The final-state interaction in the two-body nonleptonic decay of a heavy particle
“Rising”Intonationon“Falling”Tones
“Rising” Intonation on “Falling” TonesMasayuki GibsonCornell UniversityThe nature of the interaction between sentence level intonation and lexical tone varies from language to language. This is clearly evident in how “rising” intonation (an intonational contour that is perceived as rising) interacts with the lexical tones on words near the right edge of the utterance in different languages. Adherents of the ToBI-style notation (Pierrehumbert and Beckman 1988, e.g.) analyze such utterances as bearing a H boundary tone at the right edge. While this is a reasonable analysis, it is a necessarily language-dependent one that is insufficient to capture the typological variation that is apparent upon inspection of data from multiple languages. Yi Xu’s (2005) PENTA model treats tones and intonation as separate functions that are implemented by the Phonetics in parallel. This model assumes that tone and intonation do not interact in the Phonology. Results from production and perception experiments that were conducted in several languages for this study, including Shiga Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese, and North Kyeongsang Korean suggest that any model of speech melody must allow for both language-specific phonetic implementation and for the interaction of tone and intonation in the Phonology.Shiga Japanese: Unlike in Tokyo Japanese, finally-accented words in SJ retain the drop in pitch associated with the accent on a final light syllable, thus maintaining the contrast between finally-accented and unaccented words. The realization of the pitch drop in this dialect does not seem to require a lengthening of that final mora/syllable. Meanwhile, when pronounced with an echo question intonation, the final mora of a finally-accented word still displays a sharp rise after the drop associated with the accent. The realization of this rise is accompanied by a drastic lengthening of the last mora (doubling its length in most cases). (See Figure 1a) Mandarin: Echo questions in Mandarin (Putonghua) are characterized by a raising of the overall pitch level that causes a final lexical falling tone to be in a higher range than in a declarative utterance (but falling nonetheless). Yuan (2004) shows that in echo questions the F0 is shifted up from the start of the utterance and that the pitch range of the final syllable is increased. Results from the present production study confirm this. Yuan’s observation that the effect of the echo question intonation on the tones is tone-specific is also corroborated; the first and second tones seem simply to be shifted upwards, whereas the third tone gets pulled down just as low as a declarative third tone but then ends much higher and the beginning of the fourth tone gets shifted upwards to a greater degree than the end. Overall, we don’t see duration effects in Mandarin that are comparable to those seen in SJ, but we do see a slight lengthening of the final syllable for one speaker that could be attributed to phonetic marking of focus (see Chen 2002). (See Figure 1b)Cantonese: In Hong Kong Cantonese, the intonational rise of an echo question is realized on the final syllable. The results of the present study show that, unlike in Shiga Japanese, a final falling tone in Cantonese does not complete its fall before the rise is initiated (c.f. Wu 1990, who reports that “the rise starts after the fall” and Yip 2002, who claims that the tone starts where it would in a declarative context and ends “high”). Like in Mandarin, we see some tone-specific effects. Also like in Mandarin, the duration of the final syllable is not affected to the degree that we see in SJ. (See Figure 1c)North Kyeongsang Korean: Despite its status as a so-called “pitch accent” language, NKK behaves quite differently from Japanese when it comes to the reconciliation of a lexical HL sequence with a rising intonation. If the HL sequence falls on the last two syllables of an echo question, we still see a lower F0 on the second syllable, though it doesn’t drop as low as it does in a declarative context. This is similar to the Mandarin case. However, if the HL sequence falls on a single syllable, there is no fall; the pitch simply rises and keeps rising. (See Figure 1d) An adequate model of speech melody must minimally include a phonological component and a phonetic component. The phonological component must be able to do “repairs” like tone deletion (to handle NKK) and TBU lengthening (to handle SJ). The “rising” intonation scheme must also be sensitive to the tonal category (to handle the tone-specific phonetic implementation in Cantonese and Mandarin), rendering parallel implementation of tones and intonation impossible to maintain. Such a model would not only give us better descriptive power but would also go further than the other models mentioned above in accounting for cross-linguistic differences in perception. For example, Cantonese speakers are better able to identify the sentence type of an echo question but not as good at identifying the final lexical tone, whereas the reverse is true for Mandarin speakers. This asymmetry is likely due to the fact that, while the tone-specific implementation of intonation reinforces differences among the tones in Mandarin, it nearly neutralizes several of the tones in Cantonese.a. SJ: + “rising” intonationb. Mandarin: + “rising” intonationc. Cantonese: + “rising” intonationd. NKK (1 syll): + “rising” intonatione. NKK (2 syll): + “rising” intonationFigure 1: A schematic representation of the interaction of lexical HL tones with “rising” intonation associated with echo questions in (a) Shiga Japanese, (b) Mandarin, (c) Cantonese, (d,e) North Kyeonsang Korean.。
two-stage stochastic programming
two-stage stochastic programmingTwo-stage stochastic programming is a mathematical optimization approach used to solve decision-making problems under uncertainty. It is commonly applied in various fields such as operations research, finance, energy planning, and supply chain management. In this approach, decisions are made in two stages: the first stage involves decisions made before uncertainty is realized, and the second stage involves decisions made after observing the uncertain events.In two-stage stochastic programming, the decision-maker aims to optimize their decisions by considering both the expected value and the risk associated with different outcomes. The problem is typically formulated as a mathematical program with constraints and objective functions that capture the decision variables, uncertain parameters, and their probabilistic distributions.The first stage decisions are typically made with theknowledge of the uncertain parameters, but without knowing their actual realization. These decisions are usually strategic and long-term in nature, such as investment decisions, capacity planning, or resource allocation. The objective in the first stage is to minimize the expected cost or maximize the expected profit.The second stage decisions are made after observing the actual realization of the uncertain events. These decisions are typically tactical or operational in nature, such as production planning, inventory management, or scheduling. The objective in the second stage is to minimize the cost or maximize the profit given the realized values of the uncertain parameters.To solve two-stage stochastic programming problems, various solution methods can be employed. One common approach is to use scenario-based methods, where a set of scenarios representing different realizations of the uncertain events is generated. Each scenario is associated with a probability weight, and the problem is then transformed into a deterministic equivalent problem byreplacing the uncertain parameters with their corresponding scenario values. The deterministic problem can be solved using traditional optimization techniques such as linear programming or mixed-integer programming.Another approach is to use sample average approximation, where the expected value in the objective function is approximated by averaging the objective function valuesover a large number of randomly generated scenarios. This method can be computationally efficient but may introduce some approximation errors.Furthermore, there are also robust optimization techniques that aim to find solutions that are robust against the uncertainty, regardless of the actualrealization of the uncertain events. These methods focus on minimizing the worst-case cost or maximizing the worst-case profit.In summary, two-stage stochastic programming is a powerful approach for decision-making under uncertainty. It allows decision-makers to consider both the expected valueand the risk associated with uncertain events. By formulating the problem as a mathematical program and employing various solution methods, optimal or near-optimal solutions can be obtained to guide decision-making in a wide range of applications.。
光与物质的相互作用 英文
光与物质的相互作用英文The interaction between light and matter is afascinating topic that has been explored by scientists for centuries. In this article, we will walk through the various steps involved in this interaction and uncover some of the important concepts associated with it.Step 1: AbsorptionThe first step in the interaction between light and matter is absorption. When light strikes an object, it can either be transmitted through the material or absorbed by it. The absorbed energy is then converted into other forms, such as heat or chemical energy. The amount of light absorbed by a material depends on its color, texture, and chemical composition.Step 2: ReflectionThe second step in the interaction between light and matter is reflection. When light strikes a smooth reflective surface, such as a mirror, it bounces back with the same angle of incidence. The reflection of light is responsiblefor the images we see in mirrors and for the shiny appearance of metals and other materials.Step 3: RefractionThe third step in the interaction between light and matter is refraction. When light enters a different medium, such as air to water, it changes direction. This phenomenon is called refraction. The amount of refraction depends on the density and composition of the two media.Step 4: DiffractionThe fourth step in the interaction between light and matter is diffraction. When light passes through a small opening or around an object, it can bend and spread out. This is known as diffraction. Diffraction is responsible for the patterns we see in many natural phenomena, such as oceanwaves and sound waves.Step 5: InterferenceThe final step in the interaction between light andmatter is interference. When two or more light waves interact, they can either reinforce each other or cancel each other out. This is known as interference. Interference is responsiblefor many interesting patterns we see in nature, such as the iridescent colors on the wings of a butterfly.In conclusion, the interaction between light and matteris a complex and fascinating topic that has been studied by scientists for centuries. We have walked through the various steps involved in this interaction, including absorption, reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference. These concepts are critical to understanding the behavior of light and matter in our world.。
用QCD因子化方法研究B→PV两体弱衰变过程
第26卷 增刊 高能物理与核物理V o1.26，Supp. 2002年12月HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Dec.，2002 Two-Body B Decays to Pseudoscalar and Vector Mesonsin QCD Factorization ApproachYANG Mao-Zhi1 YANG Ya-Dong21 (Institute of High Energy Physics, CAS, Beijing 100039, China)2 (Department of Physics, Technion, Haifa 32000, Israel)Abstract Motivated by recent CELO measurements and the progress of the theory of B decays,B→PV(P=π, K; V= K*, ρ, ω) decay modes are studied in the framework of QCD factorization.All the measured branching ratios are well accommodated in the reasonable parameter space andpredictions for other decay modes are well below the experimental upper limits.Key words factorization, weak decay, mesonB physics is one of the most important fields nowadays because it is of great help for testing the quark flavor mixing theory of the standard model and exploring the source of CP violation. Most of the theoretical studies of B decays to pseudocalar and vector final states are based on the popular Naive Factorization approach[1]. As it was ponited out years ago in Ref. [2], the dominant contribution in B decays comes from the so-called Feynman mechanism, where the energetic quark created in the weak decay picks up the soft spectator softly and carries nearly all of the final-state meson's momentum. It is also shown that Pion form factor in QCD at intermediate engery scale is dominated by Feynman mechanism[3—5]. From this point, we can understand why the naive factorization approach have worked well for B and D decays, and the many existing predictions for B decays based on naive factorization and spectator ansatz do have taken in the dominant physics effects although there are shortcommings. However, with the many new data available from CLEO and an abundance of data to arrive within few years from the B factories BaBar and Belle, it is demanded highly to go beyond the naive factorization approach.Recently, Beneke et al., have formed an interesting QCD factorization formula for B exclusive nonleptonic decays[6,7]. The factorization formula incorporates elements of the naive factorization approach (as leading contribution) and the hard-scattering approach (as subleading corrections), which allows us to calculate systematically radiative(subleading nonfactorizable) corrections to naive factorization for B exclusive nonleptonic decays. An important product of the formula is that the strong final-state interaction phases are calculable, which arise from the2 高能物理与核物理(HEP &NP) 第26卷hard-scattering kernel and hence process dependent. The strong phases are very important for studying CP violation in B decays.The amplitude of B decays to two light mesons, say M 1 and M 2, is obtained through the hadronic matrix element <M 1(p 1) M 2(p 2)⏐O i ⏐B (p )>, here M 1 denotes the final meson that picks up the light spectator quark in the B meson, and M 2 is the another meson which is composed of the quarks produced from the weak decay point of b quark. Since the quark pair, forming M 2, is ejected from the decay point of b quark carrying the large energy of order of m b , soft gluons with the momentum of order of ΛQCD decouple from it at leading order of ΛQCD /m b in the heavy quark limit. As a consequence any interaction between the quarks of M 2 and the quarks out of M 2 is hard at leading power in the heavy quark expansion. On the other hand, the light spectator quark carries the momentum of the order of ΛQCD , and is softly transferred into M 1 unless it undergoes a hard interaction.Any soft interaction between the spectator quark and other constituents in B and M 1 can be absorbed into the transition form factor of B →M 1. The non-factorizable contribution to B →M 1 M 2 can be calculated through the diagrams in Fig.1.Fig. 1. Order αs non-factorizable contributions in B →M 1M 2 decays.The O i 's incorporated in Fig.1 are the operators in the effective Hamiltonian for B decays [8], ⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+++⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛++=∑∑∑∑====21103g g ccqcb 21103g g uuq ub F eff2i i i i i i *i i i i i i *O C O C O C V V O C O C O C V V G H , (1)Where()()A V A V O －－ββααu 1b u u q ⋅=, ()()A V A V O －－αββαu 2b u u q ⋅=, ()()A V A V O －－ββααc 1b c c q ⋅=, ()()A V A V O －－αββαc 2b c c q ⋅=,()()AV A V O －－ββq αα3q q b q ′′⋅=∑′,()()AV A V O －－αβq βα4q q b q ′′⋅=∑′,()()AV A V O +′′′⋅=∑ββq αα5q q b q －, ()()A V A V O +′′′⋅=∑αβq βα6q q b q －, ()()A V A V e O +′′′′⋅=∑ββq q αα7q q b q 23－, ()()A V A V e O +′′′′⋅=∑αq q b q 23βq q βα8－,增 刊 杨茂志等：用QCD 因子化方法研究B →PV 两体弱衰变过程 3()()A V A V e O －－ββq q αα9q q b q 23′′⋅=∑′′, ()()A V A V e O －－αβq q βα10q q b q 23′′⋅=∑′′, ()()AA a g G b R m g O µνβαβµνλσ2/d π8/b 2s =. (2)Here q=d, s and (q'ε {u, d, s, c, b}), α and β are the SU (3) color indices and , A =1,...,8 are the Gell-Mann matrices, and denotes the gluonic field strength tensor. The Wilson coefficients evaluated at µ=m AαβλAG µνb scale are[8]C 1= 1.082, C 2=−0.185, C 3= 0.014, C 4=−0.035, C 5= 0.009, C 6=−0.041,C 7=−0.002/137, C 8=0.054/137, C 9=−1.292/137, C 10=0.262/137, C g =−0.143. (3) The non-factorizable contributions to B →M 1M 2 can be calculated through the diagrams in Fig.1. The details of the calculations can be found in Ref. [9]. In the numerical calculations we use[10]τ (B +) = 1.65×10－12s, τ (B 0) = 1.56×10－12s,M B = 5.2792GeV , m b = 4.8GeV , m c = 1.4GeV , f B= 0.180GeV , f π = 0.133GeV , f K = 0.158GeV , f K * = 0.214GeV , f ρ = 0.21GeV , f ω = 0.195GeV .For the chiral enhancement factors for the pseudoscalar mesons, we takeR π ±π= R K ±, 0 = －1.2 ,which are consistent with the values used in [6, 11, 12]. We should take care for R π0. As pointedout in Ref. [7], R π0 for π0 should be －2M /(m 2b (m u + m d )) and equal to R π± due to inclusion ofisospin breaking effects correctly.For the form factors, we take the results of light-cone sum rule[13,14]F B →π(0)=0.3, F B →K (0)=1.13F B →π(0), A =0.372, A =0.470,ρB 0→*K B 0→and assume (0)=1.2(0) since we find larger (0) is preferred by experimental data.ωB 0→A ρB 0→A ωB 0→A We take the leading-twist distribution amplitude (DA) φ(x ) and the twist-3 DA φ0(x ) of light pseudoscalar and vector mesons as the asymptotic form[15]φP,V (x ) =6x (1－x ), (x ) =1. (4) 0P φFor the B meson, the wave function is chosen as[16,17]()(),xM x x N x ⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡=2B 22B 22B B 2exp 1ωφ－－ (5)with ωB =0.4GeV , and N B is the normalization constant to make(x ) =1. φ∫1Bd φx B (x ) is stronglypeaked around x =0.1, which is consistent with the observation of Heavy Quark Effective Theory that the wave function should be peaked around ΛQCD /M B .We have used the unitarity of the CKM matrix V *uq V ub +V *V cq cb +V *tq V tb =0 to decompose the4 高能物理与核物理(HEP &NP)第26卷amplitudes into terms containing , V *uq V ub and V *V cq cb , and⏐V us ⏐=λ=0.2196, ⏐V ub /V cb ⏐=0.085±0.02, ⏐V cb ⏐=0.0395±0.0017, ⏐V ud ⏐=1－λ2/2 . (6) We leave the CKM angle γ as a free parameter.The numerical results of the branching ratios B →PV are shown in Fig.2 as the function of CKM angle γ. We can see from Fig. 2(a), (b) and (c) that for the three detected channels the predicted branching ratios agree well with the CLEO experiment data [18]. Our predictions for other decay modes are well below their 90% C.L. upper limits.There are several works available with detailed analysis of the CLEO new data of the decays of B to charmless PV states[11,12,19]. It is worth to note that the shortcomings in the “generalizedfactorization” are resolved in the framework of QCD Factorization. Nonfactorizable effects are calculated in a rigorous way here instead of being parameterized by effective color number. Since the hard scattering kernals are convoluted with the light cone DAs of the mesons, gluon virtualityk 2=2b m x in the penguin diagram Fig. 1(e) has well defined meaning and leaves no ambiguity as tothe value of k 2, which has usually been treated as a free phenomenological parameter in the estimations of the strong phase generated though the BSS mechanism [20]. So that CP asymmetries are predicted soundly in this approach. We present the numerical result of the branching ratios of B →PV decays in Table 1 with the relevant strong phases shown explicitly. It shows that the strong phases are generally mode dependent.Table 1. Strong phases in the branching ratios (in units of 10－6) for thecharmless decays modes studied by CLEO. (γ =Arg V *u b )B (B －→π－ρ0)=6.65⏐0.11e －i86.5°+e －i γ⏐2B (0B →π+ρ－)=19.79⏐0.11e i9.02°+e －i γ⏐2B (0B →π－ρ+)=13.43⏐0.03e i172°+e －i γ⏐2B (B －→π－ω)=10.59⏐0.065e i26.01°+e －i γ⏐2B (0B →π0ρ0)=0.11⏐0.21e 2.90°+e －i γ⏐2B (B －→π0ρ－)=10.81⏐0.176e i7.20°+e －i γ⏐2B (0B →π－ω)=1.49×10－3⏐1.64e i148°+e －i γ⏐2B (B －→K －ρ0)=0.55⏐0.24e －i162°+e －i γ⏐2B (B －→π－⎯K *0)=0.0012⏐56.4e －i15.7°+e －i γ⏐2B (B －→K －K *0)=0.030⏐2.86e i164°+e －i γ⏐2B (B －→π0K *－)=0.59⏐2.80e －i169°+e －i γ⏐2B (B －→K －ω)=0.80⏐0.48e －i9.23°+e －i γ⏐2B (0B →K 0ω)=0.72⏐0.81e －i 11.8°+e －i γ⏐2B (⎯B 0→K －ρ+)=0.96⏐0.63e －i7.20°+e －i γ⏐2B (0B →π0⎯K *0)=0.004⏐12.89e i67.61°+e －i γ⏐2Hou, Smith and W ürthwein have performed a model dependent fit using the recent CLEOdata and found γ =114degree. Using SU (3) flavor symmetry, Gronau and Rosner have analyzedthe decays of B to charmless PV final states extensively and found several processes are consistent with cos γ < 0. In this paper we find cos γ < 0 is favored by the B 2521+－－→π－ρ0 and ⎯B 0→π－ρ++π+ρ－ if their experimental center values are taken seriously. To meet its center value with cos γ < 0 , B －→π增 刊 杨茂志等：用QCD 因子化方法研究B →PV 两体弱衰变过程 5－ω would indicate larger form factor i.e. A (0) > A (0). In our numerical calculation, wehave taken A (0) = 0.446 which is still consistent with the LCSR results 0.372 ± 0.074ω→B 0ρ→B 0ω→B 0[13]. It isalso interesting to note that ⎯B 0→π+ρ－ is suppressed by cos γ < 0 while ⎯B 0→π－ρ+ is enchanced. The defference between Br (⎯B 0→π+ρ－) and Br (⎯B 0→π－ρ+) is much more sensitive to γ than their sum.6 高能物理与核物理(HEP &NP) 第26卷Summarywe have calculated the branching ratios and CP asymmetries of the charmless decays B →PV(P = (π, K), V= (ρ,ω, K *)) in QCD factorization approach. We have used LCSR formfactors F B →π,K (0) and A (0) as inputs. The results of Br (B *K ,0ρ－→π－ρ0) and Br (⎯B 0→π±ρ) agree with CLEO m [18]very well and favor cos γ < 0 if their experimental center values are taken seriously. To meet its experimental center value and cos γ < 0, the decay B －→π－ω will prefer larger form factor (0). For the other decay modes, the branching ratios are predicted well below their 90% C.L. upper limits given in Ref. [18].ωB 0→A References1 Bauer M, Stech B, Wirbel M. Z. Phys., 1985, C29: 637; Z. Phys., 1987, C34: 1032 Chernyak V L, Zhitnitsky L R. Nucl. Phys., 1990, B345: 1373 Isgur N, Llewelyn-Smith C H. Phys. Rev. Lett., 1984, 52: 1080; Nucl. Phys., 1989, B317: 5264 Radyushkin A V . Acta Phys., 1984, Pol. 15: 4035 Stefanis N G . hep-ph/99113756 Beneke M, Buchalla G , Neubert M. Phys. Rev. Lett., 1999, 83: 19147 Beneke M, Buchalla G , Neubert M et al. hep-ph/00061248 Buchalla G , Buras A J, Lautenbacher M E. Rev. Mod. Phys., 1996, 68: 1125 9 YANG M Z, YANG Y Y . Phys. Rev., 2000, D62: 114019 10 Particle Data Group. Eur. Phys. J., 1998, C3: 1 11 CHENG H Y , YANG K C. hep-ph/991029112 HOU W S, Smith J G , W ürthwein F W. hep-ex/9910014 13 Ball P, Braun V M. Phys. Rev., 1998, D58: 094016 14 Ball P. JHEP09, 005(1998)15Lepage G P, Brodsky S J. Phys. Lett., 1979, B87: 359; Chernyak V L, Zhitinissky A R. Phys. Rep., 1983, 112: 173; Braun V M, Filyanov I E. Z. Phys., 1990, C48: 239 16 Keum Y Y , LI H -N, Sanda A I. Phys. Lett., 2001, B504: 2; Phys. Rev., 2001, D63: 054008 17 LÜ C D, Ukai D, YANG M Z. Phys. Rev., 2001, D63: 07400918 CLEO Collaboration. CLEO CONF 99-13; CLEO Collaboration. CLNS 99/1652 and CLEO 99-19 19 Gronau M, Rosner J L. Phys. Rev., 2000, D61: 073008 20Bander M, Silverman D, Soni A. Phys. Rev. Lett., 1979, 43: 242增刊杨茂志等：用QCD因子化方法研究B→PV两体弱衰变过程7 用QCD因子化方法研究B→PV两体弱衰变过程杨茂志1 杨亚东21 (中国科学院高能物理研究所北京 100039)2 (Department of Physics, Technion, Haifa 32000, Israel)摘要基于最近CLEO实验和B介子物理中理论研究的进展, 在QCD因子化方案下研究了B介子到一个赝标π, K和一个矢量介子ρ, ω的两体弱衰变过程.在合理的参数范围内, 理论计算与实验相符得很好.关键词因子化弱衰变介子。
二语习得：876学科英语考研必备
二语习得/876/学科英语考研必备●C1 Introducing●What is SLA 4）p2●definition:SLA●scope:formal & informal & combination L2 leaning●process:three basic questions●answer:linguistic competence & linguistic performance●What is a second language 1+4）p3●definition: L2●contrast●foreign language●library language●auxiliary language●target language●What is a first language 1+2） p4●definition:L1● phenomenon●sequential multilingualism●simultaneous multilingualism●Linguistic perspective●C2 Foundation●Realistic foundation 5+2+3）p8-11●definition●bilingualism●multilingualism●monolingualism●multilingualism competence●monolingualism competence●motivation for older age●considerable effort●high level motivation (政治，经济，文化，宗教，两生活）●Reasons for uncertainty in language data 3●Theoretical foundation●the role of natural ability 1+5）p13●conclusion● fact (为什么说儿童有innate ability）●same●pronunciation●novel utterances（children grammar）●cut-off age●no intelligence●the role of social experience 5）p14●conclusion●intentional L1 teaching●source; vary●input; interactions●function●L1 vs L2●initial state●L1●innate capacity●L2●L1 knowledge●world knowledge●innate capacity●intermediate states●interlanguage●definition●characteristics●children grammar●definition (c4)●Basic processes●L1: Maturation●L2: Transfer●definition●positive transfer●negative transfer●Necessary conditions●L1: Input & reciprocal interaction●L2: Input●Facilitating conditions●L1: no extra●L2: 两内两外●final state●L1: native competence●L2: multilingual competence●Logical problems●definition●evidence●children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input theyreceive●poverty-of-the-stimulus● constraints and principles cannot be learned●universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language specific input●Framework of SLA 结构●50-60-70-80-90●definition: transformational-generative grammar●3 perspectives●C3 Linguistic●The Nature of language p32●characteristics●systematic●symbolic●social●levels●lexicon●phonology●morphology●syntax●discourse●Early approaches to SLA●Contrast Analysis (CA)●definition●goal●focus●theoretical foundation●structuralism●behaviorism●language transfer●process●easiest●needs to be learned●most difficult●types of interference 5)●advantages●comparative grammars●translation●communication&rhetoric●problems●behaviorist●predict●language-specific●Error Analysis●definition●internal focus; creativity ability●actual learner errors●procedure●collection●identification●errors VS mistakes●description●explanation●evaluation●shortcomings 3●ambiguity in classification●lack of positive idea●potential of avoidance●Interlanguage（4）p40●definition●intermedia state●inner forces; influenced L1 TL●third language●characteristics●systematic●dynamic●variable●reduced system●fossilization●definition●stable state●reasons（补●how to promote(补●Morpheme order studies词素顺序假设●definition p43●Monitor Model p45●Stephen Krashen (1978)●assumption: language acquisition devices语言习得机制（LAD）●Krashen's hypotheses (5)●Acquisition-learning Hypothesis●Monitor Hypothesis●Natural Hypothesis●Input Hypothesis●Affective filter Hypothesis●Universal Grammar p46-47●definition●L1 acquisition 只有innate konwladge 解释；konwledge includes what all knowledge have incommon●language acquisition需要用linguistic competence解释；linguistic competence 和 linguisticperformance 不同；knowledge 远远超过 input people receive, 这就是logical problem●principles+parameters●language faculty●definition p47●LAD●definition p47●Principles and parameters p47●UG的概念就是a set of principles, which are properties of all language in the world●其中有一些principles contain parameters, or points where there is a limited choice of settingsdepending on which specific language is involved●UG is not acquired in L1; UG already presented at birth as part of innate language faculty●儿童对specific language的习得就是从 limited parameters option 中 select然后 match thesettings which are educated in linguistic input●eg.English—head-initial; Japaneses—final-initial●UG&SLA p50-51●Initial state 起始状态●二语学习者可以用UG？—Four possibilities●full access●partial access●indirect access●no access●Nature and development of interlanguage●Constructionism p51●definition：IL development—progressive mastery of L2 vocabulary & morphologicalfeatures●stages & variability—incomplete specification of features●没能达到full feature specification是在intermediate level of development时fossilize的主要原因●why some success than other(5)●Function Approaches p52●定义●It refers to linguistic framwork with external focus; dating; information content; L is system ofcommunication 而不是set of rules●Function include structural function& pragmatic function●characteristic(与chumsky 的共同点）p53●focus on the use of language; underlying knowledge●the purpose of language is communication●beyond; discourse structure& how language is used in interaction●Four functional approaches比较有影响●Systemic Linguistics系统功能语言学p53●In 1950s developed by Halliday；a model; interrelated system; expressing meaning●Language acquisition需要被看作mastery of linguistic functions; learning language oslearning how to mean●二语习得的过程包括mastering certain basic function & developing a meaningpotential for each●evolution of pragmatic functions in early L1 acquisition●Instrumental●Regulatory●Interactional●Personal●Heuristic●Imagination●Representational●Functional Typology 功能类型学p55●definition●markedness 标记理论●在category里distinguish marked/unmarked●unmarked-more frequently; normal ; unexpected●unmarked- easy transfer; marked- difficult to learn●eg. SVO-marked; SOV- unmarked●Function-to-form mapping 功能形式匹配p57●definition●interlanguage ; involves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmaticfunction●basic concept: grammaticalization语法化：context-lexical-grammar；eg. I playsoccer-I play soccer yesterday- I played soccer ; grammaticalization process: relianceon context/lexicon reliance on grammatical elements；change from pragmaticmode syntactic mode= evolutionary in nature●information organizing 信息组织理论p58●definition●functional approach-utterance structure; the way learners put their words together●task: describing the structure of interlanguage; what organizational principles guidelearner; how the principles interact with one another●developmental levels●nominal utterance(只用名词）●infinite utterance organization (添加无语法动词）●finite utterance organization（正确使用动词）●organizing principle●phrase constraints●semantic constraints●pragmatic constraints●C4 Psychology●language &brain●Neurolinguistic●The study of the location and representation of language in the brain●lateralization●definition p68●specialization of two halves of the brain●eg.the left hemisphere becomes specialized for most language activity, many believeduring a critical period for langage development.●plasticity 大脑可塑性●definition p68●The capacity of the brain to assume new functions.●In early childhood, if one area of the brain is damaged, another area of the brain is able toassume the function of the damaged area because it retains plasticity.●critical period hypothesis●content (3) ppt●Children；limited number of years；acquire their L1 flawlessly;●b) brain damage ；language areas; brain plasticity ；allow other areas；take over thelanguage functions；but beyond a certain age；normal language； not be possible●c) concept ; extended to SLA ; claim that only children are likely to achieve near-nativeproficiency in L2.●4 questions p70-72●learning process●Information processing●definition (3) p73●a cognitive framework; from controlled to automatic processing; invloves reorganization●mental processes ;input of new information; the formation,organization, and regulation ofinternal (mental) representations; and retrieval and output strategies● claim that learning language; like learning other domains of knowledge. Learning islearning.●assumption (10) p73-74●Content●总●acquisition of a complex cognitive skill; like the acquisition of other complexskills.●分层●Complex skills reduced to sets of simpler component skills; lower学完才能学higher●controlled●initially demands learners' attention; thus involves controlled processing.●Controlled processing requires considerable mental "space," or attentional effort.●人是limited-capacity processor；They can attend to a limited number ofcontrolled processing demands at one time.●从controlled到automatic●practice；Automatic processing requires less mental "space" and attentionaleffort.●freeing learners' controlled processing capacity for new information and higher-order skills.●转化过程包括restructuring or reorganization of mental representations.●Reorganizing：more coordinated,integrated, and efficient, including a fasterresponse time when they are activated.●In SLA, restructuring of internal L2 representations, along with larger stores inmemory accounts for increasing levels of L2 proficiency.● Terms 名解 PPT●Controlled processing●a) initial state ；demands learner's attention；requires mental space or attentiohaleffort.●b) select appropriate symbols and apply the right rules, difficult or impossible ;simultaneously pay attention to higher-order content or creative processing.●Automatic processing●a) A part of IP ;a state after controlled processing; demands less mental space orattentional effort. from controlled to automatic; practice●b) Where tasks that initially require attentional control become automatized withpractice; they then generally remain out of conscious awareness unless someunusual occurrence returns them to controlled processing.●Stage (3)●Input●definition（2）p74●whatever sample of; not available; notice●intake●features提高degree of noticing or awareness●frequency●saliency重要性●Instructional strategies●processing ability●task demands●Output●definition●language;produce;speech sign writing●Importance/hypothesis (6) p75●enhance fluency; automaticity●noticing gap; relevant information●testing hypothesis; interlanguage●eliciting relevant input●generating input● provide opportunity; feedback●Central processing (2) p75●declarative stage●definition●isolated fact/rule●slow; attentional control●procedural stage●definition●longer-associated units ;increasing automatization●frees attentional; higher-level skills●restructuring●central processing; mental representation; coordinate integrated efficient●discontinuous plane; regular systemic reorganization and reformulation●U-shaped development (U型发展理论）●sequence of acquisition●initially correct; followed by incorrect; again appearing as correct●分支理论●Theories regarding order of acquisition●Multidimensional model 多元模型理论p76●definition●grammatical structures；a developmental sequence●reflect：overcome processing limitation●successful; master ; precious stage●Processability Theory 可加工性理论p77●definition●sequence;processing skill; language learning●hierarchy (5)●Lemma/word●category procedure: grammatical information●Phrasal procedure●S-procedure●Clause boundary●competition model 竞争模型●definition（4）p78●mapping; external form& internal function●lexical item—auditory &function—semantic; string of lexical item—word-orderpatent and inflections& function— grammatical●eg. horse [hors]—meaning: animal●learning the system of form-function mapping; SLA adjusting internalizedsystem of mapping; 通过detecting cue完成；weight●Connectionist approaches p80●definition●approaches●关注association. stimuli&response而不是rules/restructuring●联结主义者认为learning change in the strength of connections●PDP(parallel distributing process)●处理发生于a net work of nodes; pathways●学习者exposed to repeated patterns; extract regularities formed/strengthened●association nodes; connection strengths; strength change frequency/feedback●difference: IP vs C approaches (3) p80-81●C : attention not central mechanism&distributed throughout processing system ; IP:available for controlled vs automatic●C: processing parallel—activate same time; ip in C not serial●C: not stored memory; as connection strengths●Difference in learners●Age p82●（简答、论述）●Sex●Aptitude p85●definition●individual characteristic; success; language learning●component (4)●phonemic coding ability●process auditory input segment; stored●inductive language learning ability●infer structure; identify patterns; make generalizations; recognize grammaticalfunction; formulate rules●grammatical sensitivity●infer structure; identify patterns; make generalizations; recognize grammaticalfunction; formulate rules●association memory capacity●how store; how recall; determine appropriate selection& speak fluency●Personality p90●anxiety low●self confidence high●introvert low; extrovert high●Cognitive style p87●definition●preferred way of processing perceiving conceptualizing organizing &recalling information●interaction learning context; personality; learning strategies●type●field-dependent &field-independent●FD●global &hostile●contextualized interactive communicative●FI●particular & analytic● decontextualized analytic approaches&formal instruction●Deductive & Inductive●Deductive (top-down)●prediction/rule; applies●Inductive (bottom-up)●examining input/ discover pattern; formulate a generalization; apply deductiverule●focus on forms/focus on meaning●Age●sensory preference● visual●auditory●kinesthetic(movement-oriented●tactile (touch-oriented)●Motivation p86●definition●a need/desire●level of effort; ultimate level of proficiency●component●significant goal or need●desire to attain the goal●perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need●Belief in the likely success or failure of learning L2●Value of potential outcomes/rewards●types●Integrative motivation●interest; associate people; community ; emotional/affective factors●Instrumental motivation●practical; occupational/business; prestige/power; technical information; passing acourse●Learning Strategies p91●影响因素●behavior techniques●nature of their motivation/cognitive style/personality/context●age sex aptitude●typology●Metacognitive●regulate; planing&monitoring●eg. previewing; self-monitoring progress●Cognitive●make use of direct analysis/synthesis of linguistic materials●eg. repeating; translating●Social/affective●interaction with others●eg. interact with native speaker●good learners●form&meaning● communication●active●awareness●use strategies flexibily●The effects of multilingualism●Advantages (5) p93●show in both verbal & nonverbal abilities●metalinguistic ability●bilingual situation; systematic use●cognitive effects appear early●frequency of private speech●Disadvantages p94●capacity limitation in LA &maintenance●narrower range of lexical development●reduce accessibility of L1●C5 Social Contexts●Communicative competence●communicative competence●definition p100●what speakers need to know to communicate appropriately●linguistic structure(when ; why ; whom ; how);social and cultural knowledge●to use and interpret linguistic forms●components●linguistic●pragmatic●discourse●strategy competence●fluency competence●language community●definition●a group of people; share knowledge of a common language●elaboration p100●Microsocial factors●variation in learner language 变异性p102●variable features●forms ; systematically or predictably use; different speakers ; same speaker different times;occur at every linguistic level●standard & nonstandard options, whether L1/L2●eg. I ate diner VS I ate supper (variable vocabulary)●communicative contexts 出现背景 p102-103●linguistic context●elements of language form and function●eg. coming VS comin●psychological contexts●attention & the level of automaticity/intellectual demands●eg. This is a big book ; formal●Microsocial contexts●communicative events●includes level of formality ; participants’ relationship ; interaction is public orintimate●Microsocial factors●larger political setting●social position/role of users/societal attitude●nature of variability changes(stages) p105●single form●other form●used interchangeably●used systematically●non-targeted forms are weliminated●register 语域 p103●definition●variety of language that used in particular situation●restricted sense: variety of language related to one’s occupation●border sense: the type of language; appropriate to the type of situation●Accommodation Theory 适应性理论 p103●speakers ; unconsciously change pronunciation&grammatical complexity ; more likewhomever they are talking to●Input & interaction●role of input p103●Nature of input modification●foreigner talk 外国人谈话●definition●language ; L1 speakers to L2 learners ; differ in systematic ways●characteristics●Simple vocabulary, using high-frequency words and phrases●Long pauses●Slow rate of speech●Careful articulation●Loud volume●Stress on key words●Simplifie grammatical structures●Topicalization (topic at the beginning, then a comment about it)●More syntactic regularity●Retention of full forms (e.g.less contraction, fewer pronouns)●written input (in academic texts)●definition●controlled vocabulary; shorter&simpler sentences structure●meant to help L3 students understand ; the same as ; used in textbooks for nativespeakers of English●characteristics●Frequent organization markers, such as headings and linking devices●Clear topic statements●Highlighting of key terms and inclusion of synonyms and paraphrase●Bulleted or numbered lists of main points●Elaboration of sections which require culture-specific background knowledge●Visual aids, such as illustrations and graphs●Explicit summations at regular intervals●Questions which can be used for comprehension checks●Nature of interactional modifications●negotiation of meaning●definition p109●between NSs&NNSs ; preventing or repairing breakdowns in communication●devices p108●Repetition●more time for processing ; confirm/correct perception●Paraphrase●increase vocabulary store●Expansion&elaboration●models of contextually relevant utterances●sentence completion; frames for substitution●words/chunks; can use in subsequent turns of talk●vertical constructions●construct discourse sequences●comprehension checks ; requests for clarification●focus attention ; segments ;unclear●repetition/paraphrase/additional background information is acquired●other devices●selecting topic/switching topic●Feedback p110●definition●information provided to students about whether production or interpretation of L useis correct●corrective feedback ; necessary for most learners; reach native-like level ofproficiency●分类●direct correction●explicit statement; eg. “That is the wrong word”●explanations ; eg. point of grammar and usage●Indirect correction●comprehension check; request for clarification●rising intonation question●paraphrase●Intake to cognitive processing/ Interaction Hypothesis互动假设 p111●modification&collaborative efforts ; octal interaction ; facilitate SLA ; contribute to theaccessibility of input for entail processing: “negotiation of meaning’●facilitates acquisition because it connects input , internal learners capacities, particularlyselective attention and output in productive way●Interaction as the genesis of language●Socialcultural Theory (s-c) p111●definition (3) p111●key concept ; interaction ; not only facilitates; causative force ; further ; alllearning social process●L learned; socially mediated activities ; more successful participation in a learningcommunity / amount of meditation & make use of that help●differ from●linguistic approaches limited attention to structural patterns & emphasizinglearner activity and involvement●psychology approaches outside the learners●other social approaches interaction ; essential force●Symbolic mediation p111-112●occurs ; simple innate mental activities ; transformed into ; complex mental functions●link ; current mental state & higher order functions; provided by language●results ; heightened awareness of their own mental abilities & more control ;process●(简答）p113●Interpersonal interaction●definition p112●communicative event ; occur between people ; important context ; symbolicmeditation ; interpersonal interaction between learner&experts●Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) p112●area of potential development ; achieve ; with assistance●S-C ; mental functions ; beyond ; current ; performed in collaboration beforindependently●Scaffolding p112●metaphor; verbal guidance ;expert provides ; perform any specific task / verbalcollaboration of peers●happens ; learners ; active participant●vertical construction ; chunks of talk ;occurs when peers collaborate ; task ; toodifficult ; individually●Intrapersonal interaction●definition p113●communication ; within an individual’s own mind ; Vygotsky ; socialculturalphenomenon●eg. when reading ;engage in●second type ; occurs ; beginning stage ; make use of L1 resource (inner translation)●private speech p114●self-talk ; leads to inner speech ; use to control though and behavior●almost always verbalized in L1/&L2●private writing p116●record ; language forms& meaningful symbols ; on paper ; help store items inmemory , organize thought , solve problems●eg. keep journals/diaries of their learning experience●无习得互动无互动习得p116-117 (3)●Phenomenons●achieve advanced level without; interpersonal communication●engage in extensive interaction ; without learning ;developing little competence●Reasons●text & electronic media & interpersonal communication in the form of private speechand writing●strategies p117●background knowledge and experience●overall situation or event ; goal relationships●extralinguistic context●discourse structures●gestures, facial expressions● prosodic features of tone or stress●Macrosocial factors (5)●Global and national status of L1 & L2 p120●influence on SLA; power & status ; TL/NL ; official policies/cultural value●important symbolic function ; political identification and cohesion语言功能的一种重要象征符号是政治认同和凝聚力●L2 ; served political function ; conquest and empire-building●need; L2 learning ; resources in areas of commerce and information/technology transfer●Boundaries and identities p122 (2)●identity function of L ; by creating/reinforcing national boundaries ; also ; within/acrossnational borders ; serve both to unify speakers & exclude outsiders●Acculturation Model 文化适应模型●participate in another language community & identify /to be identified with ;requirelanguage●full participate; learning the culture & adapting values；whether or not occur ; groupmotivation●eg. factors ; inhibit L2 learners●dominance●segregation●preserve●Institutional forces and constraints p123●social institution ; power, authority, influence related to SLA ; social control , domination;linguistic privilege or discrimination●most obvious form; linguistic social control ; official or unofficial policies●access to education ; limited ; minority speakers●Social categories p124-125●additive bilingualism 附加式二语p127●dominant group learn the language of a subordinate group●subtractive bilingualism 削弱式二语p127●subordinate group learn the dominant l●影响loss的因素●the degree of opportunity for continued contact with their country of origin●the composition of families●L1 continues to fulfill an institutional function●Circumstances of learning p128 (2)●prior educational experience●larger social context; families ; communities ; the cultural environment●learner differences in cognitive style & learning strategies ; based in these experience●informal VS formal●informal/naturalistic learning●people contact ; interact with● live in multilingual society/family and friends is multilingual ; international traveland residence●formal/instructed learning●in schools; social institutions ; accord with needs, beliefs, values &customs of culturalsetting●C6 Acquiring Knowledge for L2 Use●Competence and use●Community competence●pragmatic competence●definition p134●Academic vs interpersonal competence●Academic competence p135●definition(2)●priorities●Interpersonal competence●definition(2)●priorities●Relationship p137 (2)●components of language knowledge●Vocabulary p138●Morphology p141●Phonology p142 (3)●Syntax p145●Discourse p150 (4)●Logical connectors●cohesion devices●definition●types●Receptive activities●Introduction●bottom-up processing p154●definition●各level对应作用●top-down processing p155●definition (2)●content knowledge●context knowledge●culture knowledge●Schemas●Reading●definition重要性p155●Reading ability (6) p155-156●Academic reading p159 (3)●Listening●definition 重要性p159●分类●listening 有利p161 (5)●listening 不利 (4)●Academic listening (4)●Productive activities●Introduction●Bottom-up processing p162●Top-down processing p162●writing VS speaking●Writing●definition重要性p163●Academic writing p165●Speaking●definition 重要性p165●Speech Acts p167●definition●speaking competence p167 (3)●conversational structure●contextualization cues●communication strategies●typology of communication strategies●C7 L2 Learning and Teaching●What exactly dose L2 learner come to know p174(6)●How does the learner acquire L2 knowledge p175 (7)●Why are some learners more successful than others p177(7)●Implications for L2 learning and teaching。
互动用英语怎么说
互动用英语怎么说互动是各个功能系统的功能和心理活动的产生机制，即各个因素相互作用产生心理。
那么你知道互动用英语怎么说吗?下面来学习一下吧。
互动的英语说法1：interaction互动的英语说法2：interact互动的相关短语：社会互动 social interaction互动模式 Interactive Mode策略互动 Strategic interaction互动关系 interactive relationship互动发展 interaction development互动的英语例句：1. He mixed business and pleasure in a perfect and dynamic way.他以互动的方式将工作和娱乐完美地结合起来。
2. The following excerpt is illustrative of her interaction with students.接下来的节选部分可以说明她与学生的互动情况。
3. After initiation, the youths started to interact with the older members.入会仪式后，这些小伙子与老成员开始互动。
4. They feel they are interacting productively with elderly patients.他们觉得和年长的病人进行互动颇有益处。
5. The school believes in interactive teaching methods.这所学校相信互动教学法。
6. The psychotherapy is carried out in small interactive groups.这种心理治疗是在互动的小组之间进行的.7. Capitalist social formations reflect the interaction, or articulation, of different modes of production.资本主义社会结构反映了不同形式的生产方式之间的互动，或者说相互联系。
大学英语教程2读写译 UNIT 2
UNIT TWO
Background Notes Kay S. Hymowitz Kay S. Hymowitz is the William E. Simon Fellow at the Manhattan Institute and a contributing editor of City Journal. She writes extensively on childhood, family issues, poverty, and cultural change in America. Hymowitz is the author of 4 books including Marriage and Caste in America: Separate and Unequal Families in a Post-Marital Age and Liberation’s Children: Parents and Kids in a Postmodern Age. Her newest book, Manning Up: How the Rise of Women Is Turning Men Into Boys, was published by Basic Books in March, 2011. Ms. Hymowitz has also written for many major publications including The New York Times, the Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, The New Republic, New York Newsday, The Public Interest, The Wilson Quarterly, and Commentary. In addition to her writing, Hymowitz has presented her work at many conferences, most recently at “A New Era: Defining Civil Rights in the 21st Century,” sponsored by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights She sits on the board of the journal National Affairs and of Future of Children, a publication of the Brookings Institute and the Woodrow Wilson School. She has also discussed her work on numerous radio and television programs. BACK A native of Philadelphia, Hymowitz has degrees in English literature from Brandeis, Tufts, and Columbia University. She and her husband have
跨文化交际期末汇总
Unit 1 An IntroductionTerms/questions:1.Economic globalization 经济全球化: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology. 2．Global village 地球村: All the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the Internet.3．Melting-pot 大熔炉: a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities. 4．Cultural Diversity文化多样性: the mix of people from various backgrounds with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong.5．What are the four trends that lead to the development of the global village? (p8~9)全球化因素:1) Convenient transportation systems 便捷的交通系统2) Innovative communication systems 先进的通信系统3) Economic globalization 经济全球化4) Widespread migration 大规模移民6．The concept of cultureCulture: a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.7．What are the three ingredients of culture?1) Artifacts: the material and spiritual products people produce.2) Behavior: what they do3) Concepts: what they think (belief, values, world views……)8．Culture iceberg文化冰山(p7)Like an iceberg what we can see about culture is just the tip of the iceberg; the majority of it is intangible, beyond sight. and the part of culture that is visible is only a small part of a much bigger who le. It is said nine-tenth of culture is below the surface.Just as an iceberg which has a visible section above the waterline and a larger invisible section below the waterline, culture has some aspects that are observable and others that can only be s uspected and imagined. Also like an iceberg, the part of culture that is visible is only a small part of a much bigger whole. It is said nine-tenth of culture is below the surface.水面上: the aspect of culture that are explicit (明确的) , visible taught (可数的)水面下: intangible (无形的) , not taught directly9．Characteristics of culture1) Culture is shared: All communications take place by means of symbols.2) Culture is learned: Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from one’s social environment, not fromone’s genes.•Enculturation文化习得: All the activities of learning one’s culture are called enculturation.3)Culture is dynamic: culture is subject to change. It’s dynamic rather than static constantly changingand evolving and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.•Acculturation文化适应: the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.4) Culture is ethnocentric: the belief that your own cultural background is superior.※Ethnocentrism文化中心主义: the belief that your own cultural background is superior. 10．Communication: mean to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.11．Intercultural communication: communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter their communication event.12．Components of communication1) Source交际邀请The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.2) Encoding编码Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.3) Message编码信息The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process, the verb; the messa ge is the resulting object.4) Channel交际渠道The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted.5) Noise干扰The term noise technically refers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.6) Receiver交际接受The receiver is the person who attends to the message.7) Decoding解码Decoding is the opposite process of encoding and just as much an active process. The receiver isactively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received.8)Receiver response接受反应Receiver response refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message.9) Feedback反馈Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning.10) Context场景The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication. 13．Process of communication14．Characteristics of communication1) Communication is dynamic.2) Communication is irreversible.不可逆的3) Communication is symbolic.符号性的4) Communication is systematic. 系统的5) Communication is transactional. 交互式的6) Communication is contextual. 上下文的，受语境影响的15．相关案例与题目Case 1 (p1) Case2 (p2) Exercises A B2 C E (P12~13)Unit 2~4 Verbal CommunicationTerms/questions:1. Pragmatics语用学: the study of the effect that language has on human perceptions and behavior.2. Semantics语义学: a system that associates words to meaning. It is the study of the meaning of words.3. Denotation 字面意思: the literal meaning or definition of a word --- the explicit, particular, defined meaning.4. Connotation弦外之音: the suggestive meaning of a word --- all the values, judgment, and beliefs implied by a word the historical and associative accretion of the unspoken significance behind the literal meaning.5. Taboo 禁忌语: refers to some objects, words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons.6. Euphemism委婉语: means the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.7．How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing? Form of Address (p22~23)In Chinese the surname comes first and is followed by the given name/ but in English this order is reversed. Addressing by names:In China seniority is paid respect to. Juniors are supposed to address seniors in a proper way. The use of given names is limited to husband and wife, very close friends, juniors by elders or superiors/ Nowadays, more and more English-speaking people address others by using the first name, even when people meet for the first time. (Intimacy and equality)Addressing by relationship:Chinese often extend kinship terms to people not related by blood or marriage. These terms are used after the surname to show politeness and respect/ The English equivalents of the above kinship terms are not so used. Even with relatives, Americans tend to use just the first name and leave out the term of relationship. Addressing by title, office, profession:a nother common Chinese form of address is the use of a person’s title, office, profession to indicate the person’s influe ntial status. In English, only a few occupations or titles could be used. (P24) Americans tend to regard titles as trivial unless they have a clear idea of what kind of work a person does and what his responsibilities are.8．Social Functions of Compliments (p50)Compliments have a series of social functions: creating or reinforcing solidarity, greeting people, expressing thanks or congratulations, encouraging people, softening criticism, starting a conversation, or evenovercoming embarrassment.9．相关案例与题目Unit 2 Case 1 (p17) Case2 (p17~18) Case 4 (p19) Exercises A B2 C (P32~33)Unit 3 Case 3 (p45) Exercises A B1 C (P59~60)Unit 4 Case 1 (p67) Case2 (p69) Case 4 (p19) Exercises A C (P80~81)Unit 5 Nonverbal CommunicationTerms/questions:1．Chronemics 时间学：The study of how people perceive and use time.2．Monochronic time 一元时间观念: means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time. 3．Polychronic time 多元时间观念: means being involved with many things at once4．Proxemics 空间学: refers to the perception and use of space.5．Kinesics 肢体语言:the study of body language .6．Paralanguage 副语言: involving sounds but not word and lying between verbal and nonverbal communication.7．Nonverbal Communication, Its Study Areas (p95)1) Time language ; 2) Space language ; 3) Body language ; 4) Paralanguage8．Monochronic time VS Polychronic time (P97)Monochronic time is structured and often rigid everything is scheduled down to the minute and precautions are taken to guard against interruptions.People and cultures who run on Polychronic time multitask well. These people focus on maintainingpersonal relationships more than completing tasks.9．相关案例与题目Unit 5 Case 1 (p85) Case3 (p87) Case 6 (p90) Case 7 (p91) Exercises A B2 D E(P111~114)Unit 6 Cross-gender CommunicationTerms/questions:1．What has influenced the gender socialization? (p121)1) Family communicationParticularly between mothers and children, and recreational interaction among children2) Recreational interaction2．Gender and Sex are not synonymous. (p120)3．Differences between feminine and masculine communication cultures (p123)P123 Table 6.34．Understanding Cross-gender Communication. (p123~126)1)What counts as support?2)Tricky feedback.3)Expressing care.4)I’d rather do it myself.5．相关案例与题目Exercises A B2 (P129)Unit 7 Cultural Variations in Negotiation StylesTerms/questions:1．High-context cultures VS Low-context cultures•High-context cultures assign meaning to many of the stimuli surrounding an explicit message. Inhigh-context cultures, verbal messages have little meaning without the surrounding context, which includes the overall relationship between all the people engaged in communication.•Low-context cultures exclude many of those stimuli and focus more intensely on the objective communication event, whether it be a word, a sentence, or a physical gesture. In low-context cultures, the message itself means everything.2．相关案例与题目Case 1 (p137) Exercises A B3 (P152~153)Unit 9 Intercultural Personhood:An Integration Of Eastern and Western PerspectivesTerms/questions:1．Planetary culture 行星文化: is explored, which integrates Eastern mysticism with Western science and rationalism.2．Intercultural personhood 跨文化人格: Represents someone whose cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics are not limited but open to growth beyond the psychological parameters of his or her own culture.3．Theories of cultural values.Cultural values affect people’s attitudes about the form of behavior considered more appropriate and effective in a given condition.Over the years, a number of cross-cultural dimensions were developed by scholars.•Kluckhohn and S trodtbeck’s theory of value orientation.•Hofsted’s cultural dimensions4． What are the American/Chinese cultural values like in terms of cultural orientation put forward by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck?Looking at the phenomenon of culture. They came up with five basic questions at root of any culture’s value system.1) What is the character of innate human nature?2) What is the relation of man to nature?3) What is the temporal focus of human life?4) What is the mode of human activity?5) What is the mode of human relationships?5．Hofsted’s cultural dimensions文化取向Hofsted’s work was one of the earliest attempts to use extensive statistical data to examine cultural values. He identified four dimensions that he labeled.•Individualism versus collectivism 个人/集体主义•Power distance 权利距离•Uncertainty avoidance 不确定性规避•Masculinity versus femininity 男性/女性主义6．American cultural valuesAs far as the human culture is concerned, America culture holds that it is evil but perfectible though hard work. As to the relation of human to nature, they think mankind can conquer nature. They also have a linear time concept and therefore they are future-oriented. They focus on doing and think that only actions can solve the problem. They are quite individualistic and therefore they focus less on the benefits of the group. 7．Chinese culture valuesAs far as the human culture is concerned, Chinese culture holds that it is good but corruptible without proper education. As to the relation of human to nature, they think mankind can live in harmony with nature. They also have a cyclical time concept and therefore they are past-oriented. They have a being-and-becoming attitude towards activity and think that man should keep an inner peace as nothing is eternal. They are quite collective and therefore they focus more on the benefits of the group.8．相关案例与题目Case 3 (p186) Exercises A (P198)。
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The final-state interaction in tay of a heavy particle
Mahiko Suzuki
Department of Physics and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
arXiv:hep-ph/9807414v1 18 Jul 1998
Abstract
We attempt to understand the final-state interaction in the two-body nonleptonic decay of a heavy particle for which many multibody (N ≥ 3) decay channels are also open. No matter how many multibody channels couple to the two-body channels, the analyticity of the S-matrix relates the phase and the magnitude of the two-body decay amplitude through a dispersion relation. In general, however, the phase cannot be determined by strong interactions alone. The dispersion relation requires on a general ground that the finalstate interaction phases be small for the two-body decay amplitudes when the initial particle is very heavy. We then analyze the final-state interaction phases in terms of the s-channel eigenstates of the S-matrix and obtain semiquantitative results applicable to the B decay with a random S-matrix hypothesis. We use the high-energy scattering data and the dual resonance model as a guide to the relevant aspects of strong interaction dynamics at long and intermediate distances. PACS numbers: 11.55.Fv, 11.80.Gw, 12.40.Nn, 13.20.Fc, 13.20.He
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I. INTRODUCTION
The final-state interaction in the nonleptonic weak decay is difficult to estimate when a large number of multibody channels are open. While the short-distance final-state interaction is small [1] and its computation is noncontroversial, we have little understanding, theoretically or experimentally, of the long-distance final-state interactions. The long-distance final-state interaction phases were computed from the high-energy Regge exchange amplitudes in the elastic rescattering approximation [2,3]. The experimental data appeared in favor of large final-state interaction phases at least for the D decay [5]. It was asserted that the measured phases of the two-body D decay amplitudes can be reproduced in the elastic approximation to the final hadron interactions [6]. However, it is fairly obvious from an analysis of the partial-wave unitarity with the diffractive scattering [4] that the elastic approximation cannot be justified at high mass scales, for instance, in the B decay where the two-body final states can couple to a very large number of multibody final states. Even when we are interested in the final-state interaction phases of the twobody channels alone, we cannot determine them without knowing the coupling of the twobody channels to the multibody channels. The Regge amplitudes alone do not provide all necessary pieces of information. Actually, strong interactions and CP-conserving weak interactions are entangled in the decay phases. In this paper we shall make a modest attempt toward understanding of the inelastic final-state interactions. Because of the limitation in the numerical computation of the long-distance effects, we are able to present our results only in a semiquantitative way. We present two approaches here. The first one uses the analyticity of the S-matrix. For the two-body decay, the phase and the magnitude of amplitude are tightly related to each other by a dispersion relation no matter how many multibody channels couple to two-body channels. The same phase-amplitude relation does not hold for the multibody decay. So far no theorist has ever attempted to study the correlation between the phase and the magnitude from this aspect. No dynamical assumption is introduced in this approach. The origin of difficulty in the final-state interaction at high mass scales is in that so many channels are open and communicate with each other. In the second approach we analyze the decay in terms of the s-channel eigenstates of the S-matrix and treat a large number of open eigenchannels statistically by introducing a randomness hypothesis [7]. While we give up much of numerical predictability in this approach, we are still able to see general trends in the final-state interaction at high mass scales. Both approaches lead us to conclude that the long-distance final-state interaction phases should be small for two-body heavy hadron decay. Though our conclusion favoring small final-state interactions may be in line of some of the existing literature, our method and picture are completely orthogonal to them. In Section II, after a brief review of the analyticity of the decay amplitude into general N body channels, we derive for the two-body decay a dispersion relation which relates the phase and the amplitude through the Omn` es-Mushkelishvili integral [8]. Using this dispersion relation we separate from the physical decay amplitude the final-state interactions below an arbitrarily chosen timelike energy scale. We see in this form that a final-state interaction phase of any origin cannot persist to very high energies. In Section III, we shall study the final-state interaction phases from the viewpoint of the eigenphase shifts of the strong-interaction S-matrix. We write the hadron scattering 2