Chap 6 Ionic Bonds and Compounds (COMPLETE)
有关化学的英文摘要作文
有关化学的英文摘要作文英文：Chemistry is a fascinating subject that deals with the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. It is a branch of science that is closely related to our daily lives, from the food we eat to the air we breathe. As a chemistry enthusiast, I have always been intrigued by the way different substances interact with each other and the amazing reactions that take place.One of the most interesting topics in chemistry is the concept of chemical bonding. Chemical bonding is the process by which atoms combine to form molecules or compounds. There are different types of chemical bonds, such as ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds. For example, when sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) react, they form an ionic bond to create sodium chloride (NaCl), which is common table salt. Understanding chemical bonding is crucial in explaining the properties of differentsubstances and predicting how they will behave undercertain conditions.Another captivating aspect of chemistry is the study of chemical reactions. Chemical reactions occur when substances are mixed together and undergo a change to form new substances. For instance, when hydrogen gas (H2) reacts with oxygen gas (O2) in the presence of a catalyst, itforms water (H2O). This process, known as the synthesis of water, is a fundamental reaction that is essential for life. Chemical reactions play a vital role in various industries, such as pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and manufacturing.Furthermore, the field of organic chemistry is particularly intriguing as it focuses on the study ofcarbon compounds. Organic compounds are essential for life and are found in all living organisms. For example, carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are organic compounds that are vital for the functioning of the human body. Understanding organic chemistry is crucial for developing new drugs, improving agricultural practices, and creating innovative materials.In addition to the theoretical aspects of chemistry, practical applications are also significant. For instance, analytical chemistry involves the identification and quantification of substances in various samples. This is essential in fields such as forensic science, environmental monitoring, and quality control in industries. Moreover, physical chemistry explores the principles and theories behind the behavior of matter and energy, leading to advancements in fields such as nanotechnology and materials science.In conclusion, chemistry is a diverse and captivating subject that has a profound impact on our daily lives. From understanding the composition of the air we breathe to developing new materials for technology, chemistry plays a crucial role in shaping the world around us.中文：化学是一个迷人的学科，涉及物质及其变化的研究。
SAT2-Ionic bonds and Ionic Compounds
1、Definitions of ionic bonds and ionic compounds. 2、Classifications of compounds. 3、Properties of ionic compounds.
Lead in
and anions.
Definitions
Chemists represent the composition of substances by writing chemical formulas.
Definition：chemical formula shows the numbers of atoms of each
melted or dissolved in water
nccooomnvpa-oeleulnentdctrolytecan not conduct
Exercise: according to the definitions of electrolyte,determine the following compounds as electrolyte or non-electrolyte A.MgCl2 B.NaBr C.Cu D.H2O
bondings properties. And what changes the atoms are the
between them.
Lead in
Ionic bond Metallic bond Covalent bond
Definitions Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds
Definitions
Exercise: which of the following chemical formula is correct?
chemical bond
O O C H Cl H Cl [Na]2+ [ O ]2– O C O NH3 - Covalent O2 - Covalent I2 - Covalent I I O O H N H H N H O O H H I I H H Al2O3 - Ionic O3 - Covalent
[Al]23+
Ionic Bonds: One Big Greedy Thief Dog!
1). Ionic bond – electron from Na is transferred to Cl, this causes a charge imbalance in each atom. The Na becomes (Na+) and the Cl becomes (Cl-), charged particles or ions.
COVALENT BOND bond formed by the sharing of electrons
Covalent Bond
• Between nonmetallic elements of similar electronegativity. • Formed by sharing electron pairs • Stable non-ionizing particles, they are not conductors at any state • Examples; O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, SiC
Ionic bonding: Li + O
2Li + O [Li]2+[O]2– or 4Li + O2 2[Li]2+[ O]2–
3p+ 2e-1e4n0
复合金属氧化物英文
复合金属氧化物英文Complex Metal Oxides.Complex metal oxides are a class of inorganic compounds that contain multiple metal cations and oxide anions. They are typically formed by the reaction of a metal or metal oxide with oxygen or an oxidizing agent. Complex metal oxides are often used as pigments, catalysts, and semiconductors.The structure of complex metal oxides can be quite complex, and it can vary depending on the composition of the compound. In general, complex metal oxides are formed when a metal cation has multiple oxidation states. The different oxidation states of the metal cation can lead to the formation of different types of bonds with the oxide anions.The most common type of bond in complex metal oxides is the ionic bond. In an ionic bond, the metal cationtransfers one or more electrons to the oxide anion. This creates a positively charged metal ion and a negatively charged oxide ion. The metal ion and oxide ion are then attracted to each other by their opposite charges.In addition to ionic bonds, complex metal oxides can also contain covalent bonds. In a covalent bond, the metal cation and oxide anion share electrons. This type of bond is typically found in compounds that contain metal cations with high oxidation states.The structure of complex metal oxides can also be affected by the presence of other elements. For example, the presence of water molecules can lead to the formation of hydrated complex metal oxides. Hydrated complex metal oxides are typically more soluble in water than anhydrous complex metal oxides.The properties of complex metal oxides can vary depending on their composition and structure. In general, complex metal oxides are hard, brittle, and have high melting points. They are also typically good electricalinsulators.Complex metal oxides are used in a wide variety of applications. They are used as pigments in paints, ceramics, and plastics. They are also used as catalysts in chemical reactions. Semiconductor complex metal oxides are used in electronic devices such as transistors and solar cells.The following are some examples of complex metal oxides:Iron oxide (Fe2O3) is a red pigment that is used in paints, ceramics, and plastics.Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a white pigment that isused in paints, sunscreen, and food.Zirconium oxide (ZrO2) is a hard, white material thatis used in ceramics and refractory materials.Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is a transparent material thatis used in glass, ceramics, and semiconductors.Copper oxide (CuO) is a black powder that is used as a catalyst in chemical reactions.Complex metal oxides are an important class ofinorganic compounds that have a wide range of applications. Their unique properties make them ideal for use in avariety of industrial and commercial applications.Synthesis of Complex Metal Oxides.Complex metal oxides can be synthesized by a variety of methods. The most common method is the solid-state reaction. In a solid-state reaction, the metal oxides are mixed together and heated to a high temperature. The metal oxides react with each other to form the complex metal oxide.Another method for synthesizing complex metal oxides is the hydrothermal method. In the hydrothermal method, the metal oxides are dissolved in water and then heated in a sealed container. The water and heat cause the metal oxides to react with each other to form the complex metal oxide.Complex metal oxides can also be synthesized by a variety of other methods, such as the sol-gel method, the chemical vapor deposition method, and the molecular beam epitaxy method.The choice of synthesis method depends on the desired properties of the complex metal oxide. For example, the solid-state reaction is typically used to synthesize complex metal oxides with high crystallinity. The hydrothermal method is typically used to synthesize complex metal oxides with a controlled morphology.Applications of Complex Metal Oxides.Complex metal oxides have a wide range of applications. They are used in a variety of industrial and commercial applications, including:Pigments: Complex metal oxides are used as pigments in paints, ceramics, and plastics. They provide a wide range of colors and are resistant to fading.Catalysts: Complex metal oxides are used as catalysts in chemical reactions. They can increase the rate of a reaction and make it more efficient.Semiconductors: Complex metal oxides are used in electronic devices such as transistors and solar cells. They can conduct electricity and are used to control the flow of current.Refractories: Complex metal oxides are used as refractories in high-temperature applications. They can withstand high temperatures and are used in furnaces and kilns.Other applications: Complex metal oxides are also used in a variety of other applications, such as gas sensors, magnetic materials, and optical materials.Conclusion.Complex metal oxides are an important class of inorganic compounds that have a wide range of applications.Their unique properties make them ideal for use in a variety of industrial and commercial applications.。
高中化学英语知识点总结
高中化学英语知识点总结Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter. It is a fundamental subject that forms the basis of many other scientific disciplines such as biochemistry, environmental science, and material science. In this article, we will summarize the key concepts and topics covered in high school chemistry, with a focus on important principles, equations, and theories.Atomic StructureOne of the foundational concepts in chemistry is atomic structure, which refers to the organization of protons, neutrons, and electrons within an atom. Atoms are composed of a nucleus, which contains protons and neutrons, surrounded by one or more energy levels, or shells, that contain electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the identity of the atom and is referred to as the atomic number. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called the atomic mass. The arrangement of electrons in the energy levels follows the Aufbau principle, which states that electrons fill the lowest energy levels first before moving to higher energy levels.Chemical BondingChemical bonding is the process by which atoms are held together in molecules and compounds. There are three main types of chemical bonds: covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and metallic bonds. In a covalent bond, atoms share electrons in order to achieve a stable electron configuration. Ionic bonds are formed when one atom transfers electrons to another, resulting in the formation of positively and negatively charged ions that are attracted to each other. Metallic bonds occur in metals, where the atoms share a sea of electrons, leading to the characteristic properties of conductivity and malleability.The Periodic TableThe periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized by their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The table is divided into rows, called periods, and columns, called groups. The elements within a group have similar properties due to their similar outer electron configurations. Elements to the left of the periodic table are metals, while those to the right are nonmetals. The periodic table is a powerful tool for predicting the reactivity and chemical behavior of elements.Chemical ReactionsChemical reactions occur when substances undergo a chemical change to form new substances with different properties. The reactants are the substances that are present at the beginning of the reaction, and the products are the substances that are formed as a result of the reaction. Chemical reactions are described by chemical equations, which show the reactants on the left side and the products on the right side, separated by an arrow. Theconservation of mass and energy is a fundamental principle in chemical reactions, as stated in the law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of energy.Acids and BasesAcids and bases are two important classes of compounds that are defined by their chemical properties. Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) in water, while bases are substances that release hydroxide ions (OH-) in water. The strength of an acid or base is determined by its ability to dissociate in water and release ions. The pH scale is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, with values ranging from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly basic). Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. Acids react with bases to form salts and water in a process known as neutralization.ThermochemistryThermochemistry is the study of the heat energy involved in chemical reactions and physical transformations. It encompasses concepts such as heat, enthalpy, entropy, and the laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases over time. These principles are essential for understanding the energy changes that occur in chemical reactions, as well as in everyday life.Organic ChemistryOrganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon-containing compounds. It is a vast and diverse field that includes the study of hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, and many other types of organic molecules. The unique properties of carbon allow it to form a wide variety of compounds, giving rise to the complexity and diversity of organic chemistry. Important topics in organic chemistry include nomenclature, functional groups, isomerism, and reaction mechanisms.ElectrochemistryElectrochemistry is the study of the relationships between chemical reactions and electricity. It includes the study of electrochemical cells, electrolysis, batteries, and corrosion. Electrochemical cells are devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions. One common type of electrochemical cell is the voltaic cell, which consists of two half-cells connected by a salt bridge. Electrolysis is the process of using an electric current to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction, such as the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. Corrosion is the gradual degradation of metals due to electrochemical reactions with their environment.ConclusionHigh school chemistry covers a wide range of topics and principles that form the foundation of our understanding of the natural world. By studying the principles of atomic structure,chemical bonding, the periodic table, chemical reactions, acids and bases, thermochemistry, organic chemistry, and electrochemistry, students can gain a deeper appreciation for the fundamental principles that govern matter and energy. These concepts provide the basis for more advanced study in chemistry and related fields, as well as practical applications in industry, medicine, and environmental science.。
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds
Examples: Copper (II) Oxide Sodium Chloride Sodium Fluoride Silver Nitrate Aluminium Oxide Tin (II) Oxide CuO NaCl NaF AgNO3 Al2O3 SnO
Na Na
+
O
Na+ + O-2 (2,8)
Na+ (2,8) Formula of sodium oxide is Na2O
More Accurate Version Oxygen exists as a diatomic molecule
O O
Na Na + Na Na
Formula for sodium oxide: Na2O
Sodium Na Calcium Aluminium
Ca2+ 2, 8, 8 Al3+ 2, 8
3e-
Non-metals form Anions
Non metal atoms that form ions have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shell and gain electrons to achieve stability Eg: F (Z=9) S(Z =16) N(Z = 7)
Ionic Compounds and Bonding
• In ionic bonding, metals and non-metals are joined together.
Stalagmites and stalactites consist of an ionic compound
Types_of_Bonds_in_Crystals_晶体中键的类型
quantum mechanical point of view considered as
i.e., the bonds do not have directional character and every ion attempts to be
surrounded by the maximum possible number of ions of the opposite charge , so
bonds are their saturation and mutual orientation of the bonds when there are
several on the given atom; this is always the case except for atomic pairs. Saturation
principle , differ only in spin orientation is also characteristic for covalent bonds
between atoms with more complex electron structures. The bond is again created by
equivalent nearest Cl﹣ions , and vice versa.
Covalent Bonds
An exact quantum mechanical calculation for the hydrogen molecule model ,
An atom has a neutral charge because of the following
Chemistry of LifeMatter is anything that occupies space. Matter is made of one or more elements.An element is the most pure form of matter. Elements are made of atoms.There are 111 elements and of these 92 are naturally occurring.Essential ElementsAbout 25 elements are essential to life. These are called ‘essential elements’.4 essential elements make up 96% of the human body. These are O, C, H and N. The other elements account for the remaining 4%.Trace ElementsCertain elements are needed in trace amounts. These are also essential to life.Eg. The human body needs trace amounts of boron, chromium, iron, iodine, etc.Humans need 0.15 mg of iodine each day. If iodine is deficient or in excess, a goiter develops – due to malfunctioning of the thyroid gland.Properties of AtomsAll atom have a neutral charge because the number of positiveprotons equals the number of neg electrons.:In nucleus of atom are protons that have a positive charge (p+)and neutrons that have a neutral charge.Outside of the nucleus are the electrons.Electrons have a negative charge.The number of electrons is equal tothe number of protons:so negative charges cancel out the positive charges.Atomic Number= number of protons (also number of electrons)Atomic Weight = number of protons + number of neutronsAtomic weight is the average weight number of isotopes for one elements. Atoms for one element have different numbers of neutrons and are called isotopes.Isotopes = different isotopes of an element have the same atomic # but different atomic weights. Example: Carbon – 12, Carbon – 13 and Carbon – 14 all have the same # of protons (i.e. 6 protons), but, # of neutrons vary. C12 has 6 neutrons, C13has 7 neutrons and C14 has 8 neutrons. Hence they all have the same molecular number, ie. 6, but different atomic weights: viz. 12, 13 and 14, respectively.Radioactive IsotopesWhereas C12 and C13 are stable isotopes, C14 is an unstable isotope, also called a radioactive isotope. Radioactive isotopes constantly emit energy and particles due to nuclear decay.There are both benefits and dangers to radioactive isotopes.Radio-isotopes – BenefitsRadio-isotopes can be used beneficially as ‘tracers’ for scientific research (for example, C14 was used to label CO2 to find out what molecules the plants make during photosynthesis) and medical diagnosis eg. PET scan helps in diagnosing cancer. Also radio-isotopes can detect kidney disorders.Radio-isotopes - Dangers⏹Dangers: Radio-isotopes are damaging to DNA on continuous exposure.⏹There were many deaths from the explosion of the nuclear reactor at Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1930. The survivors have had increased risks of birth-defects and thyroid cancer and general risk of cancer.⏹Radon – a radioactive gas is a causative agent for lung-cancer.Outside the nucleus are electron clouds or orbits. Electrons are found in these orbits in fixed number depending on the orbit.S orbit holds a maximum of 2 electronsP orbits hold a maximum of 8 electronsOther orbits are not discussed in this classAn atom is considered stable or inert if the outer orbit has the maximum number of electrons. A stable atom does not form molecules or compounds. When the outer orbit of an atom is not filled it is unstable and can form chemical bonds. Atoms bond to complete their outer orbit with electrons and to form molecules and compounds.Determine whether or not each of the following atoms is stable. If the atom is not stable, how many more electrons are needed to fill the outer electron shell?Neon (Atomic Number = 10)Argon (Atomic Number = 18)Carbon (Atomic Number = 6)Nitrogen (Atomic Number = 7)Oxygen (Atomic Number = 8)CompoundsCompounds are made up of 2 or more elements or molecules in a fixed ratio.Elements are rarely found as such in nature. They are generally found as compounds.Many compounds are made up of only 2 elements. Eg. Table salt (NaCl).In living organisms, compounds are made up of 3 – 4 different elements. Eg. Proteins are made up of C, H, O and N. DNA uses CHONand PThree type of bondsIonic Bonds form between atoms that have formed ions. An ion forms when an atom looses or gains an electron.1. Ionic bonds form polar molecules that can dissolve in water. They are considered hydrophilic in nature, meaning water loving.2.Covalent Bonds form when two atoms share electrons to complete the outer complete orbit.Covalent bonds can be polar or non-polarPolar covalent bonds when sharing in unequal (oxygenand two hydrogen atoms form water, the sharing isunequal).This creates a polar compound with uniqueproperties. One end is slightly negative the otherslightly positive.Non-Polar covalent bond forms when sharing is equal, the molecule has no charge (i.e. hydrocarbons are components of fats). These compounds are hydrophobic, or water fearing. When oxygen bond to another oxygen. Electrons are shared equally.3. Hydrogen Bonds occur when polar covalent bonds produce slightly negative and slightly positive charges that attract one another.Unusual Properties of WaterThe partial negative charge of the oxygen atom on one water molecule forms a hydrogen-bond with two hydrogen atoms of adjacent water molecules, each water molecule can hydrogen-bond with up to 4 partner water molecules.Due to its polarity and hydrogen bonding, water has several unusual properties:Water can exist in three different states of matter– viz. solid (ice),liquid (water) and gas (water-vapor).Water has also a high surface tension. Hence, it acts as an unbroken film to water insects.Water is adhesive: it is attracted to different substances.Water is highly cohesive. Cohesion is the attraction of water to itself. Hence the tree-sap rises up in an uninterrupted flow from the roots to the leaves.Water conducts heat and is a great evaporative cooler due to two properties:It has a high specific heat which allows it to absorb a lot of heatIt has a high heat of vaporization which allows it to moderate temperature.Water is a universal solvent; Hence, just about anything can dissolve in water.Ice is less dense than liquid water. Ice crystals have a much more spaceous arrangement of water molecules compared to the structure of liquid water. (See photo).Solutions:Equation (Eq): Solution = Solute + SolventThe particulates in the solution are the solute. The liquid that substance is dissolved in is the solvent.Hydrophobic Solutes are water-fearing and cannot dissolve in H2O or aqueous solutions. They dissolve in hydrophobic solvents.Hydrophylic Solutions are aqueous and. Polar solutes are soluble in water. Ionic solutes are charged and polar.The Acidity or Basicity of a Solution or pHPure water can dissociate into an equal amount of H and OH ions.H2O H++ OH-Solutes dissolved in water affect this equilibrium. The pH represents the relative amount of H+ in a solution.pH by definition is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.When the concentration of H+ = concentration of OH- then the pH is neutral = 7When the concentration of H+ > concentration of OH- then the pH is acidic < 7When the concentration of H+ < concentration of OH- then the pH is basic > 7The pH ranges from 0-14The pH is important for cell function.Buffer are substances that help to maintain a constant pH. All cells are buffered. Human blood is buffered with carbon dioxide and stays at approximately 7.3.The pH can affect the shape of a molecule and will change its function or activity.A change of 1 pH unit results in a 10 fold change in the concentration of the H+.SHAPE DETERMINES FUNCTIONLife’s Processes are Sensitive to pHpH = the chemical potential hydrogen.This is a measure for acidity or basicity.An acid is a substance which donates hydrogen (H+) ions.A base is a substance which accepts hydrogen ions or donates (OH)- ions.The pH scale ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic).A buffer is a substance which resists changes in pH by accepting (H+) ions when in excess and donating (H+) ions when they are depleted.Chemical ReactionsChemical reactions rearrange matter.Example: Two molecules hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to give two molecules of water.A reaction consists of the starting molecules called ‘reactants’ and the resulting ‘products’. Macromolecules in CellsMany large molecules are essential to living systems. The following 4 are polymers; they are composed of repeating units called monomers. The monomers are joined or linked together by the removal of water. This is known as dehydration synthesis.The 4 common macromolecules are:1.Carbohydrates are polymers of sugars (saccharides). They have a carbon:hydrogen:oxygen ratio of1:2:12.Lipids: largely hydrocarbons, all hydrophobic3.Proteins: composed of aminoacids (carboxylic acid and amino acid)4.Nucleic Acids: composed of nucleotides.Metabolism: Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism.Plants Have Primary & Secondary MetabolismPrimary Metabolism includesPhotosynthesisCell RespirationMetabolism that involves the making of the 4 macromoleculesSecondary metabolism produces secondary compounds such as:Terpenes like carotenoid pigments that give rise to vitamin A, sage and mint oils, various fragrances . Citronella used to repel insects, rubber, turpentine , resins on the trunks of pines Phenolics found in grape, blueberries may have health benefits. Tannins are toxic to herbivorous animals, stop microbial growth. Tannins give astringent flavor to tea and red wine. Phenolics include cinnamin, nutmeg, genger, vanilla and capsaicin's in chilies. Lignin gives wood its strength. Feworganisms can breakdown wood.Flavonoids: Anthocyanin pigments produce the orange pink and red colors in flowers and fruit.Alkoloidsall contain Ninclude nicotine, caffeine and others commonly used in medicines,STRYCHNINE A poison found in hemlock , theobromine inchocolatequinine an antimalarial. The highly addictive pain killers morphine and cocaine。
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Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
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Formation of an ionic compound from its corresponding elements can be calculated by imagining a three step process: 1. An electron is removed from one atom in the gas phase to form a cation; this is the initiating step; Endothermic; Ionization energy (In) 2. An electron is added to another atom in the gas phase to form an anion; Typically exothermic; Electron Affinity (EAn) 3. The gas phase ions come together to form an ionic bond; Exothermic; Value determined by Coulomb’s Law. Typically, a fourth step is added: the formation of the solid crystalline lattice; this highly exothermic step “seals the deal”.
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Net ionization energy
Coulombic attraction
Net energy change
(–642 kJ·mol–1)
End Chapter 6
Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
• Now that we have examined the structure of an atom, let’s now see how all of this can be used (IF it can be used!) to explain bonding. • Electronic configurations MUST somehow be involved. • Four basic types of bonding: metallic, ionic, covalent, and coordinate covalent. • Begin with a discussion of Ionic Bonding: simplest to understand. • Note: Much of Chapter 6 has already been covered in the context of Chapters 3 and 5.
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Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
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General Comparisons: Ionic and Covalent Compounds
• Ionic Bonds: Electrostatic forces at work; cation and anion networks. • Covalent Bonds: Shared electrons; more complicated Cdc • “Octet Rule”
Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
6-4
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Quantitative Description of Ionic Bonds: Coulomb’s Law
• Coulomb’s Law quantitates the value for the force between charged species:
Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds 6-10
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Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
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Depicting Ion Formation !
Use partial orbital diagrams and Lewis symbols to depict the formation of Na+ and O2- ions from the atoms, and determine the formula of the compound the ions form.!
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Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
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Ion Configurations of Transition Metals
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Chapter 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
Chemistry 6A Fall 2013 Carl Hoeger, Ph.D. University of California, San Diego
Chap 6: Ionic Bonds and Compounds
6-1
Introductory Comments
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– For ions of opposite charge, Ecoulomb will be negative; it will be positive for ions of the same charge; – As charges increase, or the distance gets smaller, Ecoulomb gets larger.