹着要店主赔。
6.Ways of expression 表达方式
• Textbook 具体译法 P44， 抽象译法P52；
合词译法P63； 省词译法（reduction 或 simplification )P61， 增词译法 (amplification或addition) P58; P70: 换形译 法； • Textbook P85 断句译法，P92 合句译法; Textbook P98 转态译法；Textbook P101 正反译法
C-E: Implicitation-explicitation
• 这屯子里还是老孙头能干，又会赶车，又会骑马，摔跤也
• •
摔得漂亮，叭哒一声，掉下地来，又响亮又干脆。 可解读为：（在）这屯子里还是（数）老孙头（最）能干， （因为他）又会赶车，又会骑马，（而且他）摔跤（时） 也摔得漂亮，（因为他会）叭哒一声，掉下地来，（他的 声音）又响亮（他的动作）又干脆。 In the village, anyway it is Lao Sun, the old chap, who is most deservedly a dab hand, for he can not only drive his horse-drawn cart, but ride on the horse, and even when he falls off the horseback, he is very much skilful: he would “click” to the ground with so clear a sound and so neat a move.
2.Concept and ideas 概念，观点
• Textbook P75 褒贬译法 • Polititian • statesman
3.Objects and images 形象，意象
• • • • • • • •
Image transformation 意象转换 Dragon ----- tiger 一着被蛇咬三年怕井绳 A burnt child dreads fire. 王婆卖瓜 Every potter praises his own pot. 不做亏心事，不怕鬼叫门 A good conscience is a soft pillow. 狗肚子盛不得四两油 Little pot is soon hot. 引狼入室 set the fox to keep the geese 近水楼台 A baker’s wife may bite of a bun/ a brewer’s wife may bite of a tun.
• One day, Zhang, the then prefect of Changsha, Hunan Province,
went to a small town and saw a large crowd of people gathering at the front of a hotel, making a lot of noise. He went up and found out that a guest in the hotel who lost his money at night was asking the host to make up the loss for him.
1.Parts of speech 词性
• Textbook P66: 转性译法 • 春天, 鲜花盛开，校园里空气中弥漫着芳香，沁人心脾，
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• 在学习的过程中，学生独立思考对学习是绝对必要的。
分外令人舒畅。 译文： The air of the campus perfumed by spring flowers in full bloom gave you a feeling of exceptionally refreshing comfort. (v. – n.)
v. –prep.
• 我们要站在历史的高度，用战略的眼光来
审视和处理两国关系。 • 译文： • We should, from a historical height and in a strategic perspective, view and handle the bilateral relations of ours. (v. –prep.)
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V-adj.
• 全面规划, 加强领导, 这就是我们的方针。(v. -adj.) • 译文： • Comprehensive planning and more effective leadership---that is our
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policy. 在城镇强制推行以养老、失业、医疗为重点的社会保险。(v. – adj.) 译文： Social welfare insurance, particularly old-age, unemployment and medical insurance, must be made mandatory in urban areas. 你的好意我明白。 I’m sensible of your good intent. 他实话实说的风格容易引起争议。 His truth telling style is provocative of controversy.
• Zhang Zhongjing was once a magistrate in Changsha. One day, he
went to a small town and saw a large crowd of people gathered at the front of a hotel,… • Zhang was once a a prefect of Changsha, Hunan Province. One day, in a small town,he saw a large crowd of people gathering in the front of a hotel, making a lot of noise…
N-adj.
• 和平的环境是一个国家、一个地区以至全球发展
• • • • •
的重要前提。 precondition、prerequisite、premise A peaceful environment is indispensable for national, regional, and even global development. (n. – adj.) 大家都应有环保意识，不要乱扔垃圾。(n. – adj.) 译文： Everyone of us should be environment-conscious, and refrain from litterin
TheTransformation in Translation
Li Qingxue
• 翻译能力=双语能力+转换能力+其他能力 • （基础能力） （核心能力） （辅助） • Transfer competence • 语法系统与词汇系统 • 连淑能：《英汉对比研究》 • 周志培：《汉英对比与翻译中的转换》，
adv. –adj
• 儿子还没有消息，老两口熬了一夜，只是
很不安地打了几个盹。 • 译文： • Having received no message from their son, the old couple stayed all night, with a couple of brief, restless sleeps. (adv. –adj.)
2003，华东理工大学出版社。
What to transform
• 1.Parts of speech 词性 • 2.Concept and ideas 概念，观点 • 3.Objects and images 形象，意象 • 4.Sentence parts 句子语法成分 • 5.Sentence layouts 句子整个布局 • 6.Ways of expression 表达方式
the thief was from among the people inside because there was no trace of a thief on the wall who might have come over a wall from the outside after the rain in the night.
N-adv.
• 为推动中国经济走向世界，进一步扩大对外开放，我们采
• •
取了许多重大举措。 We have adopted many major measures to enable China to join the world economically and open the country still wider to the outside. (n. –adv.) 他们宣称，这项设计除了技术先进以外，在经济上也是合 算的。(n. –adv.) 译文： They asserted that, in addition to being technically advanced, the design was economically justified.
N-v
• 参与亚太经合组织对中国的影响是多方面的。 • 你认为哪些症状标志了文化休克的特征？ • 自他生病以来，他的姐姐就像个母亲一样无微不至地照顾
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