外文翻译---混凝土,钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土
建筑专业土木工程词汇及术语 中英文对照
建筑专业笔记整理大全-结构工程常用词汇-土木工程常用英语术语结构工程常用词汇混凝土：concrete钢筋：reinforcing steel bar钢筋混凝土：reinforced concrete（RC)钢筋混凝土结构：reinforced concrete structure板式楼梯：cranked slab stairs刚度：rigidity徐变：creep水泥：cement钢筋保护层:cover to reinforcement梁:beam柱：column板：slab剪力墙:shear wall基础：foundation剪力:shear剪切变形:shear deformation剪切模量：shear modulus拉力：tension压力：pressure延伸率：percentage of elongation位移：displacement应力：stress应变：strain应力集中：concentration of stresses应力松弛：stress relaxation应力图：stress diagram应力应变曲线：stress—strain curve应力状态：state of stress钢丝:steel wire箍筋：hoop reinforcement箍筋间距：stirrup spacing加载:loading抗压强度：compressive strength抗弯强度：bending strength抗扭强度:torsional strength抗拉强度：tensile strength裂缝：crack屈服：yield屈服点:yield point屈服荷载：yield load屈服极限:limit of yielding屈服强度：yield strength屈服强度下限：lower limit of yield荷载：load横截面：cross section承载力:bearing capacity承重结构：bearing structure弹性模量：elastic modulus预应力钢筋混凝土：prestressed reinforced concrete预应力钢筋：prestressed reinforcement预应力损失：loss of prestress预制板:precast slab现浇钢筋混凝土结构：cast—in—place reinforced concrete 双向配筋：two—way reinforcement主梁：main beam次梁：secondary beam弯矩：moment悬臂梁：cantilever beam延性：ductileity受弯构件:member in bending受拉区：tensile region受压区：compressive region塑性：plasticity轴向压力：axial pressure轴向拉力：axial tension吊车梁:crane beam可靠性：reliability粘结力：cohesive force外力:external force弯起钢筋：bent-up bar弯曲破坏：bending failure屋架：roof truss素混凝土：non-reinforced concrete无梁楼盖：flat slab配筋率：reinforcement ratio配箍率：stirrup ratio泊松比：Poisson’s ratio偏心受拉：eccentric tension偏心受压:eccentric compression偏心距：eccentric distance疲劳强度：fatigue strength偏心荷载：eccentric load跨度:span跨高比：span—to-depth ratio跨中荷载：midspan load框架结构:frame structure集中荷载:concentrated load分布荷载：distribution load分布钢筋：distribution steel挠度：deflection设计荷载：design load设计强度：design strength构造:construction简支梁：simple beam截面面积：area of section浇注：pouring浇注混凝土：concreting钢筋搭接：bar splicing刚架：rigid frame脆性：brittleness脆性破坏：brittle failure土木工程常用英语术语第一节一般术语1. 工程结构building and civil engineering structures房屋建筑和土木工程的建筑物、构筑物及其相关组成部分的总称。
预应力混凝土Prestressed-Concrete大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：预应力混凝土文献、资料英文题目：Prestressed Concrete文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译外文出处：The Concrete structure附件：1、外文原文；2、外文资料翻译译文。
1、外文资料原文Prestressed ConcreteConcrete is strong in compression, but weak in tension: Its tensile strength varies from 8 to 14 percent of its compressive strength. Due tosuch a Iow tensile capacity, fiexural cracks develop at early stages ofloading. In order to reduce or prevent such cracks from developing, aconcentric or eccentric force is imposed in the longitudinal direction of the structural element. This force prevents the cracks from developing by eliminating or considerably reducing the tensile stresses at thecritical midspan and support sections at service load, thereby raising the bending, shear, and torsional capacities of the sections. The sections are then able to behave elastically, and almost the full capacity of the concrete in compression can be efficiently utilized across the entire depth of the concrete sections when all loads act on the structure.Such an imposed longitudinal force is called a prestressing force,i.e., a compressive force that prestresses the sections along the span ofthe structural elementprior to the application of the transverse gravitydead and live loads or transient horizontal live loads. The type ofprestressing force involved, together with its magnitude, are determined mainly on the basis of the type of system to be constructed and the span length and slenderness desired.~ Since the prestressing force is applied longitudinally along or parallel to the axis of the member, the prestressing principle involved is commonly known as linear prestressing.Circular prestressing, used in liquid containment tanks, pipes,and pressure reactor vessels, essentially follows the same basic principles as does linear prestressing. The circumferential hoop, or "hugging" stress on the cylindrical or spherical structure, neutralizes the tensile stresses at the outer fibers of the curvilinear surface caused by the internal contained pressure.Figure 1.2.1 illustrates, in a basic fashion, the prestressing action in both types of structural systems and the resulting stress response. In(a), the individual concrete blocks act together as a beam due to the large compressive prestressing force P. Although it might appear that the blocks will slip and vertically simulate shear slip failure, in fact they will not because of the longitudinal force P. Similarly, the wooden staves in (c) might appear to be capable of separating as a result of the high internal radial pressure exerted on them. But again, because of the compressive prestress imposed by the metal bands as a form of circular prestressing, they will remain in place.From the preceding discussion, it is plain that permanent stresses in the prestressed structural member are created before the full dead and live loads are applied in order to eliminate or considerably reduce the net tensile stresses caused by these loads. With reinforced concrete,it is assumed that the tensile strength of the concrete is negligible and disregarded. This is because the tensile forces resulting from the bending moments are resisted bythe bond created in the reinforcement process. Cracking and deflection are therefore essentially irrecoverable in reinforced concrete once the member has reached its limit state at service load.The reinforcement in the reinforced concrete member does not exert any force of its own on the member, contrary to the action of prestressing steel. The steel required to produce the prestressing force in the prestressed member actively preloads the member, permitting a relatively high controlled recovery of cracking and deflection. Once the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, the prestressed member starts to act like a reinforced concrete element.Prestressed members are shallower in depth than their reinforced concrete counterparts for the same span and loading conditions. In general, the depth of a prestressed concrete member is usually about 65 to 80 percent of the depth of the equivalent reinforced concrete member. Hence, the prestressed member requires less concrete, and,about 20 to 35 percent of the amount of reinforcement. Unfortunately, this saving in material weight is balanced by the higher cost of the higher quality materials needed in prestressing. Also, regardless of the system used, prestressing operations themselves result in an added cost: Formwork is more complex, since the geometry of prestressed sections is usually composed of. flanged sections with thin-webs.In spite of these additional costs, if a large enough number of precast units are manufactured, the difference between at least the initial costs of prestressed and reinforced concrete systems is usually not very large.~ And the indirect long-term savings are quite substantial, because less maintenance is needed; a longer working life is possible due to better quality control of the concrete, and lighter foundations are achieved due to the smaller cumulative weight of the superstructure.Once the beam span of reinforced concrete exceeds 70 to 90 feet (21.3 to 27.4m), the dead weight of the beam becomes excessive, resulting in heavier members and, consequently, greater long-term deflection and cracking. Thus, for larger spans, prestressed concrete becomes mandatory since arches are expensive to construct and do not perform as well due to the severe long-term shrinkage and creep they undergo.~ Very large spans such as segmental bridges or cable-stayed bridges can only be constructed through the use of prestressing.Prestressd concrete is not a new concept, dating back to 1872, when P. H. Jackson, an engineer from California, patented a prestressing system that used a tie rod to construct beams or arches from individual blocks [see Figure 1.2.1 (a)]. After a long lapse of time during which little progress was made because of the unavailability of high-strength steel to overcome prestress losses, R. E. Dill of Alexandria, Nebraska, recognized the effect of the shrinkage and creep (transverse material flow) of concrete on the loss of prestress. He subsequently developed the idea that successive post-tensioning of unbonded rods would compensate for the time-dependent loss of stress in the rods due to the decrease in the length of the member because of creep and shrinkage. In the early 1920s,W. H. Hewett of Minneapolis developed the principles of circular prestressing. He hoop-stressed horizontal reinforcement around walls of concrete tanks through the use of turnbuckles to prevent cracking due to internalliquid pressure, thereby achieving watertightness. Thereafter, prestressing of tanks and pipes developed at an accelerated pace in the United States, with thousands of tanks for water, liquid, and gas storage built and much mileage of prestressed pressure pipe laid in the two to three decades that followed.Linear prestressing continued to develop in Europe and in France, in particular through the ingenuity of Eugene Freyssinet, who proposed in 1926--1928 methods to overcome prestress losses through the use of high-strength and high-ductility steels. In 1940, he introduced thenow well-known and well-accepted Freyssinet system.P. W. Abeles of England introduced and developed the concept of partial prestressing between the 1930s and 1960s. F. Leonhardt of Germany, V. Mikhailov of Russia, and T. Y. Lin of the United States also contributed a great deal to the art and science of the design of prestressed concrete. Lin's load-balancing method deserves particular mention in this regard, as it considerably simplified the design process, particularly in continuous structures. These twentieth-century developments have led to the extensive use of prestressing throughoutthe world, and in the United States in particular.Today, prestressed concrete is used in buildings, underground structures, TV towers, floating storage and offshore structures, power stations, nuclear reactor vessels, and numerous types of bridge systems including segn~ental and cable-stayed bridges, they demonstrate the versatility of the prestressing concept and its all-encompassing application. The success in the development and construction of all these structures has been due in no small measures to the advances in the technology of materials, particularly prestressing steel, and the accumulated knowledge in estimating the short-and long-term losses in the prestressing forces.~2、外文资料翻译译文预应力混凝土混凝土的力学特性是抗压不抗拉：它的抗拉强度是抗压强度的8％一14％。
外文翻译---混凝土,钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土
Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, andPrestressedConcreteConcrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden in forms of the shape and dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse aggregate.Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles into a solid mass. Additional water, over and above that needed for this chemical reaction, is necessary to give the mixture workability that enables it to fill the forms and surround the embedded reinforcing steel prior to hardening. Concretes with a wide range of properties can be obtained by appropriates adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials.Special cements,special aggregates, and special curing methods permit an even wider variety of properties to be obtained.These properties depend to a very substantial degree on the proportions of the mix, on the thoroughness with which the various constituents are intermixed, and on the conditions of humidity and temperature in which the mix is maintained from the moment it is placed in the forms of humidity and hardened. The process of controlling conditions after placement is known as curing.To protect against the unintentional production of substandard concrete, a high degree of skillful control and supervision is necessary throughout the process,from the proportioning by weight of the individual components, trough mixing and placing, until the completion of curing.The factors that make concrete a universal building material are so pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at present, for thousands of years, starting with lime mortars from 12,000 to 600 B.C. in Crete, Cyprus, Greece, and the Middle East. The facility with which , while plastic, it can be deposited and made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages.Most of the constituent materials,with the exception of cement and additives,are usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones,is high,which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as in natural stones,it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its economical use in structural members that ate subject to tension either entirely or over part of their cross sections.To offset this limitation,it was found possible,in the second half of thenineteenth century,to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is places in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely surrounded by the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member.The resulting combination of two materials,known as reinforced concrete,combines many of the advantages of each:the relatively low cost,good weather and fire resistance, good compressive strength, and excellent formability of concrete and the high tensile strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel.It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings,bridges,dams, tanks, reservoirs, and a host of other structures.In more recent times, it has been found possible to produce steels, at relatively low cost, whose yield strength is 3 to 4 times and more that of ordinary reinforcing steels.Likewise,it is possible to produce concrete4to5times as strong in compression as the more ordinary concrete. These high-strength materials offer many advantages, including smaller member cross sections, reduced dead load, and longer spans. However, there are limits to the strengths of the constituent materials beyond which certain problems arise.To be sure,the strength of such a member would increase roughly in proportion to those of the materials. However, the high strains that result from the high stresses that would otherwise be permissible would lead to large deformations and consequently large deflections of such member under ordinary loading conditions.Equally important,the large strains in such high-strength reinforcing steel would induce large cracks in the surrounding low tensile strength concrete, cracks that would not only be unsightly but that could significantly reduce the durability of the structure.This limits the useful yield strength of high-strength reinforcing steel to 80 ksi according to many codes and specifications; 60 ksi steel is most commonly used.A special way has been found, however, to use steels and concrete of very high strength in combination. This type of construction is known as prestressed concrete. The steel,in the form of wires,strands,or bars, is embedded in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by compressive stresses in the concrete after hardening,Because of this precompression,the concrete in a flexural member will crack on the tension side at a much larger load than when not so precompressed. Prestressing greatly reduces both the deflections and the tensile cracks at ordinaryloads in such structures, and thereby enables these high-strength materials to be used effectively. Prestressed concrete has extended, to a very significant extent, the range of spans of structural concrete and the types of structures for which it is suited.混凝土，钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土混凝土是一种经过水泥，沙子和砂砾或其他材料聚合得到经过细致配比的混合物，在液体变硬使材料石化后可以得到理想的形状和结构尺寸。
建筑专业土木工程词汇及术语 中英文对照
工程英语结构工程常用词汇土木工程常用英语术语目录结构工程常用词汇1土木工程常用英语术语2第一节一般术语2第二节房屋建筑结构术语5第三节公路路线和铁路线路术语6第四节桥、涵洞和隧道术语7第五节水工期建筑物术语9第六节结构构件和部件术语11第七节地基和基础术语15第八节结构可靠性和设计方法术语15第九节结构上的作用、作用代表值和作用效应术语17第十节材料性能、构件承载能力和材料性能代表值术语21第十一节几何参数和常用量程术语23第十二节工程结构设计常用的物理学、数理统计、25结构工程常用词汇混凝土:concrete钢筋：reinforcing steel bar钢筋混凝土:reinforced concrete(RC）钢筋混凝土结构:reinforced concrete structure板式楼梯:cranked slab stairs刚度：rigidity徐变：creep水泥：cement钢筋保护层：cover to reinforcement 梁：beam柱：column板：slab剪力墙：shear wall基础：foundation剪力：shear剪切变形：shear deformation剪切模量:shear modulus拉力：tension压力：pressure延伸率:percentage of elongation位移：displacement应力：stress应变:strain应力集中：concentration of stresses 应力松弛：stress relaxation应力图：stress diagram应力应变曲线:stress-strain curve应力状态：state of stress钢丝：steel wire箍筋：hoop reinforcement箍筋间距：stirrup spacing加载:loading抗压强度：compressive strength抗弯强度：bending strength抗扭强度:torsional strength抗拉强度：tensile strength裂缝：crack屈服：yield屈服点：yield point 屈服荷载:yield load屈服极限：limit of yielding屈服强度：yield strength屈服强度下限：lower limit of yield荷载：load横截面：cross section承载力：bearing capacity承重结构:bearing structure弹性模量：elastic modulus预应力钢筋混凝土:prestressed reinforced concrete预应力钢筋：prestressed reinforcement 预应力损失:loss of prestress预制板:precast slab现浇钢筋混凝土结构：cast-in-place reinforced concrete双向配筋:two—way reinforcement主梁:main beam次梁：secondary beam弯矩：moment悬臂梁：cantilever beam延性:ductileity受弯构件:member in bending受拉区:tensile region受压区：compressive region塑性：plasticity轴向压力：axial pressure轴向拉力：axial tension吊车梁：crane beam可靠性:reliability粘结力：cohesive force外力：external force弯起钢筋:bent—up bar弯曲破坏：bending failure屋架：roof truss素混凝土：non—reinforced concrete无梁楼盖:flat slab配筋率：reinforcement ratio配箍率：stirrup ratio泊松比：Poisson’s ratio偏心受拉:eccentric tension偏心受压:eccentric compression 偏心距：eccentric distance疲劳强度：fatigue strength偏心荷载：eccentric load跨度：span跨高比：span-to—depth ratio跨中荷载：midspan load框架结构：frame structure集中荷载:concentrated load分布荷载：distribution load分布钢筋：distribution steel 挠度：deflection设计荷载:design load设计强度：design strength 构造:construction简支梁：simple beam截面面积：area of section 浇注：pouring浇注混凝土：concreting钢筋搭接:bar splicing刚架：rigid frame脆性:brittleness脆性破坏:brittle failure土木工程常用英语术语第一节一般术语1。
混凝土工程中英文(个人整理)
混凝土工程concrete works一、材料袋装水泥bagged cement散装水泥bulk cement砂sand骨料aggregate商品混凝土commercial concrete现浇混凝土concrete-in-situ预制混凝土precast concrete预埋件embedment（fit 安装）外加剂admixtures抗渗混凝土waterproofing concrete石场aggregate quarry垫块spacer二、施工机械及工具搅拌机mixer振动器vibrator电动振动器electrical vibrator振动棒vibrator bar抹子（steel wood）trowel磨光机glasser混凝土泵送机concrete pump橡胶圈rubber ring夹子clip混凝土运输车mixer truck自动搅拌站auto-batching plant输送机conveyor塔吊tower crane汽车式吊车motor crane铲子shovel水枪jetting water橡胶轮胎rubber tires布袋cloth-bags塑料水管plastic tubes喷水雾spray water fog三、构件及其他专业名称截面尺寸section size（section dimension）混凝土梁concrete girder简支梁simple supported beam挑梁cantilever beam悬挑板cantilevered slab檐板eaves board封口梁joint girder翻梁upstand beam楼板floor slab空调板AC board飘窗bay window（suspending window）振捣vibration串筒a chain of funnels混凝土施工缝concrete joint水灰比ratio of water and cement砂率sand ratio大体积混凝土large quantity of pouring混凝土配合比concrete mixture rate混凝土硬化hardening of concrete(in a hardening process 硬化中)规定时间regulated period质保文件quality assurance program设计强度design strength永久工程permanent works临时工程temporary works四、质量控制及检测不符合规格的non-standard有机物organic matters粘土clay含水率moisture content（water content）中心线central line安定性soundness （good soundness 优良的安定性）坍落度slump (the concrete with 18m m±20mm slump)混凝土养护concrete curing标养混凝土试件standard curing concrete test sample同条件混凝土试件field-cure specimen收缩shrinkage初凝时间initial setting time终凝时间final setting time成品保护finished product protection混凝土试件concrete cube偏心受压eccentric pressing保护层concrete cover孔洞hole裂缝crack蜂窝honeycomb五、句子1，Usually we control the cement within 2% 我们将水泥的误差控制在2%2，Are there any pipe clogging happened during the concreting?浇筑混凝土中有堵管现象吗？3，Will the pipe be worn out very fast？管道磨损很快吗？4，This embedment is fixed at 1500mm from the floor and 350mm from the left edge of the column. Would you measure the dimension by this meter?预埋件的位置在地面上1500mm，离柱边350mm。
桩基础、钢筋混凝土和钢筋混凝土结构-外文翻译
Piles, Reinforced Concreteand Reinforced Concrete StructuresPilesPiles are structural members of timber, concrete, and/or steel, used to transmit surface loads to lower levels in the soil mass. This may be by vertical distribution of the load along the pile shaft or a direct application of load to the lower stratum through the pile point. A vertical distribution of the load is made using a friction pile and a direct load application is made by a point, or end-bearing pile. This distinction of piles is purely one of convenience since all piles function as a combination of side resistance and point bearing except when the pile penetrates an extremely soft soil to a solid base.Piles are commonly used: (1) To carry the superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical and lateral loads may be involved. (2) To resist uplift, or overturning, forces as for basement mats below the water table or to support tower legs subjected to overturning. (3) To compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile volume displacement and driving vibrations. These piles may be later pulled. (4) To control settlements when spread footings or a mat is on a marginal soil or is underlain by a highly compressible stratum. (5) To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes of vibration and the natural frequency of the system. (6) As an additional safety factor beneath bridge abutments and/or piers, particularly if scour is a potential problem. (7) In offshore construction to transmit loads above the water surface through the water and into the underlying soil. This is a case of partially embedded piling subjected to vertical( and buckling) as well as lateral loads.Piles are sometimes used to control earth movements (as landslides). The reader should note that power poles and many outdoor sign poles may be considered as partially embedded piles subject to lateral loads. Vertical loads may not be significant, although buckling may require investigation for very tall members.A pile foundation is more expensive than spread footings and likely to be more expensive than a mat. In any case great care should be exercised in determing the soil properties at the site for the depth of possible interest so that it can be accurately determined that a pile foundation is needed and, if so, that neither an excessive number nor lengths are specified. A cost analysis should be made to determine whether a mat or piles, in particular the type (steel, concrete, etc.), are more economical. In those cases where piles are used to control the settlement at marginal soil sites, care should be taken to utilize both the existing ground and the piles in parallel so that a minimum number are required.Piles are inserted into the soil via a number of methods: (1) Driving with a steady succession of blows on the top of the pile using a pile hammer. This produces both considerable noise and vibrations which may be disallowed by local codes or environmental agencies and, of course, may damage adjacent property. (2) Driving using a vibratory device attached to the top of the pile. This is usually a relatively quiet method and driving vibrations may not be excessive. The method is more applicable in deposits with little cohesion. (3) Jacking the pile. This is more applicable for short stiff members. (4) Drilling a hole and either inserting a pileinto it or, more common, filling the cavity with concrete which produces a pile upon hardening. Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed a hardened mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel), air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction of the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforced concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients into suitable forms in which the plastic mass hardens. If the various ingredients are properly proportioned,the finished product becomes strong, durable, and ,in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members fo any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a beam, a wall, a slab, a foundation, a mass concrete dam, or an extention of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6in.in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power –driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50℉.It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental conditions. Such an array of parameters has to be considered because of the fact that reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.Reinforced Concrete StructuresReinforced concrete systems are composed of a variety of concrete structural elements that, when synthesized, produce a total system. The components can be broadly classified into: floor slabs, beams, columns, walls, and foundations.Floor Slabs Floor slabs are the main horizontal elements that transmit the moving live loads as well as the stationary dead loads to the vertical framing supports of a structure. They can be proportioned such that they act in one direction (one-way slabs) or proportioned so that they act in two perpendicular direction (two-way slabs).Beams Beams are the structural elements that transmit the loads from floor slabs to vertical supporting columns. They are normally cast monolithically with the slabs and are structurally reinforced on one face, the lower tension side, or both the top and bottom faces. As they are cast monolithically with the slab, they form a T-beam section for interior beams or an L beam at the building exterior, as seen in Fig.2.Columns The vertical elements support the structural floor system. They are compression members subjected in most cases to both bending and axial load, and are of major importance in the safety considerations of any structure. If a structural system is also composed of horizontal compression members, such members would be considered as beam-columns.Walls Walls are the vertical enclosures for building frames. They are not usually or necessarily made of concrete but of any material that aesthetically fulfills the form and functional needs of the structural system. Additionally, structural concrete walls are often necessary as foundation walls, stairwell walls, and shear walls that resist horizontal wind loads and earthquake-induced loads.Foundations Foundations are the structural concrete elements that transmit the weight of the superstructure to the supporting soil. They could be in many forms, the simplest being the isolated footing shown in Fig.2. It can be viewed as an inverted slab transmitting a distributed load from the soil to the column.桩基础、钢筋混凝土和钢筋混凝土结构桩基础桩是由木材、混凝土和（或）钢制成的结构构件，被用来把荷载传递到土体的较深处。
外文翻译中英文——预应力混凝土建筑
外文资料：Prestressed Concrete BuildingsPrestressed concrete has been widely and successfully applied to building construction of all types.Both precast pretensioned members and cast-tensioned structures are extensively employed,sometimes in competition with one another, most effectively in combination wit each other.Prestressed concrete offers great advantages for incorporation in a totalaspects of these, that is, structure plus other building. It is perhaps the “integrative”functions,which have made possible the present growth in use of prestressed concrete buildings.These advantages include the following:Structural strength; Structure rigidity;Durability;Mold ability,into desired forms and shapes;Fire resistance;Architectural treatment of surfaces;Sound insulation;Heat insulation; Economy; Availability, through use of local materials and labor to a high degree.Most of the above are also properties of conventionally reinforced concrete. Presrressing,however,makes the structural system more effective by enabling elimination of the technical of difficulty,e.g.,cracks that spoil the architectural treatment.Prestressing greatly enhance the structure efficiency and economy permitting longer spans and thinner elements.Above all,it gives to the architect-engineer a freedom for variation and an ability to control behavior under service conditions.Although prestressed concrete construction involves essentially the same consideration and practices as for all structures, a number of special points require emphasis or elaboration.The construction engineer is involved in design only to a limited extent. First,he muse be able to furnish advice to the architect and engineer on what can he done. Because of his specialized knowledge of techniques relating to prestressed concrete construction, he supplies a very needed service to the architect-engineer.Second, the construction engineer may be made contractually responsible for the working drawings;that is,the layout of tendons,anchorage details,etc.It is particularly important that he gives careful attention to the mild steel and concrete details to ensure these are compatible with his presressing details.Third, the construction engineer is concerned with temporary stresses, stresses at release, stresses in picking, handling and erection, and temporary condition prior to final completion of the structure, such as the need of propping for a composite pour.Fourth,although the responsibility for design rests with the design engineer, nevertheless the construction engineer is also vitally concerned that the structure be successful form the point of view of structural integrity and service behavior. Therefore he will want to look at the bearing and connection details, camber, creep, shrinkage,thermal movements,durability provisions,etc.,and advise the design engineer of any deficiencies he encounters.Information on new techniques and especially application of prestressing to buildings are extensively available in the current technical literature of national and international societies.The International Federation of Prestressing(I.F.P)has attempted to facilitate the dissemination of this information by establishing a Literature Exchange Service,in which the prestressing journals of some thirty countries are regularly exchanged.In addition,an Abstract is published intermittently by I.F.P The Prestressed Concrete Institute(USA)regularly publishes a number of journals and pamphlets on techniques and applications, and proceduresare set up for their dissemination to architects and engineers as well as directly to the construction engineer. It is important that he keep abreast of these national and worldwide developments, so as to be able to recommend the latest and best that is available in the art,and to encourage the engineer to make the fullest and most effective use of prestressed concrete in their buildings.With regard to working drawings, the construction engineer must endeavor to translate the design requirements into the most practicable and economical details of accomplishment,in such a way that the completed element or structure fully complies with the design requirement;for example, the design may indicate only the center of gravity of prestressing and the effective prestress force. The working drawing will have to translate this into tendons having finite physical properties and dimensions.If the center of gravity of pre-stressing is a parabolic path then,for pre-tensioning,and approximation by chords is required,with hold-down points suitably located.The computation of pre-stress losses,form transfer stress to effective stress, must reflect the actual manufacturing and construction process used,as well as thorough knowledge of the properties of the particular aggregates and concrete mix to be employed.With post-tensioning, anchorages and their bearing plates must be laid out in their physical dimension. It is useful in the preparation of complex anchorage detail layouts to use full-scale drawings, so as to better appreciate the congestion of mild steel and anchorages at the end of the member. Tendons and reinforcing bars should be shown in full size rather than as dotted lines. This will permit consideration to be given as to how the concrete can be placed and consolidated.The end zone of both pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete memberssubject to high transverse or bursting stresses. These stresses are also influenced by minor concrete details,such as chamfers.Provision of a grid of small bars (sometimes heavy wire mesh is used), as close to the end of a girder as possible, will help to confine and distribute the concentrated forces. Closely spaced stirrups and/or tightly spaced spiral are usually needed at the end of heavily stressed members.Recent tests have confirmed that closeness of spacing is much more effective than increase in the size of bars. Numerous small bars, closely spaced, are thus the best solution.Additional mild-steel stirrups may also be required at hold-down points to resist the shear. This is also true wherever post-tensioned tendons make sharp bends. Practical consideration of concretion dictates the spacing of tendons and ducts. The general rules are that the clear spacing small be one-and-one-half times the maximum size of coarse aggregate. In the overall section, provision must be made for the vibrator stinger.Thus pre-stressing tendons must either be spaced apart in the horizontal plane, or, in special cases, bundled.In the vertical plane close contact between tendons is quite common.With post-tensioned ducts,however,in intimate vertical contact,careful consideration has to be given to prevent one tendon form squeezing into the adjacent duct during stressing.This depends on the size of duct and the material used for the duct.A full-scale layout of this critical cross section should be ually,the best solution is to increase the thickness ( and transverse strength ) of the duct, so that it will span between the supporting shoulders of concrete.As a last rest\ort it may be necessary to stress and grout one duct before stressing the adjacent one.This is time-consuming and runs the risks of grout blockage due to leaks from one duct to the other. Therefore the author recommendsthe use of heavier duct material,or else the respacing of the ducts.The latter,of course, may increase the prestressing force required.中文翻译：预应力混凝土建筑预应力混凝土已经广泛并成功地用于各种类型的建筑。
混凝土工程中英文
混凝土工程 concrete works 一、材料袋装水泥 bagged cement散装水泥 bulk cement砂 sand骨料 aggregate商品混凝土 commercial concrete现浇混凝土 concrete-in-situ预制混凝土 precast concrete预埋件 embedment（fit 安装）外加剂 admixtures抗渗混凝土 waterproofing concrete 石场 aggregate quarry垫块 spacer二、施工机械及工具搅拌机 mixer振动器vibrator电动振动器 electrical vibrator振动棒vibrator bar抹子（steel wood） trowel磨光机 glasser混凝土泵送机 concrete pump橡胶圈 rubber ring夹子 clip混凝土运输车 mixer truck自动搅拌站 auto-batching plant输送机 conveyor塔吊 tower crane汽车式吊车 motor crane铲子 shovel水枪 jetting water橡胶轮胎 rubber tires布袋 cloth-bags塑料水管 plastic tubes喷水雾 spray water fog三、构件及其他专业名称截面尺寸 section size（section dimension）混凝土梁 concrete girder简支梁 simple supported beam挑梁 cantilever beam悬挑板 cantilevered slab檐板eaves board封口梁 joint girder翻梁 upstand beam楼板floor slab空调板 AC board飘窗 bay window（suspending window）振捣 vibration串筒 a chain of funnels混凝土施工缝 concrete joint水灰比ratio of water and cement砂率 sand ratio大体积混凝土 large quantity of pouring混凝土配合比 concrete mixture rate混凝土硬化 hardening of concrete(in a hardening process 硬化中)规定时间 regulated period质保文件 quality assurance program设计强度 design strength永久工程 permanent works临时工程 temporary works四、质量控制及检测不符合规格的 non-standard有机物 organic matters粘土 clay含水率 moisture content（water content）中心线 central line安定性 soundness （good soundness 优良的安定性）坍落度 slump (the concrete with 18mm±20mm slump)混凝土养护 concrete curing标养混凝土试件 standard curing concrete test sample同条件混凝土试件 field-cure specimen收缩 shrinkage初凝时间 initial setting time终凝时间 final setting time成品保护 finished product protection混凝土试件 concrete cube偏心受压 eccentric pressing保护层 concrete cover孔洞 hole裂缝 crack蜂窝 honeycomb五、句子1，Usually we control the cement within 2% 我们将水泥的误差控制在2%2，Are there any pipe clogging happened during the concreting?浇筑混凝土中有堵管现象吗？3，Will the pipe be worn out very fast？管道磨损很快吗？4，This embedment is fixed at 1500mm from the floor and 350mm from the left edge of the column. Would you measure the dimension by this meter?预埋件的位置在地面上1500mm，离柱边350mm。
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Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, andPrestressedConcreteConcrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden in forms of the shape and dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse aggregate. Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles into a solid mass. Additional water, over and above that needed for this chemical reaction, is necessary to give the mixture workability that enables it to fill the forms and surround the embedded reinforcing steel prior to hardening. Concretes with a wide range of properties can be obtained by appropriates adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials. Special cements, special aggregates, and special curing methods permit an even wider variety of properties to be obtained.These properties depend to a very substantial degree on the proportions of the mix, on the thoroughness with which the various constituents are intermixed, and on the conditions of humidity and temperature in which the mix is maintained from the moment it is placed in the forms of humidity and hardened. The process of controlling conditions after placement is known as curing. To protect against the unintentional production of substandard concrete, a high degree of skillful control and supervision is necessary throughout the process, from the proportioning by weight of the individual components, trough mixing and placing, until the completion of curing.The factors that make concrete a universal building material are so pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at present, for thousands of years, starting with lime mortars from 12,000 to 600 B.C. in Crete, Cyprus, Greece, and the Middle East. The facility with which , while plastic, it can be deposited and made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages. Most of the constituent materials, with the exception of cement and additives, are usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones, is high, which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as in natural stones, it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its economical use in structural members that ate subject to tension either entirely or over part of their cross sections.To offset this limitation, it was found possible, in the second half of thenineteenth century, to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is places in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely surrounded by the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member. The resulting combination of two materials, known as reinforced concrete, combines many of the advantages of each: the relatively low cost , good weather and fire resistance, good compressive strength, and excellent formability of concrete and the high tensile strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel. It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings, bridges, dams, tanks, reservoirs, and a host of other structures.In more recent times, it has been found possible to produce steels, at relatively low cost, whose yield strength is 3 to 4 times and more that of ordinary reinforcing steels. Likewise, it is possible to produce concrete 4 to 5 times as strong in compression as the more ordinary concrete. These high-strength materials offer many advantages, including smaller member cross sections, reduced dead load, and longer spans. However, there are limits to the strengths of the constituent materials beyond which certain problems arise. To be sure, the strength of such a member would increase roughly in proportion to those of the materials. However, the high strains that result from the high stresses that would otherwise be permissible would lead to large deformations and consequently large deflections of such member under ordinary loading conditions. Equally important, the large strains in such high-strength reinforcing steel would induce large cracks in the surrounding low tensile strength concrete, cracks that would not only be unsightly but that could significantly reduce the durability of the structure. This limits the useful yield strength of high-strength reinforcing steel to 80 ksi according to many codes and specifications; 60 ksi steel is most commonly used.A special way has been found, however, to use steels and concrete of very high strength in combination. This type of construction is known as prestressed concrete. The steel, in the form of wires, strands, or bars, is embedded in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by compressive stresses in the concrete after hardening, Because of this precompression, the concrete in a flexural member will crack on the tension side at a much larger load than when not so precompressed. Prestressing greatly reduces both the deflections and the tensile cracks at ordinaryloads in such structures, and thereby enables these high-strength materials to be used effectively. Prestressed concrete has extended, to a very significant extent, the range of spans of structural concrete and the types of structures for which it is suited.混凝土，钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土混凝土是一种经过水泥，沙子和砂砾或其他材料聚合得到经过细致配比的混合物，在液体变硬使材料石化后可以得到理想的形状和结构尺寸。