Chapter 4 Renaissance
Chapter 词汇学
2.2 Three Phases of the Historical Development
• For each phase of the development, the following points must be made clear:
– Time range – Features of English – Social and historical events that influenced English greatly
1. The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. 2. The Germanic tribes include Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. They were first allies of Celts to fight against Picts and Scots, but then they became new conquerors. 3. Angles, Saxons and Jutes all have their dialects. The Saxons were numerically superior to the Angles, but the latter were influential enough to impose their name on the whole. 4. Old English was almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian. It was a highly inflected language, of which nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowel changes or both.
4.Renaissance
How does the poet make a comparison in line 9-12 with line 7-8 ? The poet compares the transient beauty in nature with the eternal beauty of his love. He promises that his beloved will neither become less beautiful nor even die. Why does the poet claim so? Because he is immortalized through his poetry How does the couplet summarize the theme of the poem? Poetry gives timeless life to beauty.
Othello《奥瑟罗》 奥瑟罗》
1605 King Lear《李尔王》 李尔王》
Macbeth《麦克白》 麦克白》
1606 Antony and Cleopatra《安东尼与克莉奥佩特拉》 1607 Coriolanus 《科利奥兰纳斯》
Timon of Athens 《雅典的泰门》
The Fourth Period (1608—1602)
Shakespeare’s plays can be divided into four stages.
The First Period (1590—1594)
1590 Henry VI, Part II《亨利六世中篇》
Henry VI, Part III《亨利六世下篇》
1591 Henry VI, Part I 《亨利六世上篇》 1592 Richard III《理查三世》
英美文学作家及作品
PART ONE: ENGLISH LITERATURE 英国文学An Introduction to Old and Medieval English LiteratureChapter 1 The Renaissance Period 文艺复兴时期I. Edmund Spenser 埃蒙德.斯宾塞牧人日记《The Shepheardes Calender》仙后《The Faerie Queene》婚曲《Epithalamion》II. Christopher Marlowe 克里斯托夫.马洛帖木儿-----Tamburlaine浮士德博士的悲剧----Dr. Faustus爱德华二世----Edward II激情的牧人致心爱的姑娘---- The Passionate Shepherd to His LoveIII. William Shakespeare 威廉.莎士比亚哈姆莱特---Hamlet奥塞罗---Othello李尔王—King Lear麦克白--Macbeth终成眷属---All’s Well That Ends Well仲夏夜之梦—A Midsummer Night’s Dream威尼斯商人---The Merchant of Venice无事生非---Much Ado about Nothing皆大欢喜---As You Like It罗密欧和朱丽叶---Romeo and JulietIV. Francis Bacon 弗兰西斯.培根培根散文集---Essays学术的进展---The Advancement of Learning新工具----Novum Organum法律原理---Maxims of Law—论学习---Of StudiesV. John Donne 约翰.邓恩挽歌与讽刺----The Elegies and Satires歌与十四行诗---The Songs and Sonnets告别爱情----Farewell to Love圣十四行诗---Holly Sonnets圣父赞美诗----A Hymn to God the Father日出---The Sun Rising死亡，你别骄傲---Death, Be Not ProudVI. John Milton 约翰.弥尔顿失乐园---Paradise Lost复乐园---Paradise Regained力士参孙----Samson AgonistesChapter 2 The Neoclassical Period 新古典主义时期I. John Bunyan 约翰.班扬天路历程---The Pilgrim’s Progress罪人头目的赦免---Grace Abounding to the Chiel of Sinners拜得门先生生死录—The Life and Death of Mr. Badman圣战----The Holy WarII. Alexander Pope 亚历山大.蒲伯论批评---An Essay on Criticism夺发记---The Rape of the Lock群愚史诗---The Dunciad人伦---An Essay on Man译有荷马史诗《伊利亚特》、《奥德塞》III. Daniel Defoe 丹尼尔.笛福鲁滨逊漂流记----Robinson Crusoe辛利顿船长----Captain Singleton莫尔.弗朗德斯-----Moll Flanders杰克上校----Colonel Jack— <成为异教徒的捷径>---The Shortest Way with the Dissenters(1702) 让他身陷囹圄《地地道道的英国人》-The True-Born Englishman使他成为英王的好朋友。
文艺复兴英文版
Edmund Sperser
ⅠLife • He was hailed as the Poet's Poet. Spenser was born in a minor noble family. He received his M.A. degree in 1576. And he wrote The Shepherd's Calendar, a pastoral poem in twelve books, one for each month of the year. The shepherds in the poem represent the poet and his friends. He married Elizabeth Boyle in 1954 when he was over forty, and then wrote Epithalamion, a beautiful sonnet sequence and marriage ode, to celebrate this successful love affair culminating in marriage. In Ireland he also wrote his masterpiece The Faerie Queen. But his house was burned down in an Irish rising in 1599, and died for "want of bread".
•
②The plan of the whole poem is this: The Faerie Queene holds a feast of 12 days, and on each day a stranger in distress appears. A knight is assigned to each guest, and the 12 books were to describe the 12 adventures and his warfare represents the strife against a contrary vice, as symbolize England, and the evil figures stand for her enemies.
4The_Renaissance
The name "Wars of the Roses" is not thought to have been used during the time of the wars but has its origins in the badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. Lancaster. The term came into common use in the nineteenth century
由于一方面广泛借鉴古代戏剧英国中世纪戏剧以及欧洲新兴的文化艺术一方面深刻观察人生了解社会掌握时代的脉搏故使莎士比亚得以塑造出众多栩栩如生的人物形象描绘广阔的五光十色的社会生活图景并使之以悲喜交融富于诗意和想象寓统一于矛盾变化之中以及富有人生哲理和批判精神等特点著称
Unit 4 The Renaissance
*drama: Christopher Marlowe --- made “Blank Verse” the principle vehicle of expression in drama for the first time in history.
Historical Events
A. The Enclosure movement “ sheep devoured Men” B. The War of Roses (1455-1488) and the establishment of the dynasties of Henry VII and VIII—the centralized monarchy C. Flourishing in the Elizabethan Age (1558-1603
英国文学史课程考试大纲
Part One Early and Medieval English LiteratureChapter 1 The Making of EnglandI.The Britons : a tribe of Celts, the early inhabitants in the Island, form which (Britons)Britain ( i.e. Land of Britons) got its name.（识记，重点）II.The Roman Conquest : In 55 B.C. Britain was invaded by Julius Caesar, the Roman conqueror. The Roman conquest lasted for about 400 years (to AD 410). Road systems in London were built. （识记，重点）III.The English Conquest : Britain invaded by three tribes (pirates) from North Europe: The Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Seven kingdoms were established----then combined into a united kingdom called England (the land of Angles)--- the three tribes mixed into one people called English or the Angles, and the three dialects grew into one single language called Anglo-Saxon, or Old English. （识记，重点）IV.The Social Condition of The Anglo-Saxons (识记，一般)V.Anglo-Saxon Religious Belief and Its Influence: The Anglo-Saxons were heathen people, believing in old mythology in North Europe. They were Christianized in the 7th century.（识记，次重点）Chapter 2 BeowulfI.Anglo-Saxon Poetry: Beowulf (a poem of more than 3000 lines) is the national epic of theEnglish people. （识记，重点）II.The Story (理解，一般)III.Analysis of its Content(理解，一般)IV.Features （应用，重点）1)the use of alliteration ( certain accented words in a line begin with the same consonants;2)the use of metaphors/kennings (e.g. “Ring-giver” for king , or “whale’s road” for sea)3)the use of understatements (e.g. “not troublesome” for very welcome, “need not praise” for aright to condemn)Chapter 3 Feudal England1）The Norman ConquestI.The Danish Invasion (识记，一般)II.The Norman Conquest（1）The French-speaking Normans under Duke William came in 1066. William was later crowned as King of England.（识记，次重点）（2）The Norman Conquest marked the establishment of feudalism in England. （识记，次重点）（3）The influence of Norman Conquest on the English language. （应用，重点）2) Feudal England (skip)4)The RomanceI. The content of the Romance(1)The most prevailing kind of literature in Feudal England was the romance. （识记，重点）(2)The essence of the Romances id chivalry. （识记，次重点）II. The Romance Cycle(1)Matters of Britain (King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, the culmination of whichis Sir Gawain and the Green Knight); （理解，重点）(2)Matters of France; (识记，一般)(3)Matters of Rome. (识记，一般)Chapter 4 Langland（1）William Langland: author of Piers the Plowman;（2）Piers the Plowman is one of the greatest of English poems, written in the form of a dream vision,;（3）depicting the feudal England by allegory and symbolism. （识记，重点）Chapter 5 The English Ballads(1)definition of Ballad （应用，重点）(2)The most important department of English folk literature is the ballad. (识记，一般)(3)The Robin Hood Ballads （理解，重点）Chapter 6 Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1343-1400)(1) father/founder of English poetry(2) major works: Troilus and Criseyde; The Canterbury Tales（识记，重点）(3) The Canterbury Tales: （应用，重点）A. Dramatic structure: a framed story (definition); (识记，一般)B. realistic presentation of characters (e.g. Wife of Bath) and contemporary life; (识记，一般)C. Heroic couple (definition), which is Chaucer’s chief contribution to the metric scheme of theEnglish poetry; （理解，重点）D. He used London dialect (instead of Latin or French) as to write poetry, thus making EnglishLanguage of literature. （识记，重点）Part Two: The English RenaissanceChapter 1 Old English in TransitionI. The New Monarchy(1) Hundred Years War with France (1337-1453) (识记，一般)(2) The War of the Roses (1455-1485) (识记，一般)(3) Tudor Dynasty , a centralized monarchy (to meet the needs of the rising bourgeoisie(识记，一般)II. The Reformation(1) Henry VIII declared the break with Rome, and established Protestantism; (识记，一般)III. The English Bible(1)The first complete English Bible was translated by John Wycliffe (1324?-1384), themorning star of the Reformation,” and his foll owers. （识记，重点）(2)King James Bible, the Authorized Version. （识记，重点）V.The Enclosure Movement (识记，一般)VI.The Commercial Expansion (识记，一般)VII.The War with Spain(1)the rout of the Spanish fleet “ Armada” (Invincible)（识记，次重点）(2)The English Bourgeoisie came to the fore in the arena of history. (识记，一般)VII．The Renaissance and Humanism(1)definition of The Renaissance（应用，重点）(2)Humanism is the key-note of the Renaissance. （识记，重点）Chapter 2 More(1)Thomas More (1478-1535): the greatest of the English humanists, author of Utopia. （识记，重点）(2)Utopia（理解，重点）Chapter 3 The Flowering of English LiteratureI. The Flowering of English Literature （Skip）II. Sidney and Raleigh(1) Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1686): well-known as a poet and a critic of poetry. (识记，一般)(2) His Apology for Poetry is one of the earliest English literary essays. （理解，次重点）III. Edmund Spencer (1552-1599)(1) Known as “The Poet’s Poet”, held a position as a model of poetical art among theRenaissance English poets. （识记，重点）(2) The Faerie Queene （理解，重点）(3) The Spenserian Stanza （理解，重点）IV. John Lyly (1554?-1606) (skip)V. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)(1) founder of English materialist philosophy; (识记，次重点）(2) founder of modern science in England (Knowledge is power.) （识记，重点）(3) two works Advancement of Learning and New Instrument （put forward “Inductive method ofreasoning”）（识记，重点）(4) also famous for his Essays. （理解，重点）Chapter 4 DramaI. The Miracle Play(1) The highest glory of the English Renaissance was unquestionably its drama. （识记，重点）(2) English drama had roots reaching back to the miracle plays of the Middle Ages. （识记，一般）(3) definition of miracle plays (Based on Bible stories) （理解，次重点）II. The Morality Play(1) a little later than miracle plays. （理解，重点）(2) definition (conflict of good and evil with allegorical personages, such as Mercy, Peace, Hate,Folly and so on.) （理解，次重点）III. The Interlude（识记，一般）IV. The Classical Drama（识记，一般）Miracle plays, morality plays, interludes and classical plays were the forms of drama prevailing until the reign of Elizabeth and paved the way for the flourishing of drama. （识记，次重点）V. The London TheatreIn the 16th century, London became the center of English drama. （识记，一般）VI．The Audience（识记，一般）VII. The PlaywrightsThe University Wits (Lyly, Peele, Marlowe, Greene, Lodge and Nash) （识记，次重点）Chapter 5 Marlowe (1564-1593)I. The most gifted of the “university wits” was Christopher Marlowe. （识记，重点）II. Marlowe’s best includes three of his plays: Tamburlaine(1587); The Jew of Malta (1592);Doctor Faustus（识记，重点）III. Doctor Faustus（理解，重点）IV. Social significance of Marlowe’s Plays（理解，重点）V. Marlowe’s literary achievementMarlowe first made blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter) the principal instrument of English drama. （识记，重点）Chapter 6 Shakespeare (1564-1616)I. LifeWilliam Shakespeare was born in Stratford-on-Avon, a little town in Warwickshire. All through his life he wrote 37 (?39) plays, 154 sonnets and 2 long poems. He was acknowledged to be the summit of the English Renaissance.（识记，重点）II. A Chronological list of Shakespeare’s plays（识记，一般）III. Periods of his dramatic composition(1)The 1st period: Historical plays (his first theatrical success was his historicalplays Henry VI) and four comedies. （识记，一般）(2)The 2nd period: great comedies（识记，一般）(3)The 3rd period: great tragedies and dark comedies（识记，一般）(4)4th period: romances or reconciliation plays（识记，一般）IV. The Great Comedies: A Midsummer Night’s Dream; The Merchant of Venice; As You Like It;Twelfth Night（应用，重点）V. The Mature Histories(1) Henry IV（识记，一般）(2)The Image of Henry V: the symbol of Shakespeare’s ideal kingship. （识记，一般）(3) The image of Sir John Falstaff（理解，重点）VI. The Great Tragedies: Hamlet; Othello; King Lear; Macbeth（应用，重点）VII. Hamlet（应用，重点）（1）The story（识记，一般）(2)The character of Hamlet (hesitant humanist) （理解，重点）(3) The melancholy of Hamlet（理解，重点）VIII. The Later Comedies（识记，一般）IX. The Poems(1) Venus and Adonis（识记，一般）(2) The Rape of Lucrece（识记，一般）(3) sonnets (154, definition) （理解，重点）X. Features of Shakespeare’s Drama（理解，次重点）Chapter 7 Ben Jonson (1572-1637Mainly remembered for his comedies: Everyman in his Humour; Volpone, or The Fox; The Alchemist; Bartholomew Fair（识记，一般）Part Three The Period of the English Bourgeois RevolutionChapter 1 The English Revolution and the Restoration (skip)Chapter 2 John Milton (1608-1674)I. Life and work(1) Areopagitica: appealing for the freedom of press. （识记，重点）(2) three epics: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained; Samson Agonistes（识记，重点）II. Paradise Lost(1) The story（识记，一般）(2)Theme and characterization（理解，次重点）(3) The Image of Satan（理解，重点）III. Samson Agonistes（理解，次重点）IV. Brief summary （理解，次重点）Chapter 3 John Bunyan (1628-1688)(1)The Pilgrim’s Progress is a religious allegory. （识记，重点）(2)Content of The Pilgrim’s Progress（理解，重点）Chapter 4 Metaphysical poets and Cavalier poets(1)definition of “Metaphysical poetry”（理解，重点）(2)John Donne was the founder of the Metaphysical School. （识记，重点）(3)Other members of the metaphysical school: George Herbert (1593-1633); Andrew Marvell(1621-1678); Henry Vaughan (1622-1695) （识记，一般）Chapter 5 Some prose writers (Skip)Chapter 6 Restoration LiteratureI. Restoration Comedies (skip)II. John Dryden (1631-1700)(1)The most distinguished literary figure of the Restoration period (1660-1688), poet, playwright,and critic. （识记，重点）(2)An Essay of Dramatic Poesy established his position as the leading critic of the day. （识记，次重点）(3)He was the forerunner of the English classical school of literature in the next century. （识记，一般）Part Four The Eighteenth CenturyChapter 1 The Enlightenment and Classicism in English LiteratureI. The Enlightenment and the 18th century England(1) After the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, England became a constitutional monarchy and powerpassed form the King to the Parliament and the cabinet ministers. （识记，次重点）(2) The Enlightenment in Europe（理解，重点）(3) The English Enlighteners: The representatives of the Enlightenment in English Literature wereJoseph Addison and Richard Steele, the essayists, and Alexander Pope, the poet. （识记，重点）II. (Neo-)Classicism （理解，重点）Chapter 2 Addison and Steele1. Richard Steele (1672-1729) and The Tatler（识记，重点）2. Joseph Addison (1672-1719) and The Spectator（识记，重点）3. In the hands of Addison and Steele, the English essay completely established itself as a literary genre. Using it as a form a character sketching and story-telling, they ushered in the dawn of modern English novel.（识记，次重点）Chapter 3 PopeI. Life: Alexander Pope (1688-1774) is the most important poet in the first half of the 18th century.（识记，重点）II.Work1. Essay on Criticism(1711) (some proverbial maxims: For fools rush in where angels fear to tread. To err is human, to forgive, divine. A little learning is a dangerous thing.) （识记，重点）2. The Rape of the Lock (1714) （识记，一般）3. Pope’s Homer: He translated the entire Iliad and Half of the Odyssey. （识记，一般）4. Pope’s Shakespeare: He was an editor of Shakespeare’s plays.（识记，一般）5. The Dunciad (1728-1742) （识记，一般）6. Essay on Man (1732-1734) （识记，一般）III. Workmanship and limitationPope is the most important representative of the English classical poetry and was at his best in satire and epigram. （识记，重点）Chapter 4 Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)1. His works:(1) A Tale of a Tub : a satire upon all religious sects. （识记，次重点）(2) The Battle of Books: an attack on pedantry in the literary world of the time. （识记，次重点）(3) Bickerstaff Almanac （识记，一般）(4) Gulliver’s Travels: a political satire（理解，重点）2.His style: 1）simple, clear and vigorous language (“ Proper words in proper places, makes the true definition of a style); 2）master of satire and irony（识记，次重点）Chapter 5 Defoe and the Rise of the English NovelI. The Rise of the English Novel: The modern English novel in the 18th century.（识记，重点）Important novelists: Defoe, Swift, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne. （识记，次重点）II. Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)(1)His works: Robinson Crusoe(1719);Captain Singleton(1720); Moll Flanders(1722);Colonel Jacque (1722) （识记，次重点）(2)Robinson Crusoe: 1) the story; 2) the character of Robinson Crusoe (the representative ofthe rising bourgeoisie, practical and exact, religious, mindful of profit, colonizer) （理解，重点）Chapter Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)His Novel: Pamela (, or, Virtue Rewarded: In a Series of Familiar Letters from a Beautiful Young Damsel to Her Parents): epistolary novel (novel of letters) （理解，重点）Chapter 7 Henry Fielding （1707-1754）1.Father of the English novel（识记，重点）2. Joseph Andrews（识记，一般）3. Jonathan Wild (exposing the English bourgeois society and mocking its political system) （识记，一般）4. (The History of )Tom Jones, (A Foundling)1)The Story（识记，一般）2)Characterization（识记，一般）5. Fielding as the founder of the English realist novels（理解，重点）6. Some features of Fielding’s novels. （应用，重点）Chapter 8 Smollett and SterneI. Tobias Smollett (1721-1771)(1) Roderick Random (1748): first important work by Smollett. It is a picaresque novel (i.e. a novelof travels and adventures). （识记，重点）(2)Humphry Clinker (1771): the best and pleasantest of Smollett’s novels (also a picaresque novlenarrated in the form of letters.) （识记，一般）II. Lawrence Sterne (1713-1768)1. (The Life and Opinions of) Trstram Shandy(1760-1767): a plotless, formless novel full ofdigressions, following “stream of consciousness”.（理解，重点）2. A Sentimental Journey(giving the name of the School of “sentimentalism”).（识记，重点）3. Sterne is remembered as a representative of sentimentalism in the 18th century. （识记，重点）Chapter 9 18th Century Drama and Sheridan1. Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816)1) The Rivals( Mrs. Malaprop, thus giving the term “malapropism”, which means a ridiculousmisusage of big words.) （识记，次重点）2) The School for Scandal: a great “ comedy of manners”, a satire of English high society. （理解，次重点）Chapter 10 JohnsonSamuel Johnson (1709-1784): mainly remembered for his Dictionary. （识记，重点）Chapter 11 Goldsmith (1730-1774)I. A representative of sentimentalists（识记，重点）II. Work:1. poems: The Traveler and The Deserted Village（识记，次重点）2. Novel: The Vicar of Wakefield ( Goldsmith’s masterpiece, for which he was acknowledged to beone of the representatives of English sentimentalism.) （识记，重点）3. Comedies:1) The Good-natured man (1768), a comedy of character; （识记，一般）2) She stoops to conquer (1773), a comedy of manners; （识记，一般）4. Essays: The Citizens of the World (1762), a collection of essays（识记，一般）Chapter 12 GibbonEdward Gibbon (1737-1794): author of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire（识记，重点）Chapter 13 Sentimentalism and Pre-Romanticism in PoetryI. Sentimentalism in English poetry: Thomas Gray (1716-1771) famous for his Elegy Written in aCountry Churchyard, which is a model of sentimental poetry, and fromwhich Gray was called a poet of “Graveyard School”. （识记，重点）II. Pre-RomanticismChapter 14 William Blake1) Songs of Innocence（理解，重点）2) Songs of Experience（理解，重点）3) T he Marriage of Heaven and Hell（识记，一般）4) His position in English poetry （识记，一般）Chapter 15 Robert Burns1. A poet of the peasants; （识记，重点）2. Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect; songs written in the Scottish dialect on a variety of subjects (some examples: A Red, Red Rose; My Heart’s in the Highlands. Auld Lang Syne) （识记，重点）Part Five: Romanticism in EnglandChapter 1 The Romantic Period1. Romanticism (definition and characteristics)（应用，重点）2. Lake poets (or Lakers, or escapist romanticists): Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey（识记，重点）3. Active romanticists: Byron, Shelley and Keats. （识记，重点）4. Romantic prose was represented by Lamb, Hazlitt, De Quincey; （识记，一般）5. The only great novelist in this period was Walter Scott. （识记，重点）Chapter 2 William Wordsworth (1770-1850)1. In 1798, Wordsworth and Coleridge jointly published Lyrical Ballads, which marked the break with the conventional poetic tradition of the 18th century Neo-classism, and the beginning of the Romantic revival in England. （识记，重点）2. In the preface to the Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth set forth his principles of poetry. ( “All good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling.”) （识记，次重点）3. Some of his short lyrics: Lines Written in Early Spring; To the Cuckoo; I wandered lonely as a Cloud; My Heart Leaps Up; Intimations of Immortality; Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abby; The Solitary Reaper. （识记，次重点）Chapter 3 Coleridge and SoutheyI. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)Poems: The Rime of The Ancient Mariner; Kubla Khan（识记，重点）II. Robert Southey (1774-1843) : one of the Lakers. （识记，一般）Chapter 4 George Gordon Byron (1788-1824)1. Childe Harold Pilgrimage( written in Spenserian stanza a 9-line stanza rhymed ababbcbcbcc)（理解，重点）2. Don Juan: his masterpiece, written in “ottva rima”, each stanza containing 8 iambic pentameterlines rhymed abababcc)（理解，重点）3. Byronic Hero (definition) （理解，重点）Chapter 5 Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1882)1. Queen Mab: Shelley’s first long poem of import ance, in the form of a fairy-tale dream,presenting his views on philosophy, religion, morality and social problems. （理解，重点）2. The Revolt of Islam (expressing his political and aesthetic ideas) （识记，重点）3. Prometheus Unbound: Shelley’s masterpiece, a lyrical drama in 4 acts, symbolizing man’sstruggle against tyranny and oppression. （理解，重点）4. The Masque of Anarchy(criticizing “free competition”)（识记，次重点）5. Song to the Men of England (calling on the working class to rise against the ruling oppressors)（识记，次重点）6. Lyrics on Nature and Love: Ode to the West Wind(“If Winter comes, Can spring be farbehind?”); One Word is Too Often Profaned（识记，次重点）7. In Defence of Poetry(Poetry is the indispensable agent of civilization. “Poets are theunacknowledged legisl ators of the world”, and poetry can play a very important part in the spiritual life of society.) （识记，次重点）Chapter 6 John Keats (1795-1821)1. Five Long Poems : Endymion（识记，次重点）; Isabella（识记，一般）;The Eve of St. Agnes;（识记，一般）Lamia; Hyperion（识记，一般）2. Short Poems: Ode on a Grecian Urn (“Beauty is truth, truth beauty.”) （识记，重点）; On FirstLooking into Chapman’s Homer (a sonnet) （识记，次重点）; On the Grasshopper and the Cricket（识记，次重点）;Ode to Autumn; （识记，一般）Ode on Melancholy（识记，一般）; Ode to a Nightingale（识记，次重点）Chapter 7 Charles Lamb (1775-1834)1. The Essays of Elia(very humorous) （识记，一般）2.Tales from Shakespeare (collaboration with Mary Lamb) （识记，次重点）Chapter 8 Hazlitt and Leigh Hunt1. William Hazlitt: essayist, author of Table Talk; The Plain Speaker; Sketches and Essays（识记，一般）2. Henry James Leigh Hunt (1784-1859), essayist（识记，一般）Chapter 9 De Quincey1. Thomas De Qunicey (1785-1859), essayist, critic, author of The Confession of an English Opium- Eater. （识记，一般）Chapter 10 Walter Scott1. Scott has been universally regarded as the founder and great master of the historical novel. （识记，次重点）2. His Historical Novels1) Rob Roy (Red Robert, about 1715 uprising) （识记，一般）2) Ivanhoe (about Norman Conquest) （识记，次重点）3) features of his historical novels. （理解，次重点）Part Six: English Critical RealismChapter 1 The Rise of Critical Realism in England1. English Critical Realism1) definition（应用，重点）2) The greatest English realist of the 19th century is Charles Dickens. （识记，重点）Chapter 2 Charles Dickens (1812-1870)1.The First Period (1836-1841)1) The Pickwick Papers（理解，次重点）2) Oliver Twist（理解，重点）3) Nicholas Nickleby（识记，一般）4) The Old Curiosity Shop（识记，一般）2. The Second Period (1842-1850)1) Dombey and Son（识记，一般）2) David Copperfield（理解，重点）3. The Third Period (1851-1870)1) Bleak House（识记，一般）2) Hard Times（识记，一般）3) Little Dorrit（识记，一般）4) A Tale of Two Cities（理解，重点）5) Great Expectations（识记，一般）4.Dickens : Man and Writer（理解，重点）Chapter 3 Thackeray1. William Thackeray (1811-1863): a representative of critical realism. （识记，重点）2. The Snobs of England, his first literary success, a satirical description of the different strata of the ruling class. （识记，一般）3. Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero, Thackeray’s masterpiece, the peak of his li terary career.（理解，重点）Chapter 4 Some Women Novelists1. Jane Austen (1775-1817)1) Sense and Sensibility（识记，重点）2) Pride and Prejudice（理解，重点）3) Emma（识记，次重点）4) Persuasion（识记，次重点）5) Mansfield Park（识记，次重点）2. The Brontë Sisters1) Charlotte Brontë (1816-1855): Jane Eyre (the image of Jane Eyre) （应用，重点）2) Emily Brontë (1818-1848): Wuthering Heights ( the image of Heathcliff) （应用，重点）3) Anne Brontë(1820-1849) （识记，一般）3. Mrs Gaskell ( Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell) (1810-1865): Mary Barton (, a Tale of Manchester):a realistic novel giving a picture of the class struggle in the period of Chartism. （识记，一般）4. George Eliot (1819-1880):1) Adam Bede:a novel of moral conflicts, showing the contest of personal desires, passion, temperament, human weaknesses and the claims of moral duty. （理解，次重点）2) The Mill on the Floss（识记，次重点）3) Silas Marner（识记，次重点）4) The novels of George Eliot mark the beginning of a new stage in the development of English critical realism. Her characters are not grotesque types, but just common men and women. （识记，一般）Part Seven: Prose-writers and Poets of the Mid and Late 19th Century Chapter 1 Carlyle1. The Mid and late 19th century is sometimes called the Victorian Age because of the reign of Queen Victoria during 1837-1901. （识记，次重点）2. Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881)1) Sartor Resartus (meaning “ the tailor retailored” or “the tailor reclothed”) （识记，一般）2) The French Revolution（识记，一般）3) Heros and Hero-Worship ( “ The History of the World is the Biogarphy of Great Men.”) （理解，重点）4) Past and Present（识记，一般）Chapter 2 Ruskin and Some other Prose-Writers1. John Ruskin (1819-1900): author of Sesame and Lilies; Modern Painters（识记，一般）2. Mathew Arnold (1822-1888)1) Literary Criticism: Essays in Criticism; Essays in Criticism, Second Series（理解，次重点）2) Social Criticism: Culture and Anarchy ( representative work). （理解，重点）3) Dover Beach(Arnold’s masterpiece, a poem expressing disappointment with modern civilization) （识记，重点）3. Thomas Babington Macaulay: Prose stylist, author of History of England, his masterpiece. （识记，一般）Chapter 3 Tennyson1. Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892): The most important poet of the Victorian Age. （识记，重点）2. In Memoriam (in memory of A.H. Hallam, e.g. “Break, Break, Break”) （识记，重点）3. The Idylls of the King（识记，一般）Chapter 4 The Brownings1. Robert Browning: His principal achievement lies in his introducing to English poetry a new form, the “dramatic monologue (e.g. My Last Duchess).（识记，重点）2. Mrs Browning (Elizabeth Barrett): Sonnets from the Portuguese（识记，一般）Chapter 5 The Rossettis and Swinburne1. Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882): a founder of “Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood”. His best known poem is perhaps The Blessed Damozel. （识记，一般）2. Christina Georgina Rossetti (1830-1894) （识记，一般）3. Edward Fitzgerald (1809-1883) : author of Rubaiyat（识记，次重点）4. Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837-1909): author of poems and Ballads. His poems, together with those of Rossetti and others, foreshadowed the literary trend of decadence and “art for art’s sake’, represented by Oscar Wilde in the 1890s. （识记，次重点）Chapter 6 William Morris (1834-1896)1. A Dream of John Ball and News from Nowhere are the two most important of Morris’s prose works. Both are in the form of dreams, the first of the past and the second of the future. （识记，次重点）2. News from Nowhere: called “the crown and climax of his whole work”, describing a dream of the future classes society. （理解，重点）Chapter 7 Literary Trends at the End of the Century1. Naturalism1) definition（理解，重点）2) representatives (George Gissing and Thomas Hardy) （识记，次重点）2. Neo-Romanticism1) Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) was the representative of neo-Romanticism (inventingexciting adventures and fascinating romances) in English Literature. （识记，次重点）2) Treasure Island is his best-known work. （识记，重点）3) Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde（识记，次重点）3. Aestheticism1. definition (Art should serve no religious, moral, social or any anther purposes except itself) （理解，重点）2. Principle: Art for art’s sake. （识记，重点）3. The two most important representatives of aestheticism in English literature are Walter Pater(1839-1894) and Oscar Wilde(1856-1900). （识记，重点）4. Oscar Wilde: a spokesman for the aesthetic movement in England. （识记，重点）1) Two collections of Fairy tales: The Happy Prince and Other Tales (1888) （识记，次重点）;A House of Pomegranates (1891); （识记，一般）2) A collection of short story: Lord Arthur Savile’s Crime and Other Stories; （识记，一般）3) A series of critical essays: Intentions (1891); （识记，一般）4) His only novel: The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891) （识记，次重点）5) Four comedies: Lady Windermere’s Fan(1893); A Woman of No Importance (1894); An IdealHusband (1895); The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) （识记，重点）6) One tragedy: Salomé（识记，重点）Part Eight Twentieth Century English LiteratureChapter 1 The New Century: Social and Historical Background (skip)Chapter 2 English Novel of Early 20th Century1. The Realist:1) Samuel Butler (1835-1902): Erewhon (1872); Erewhon Revisited (1901); The Way of All Flesh (1903, his masterpiece) （识记，一般）2) Goerge Meridith: T he Egoist（识记，一般）3) H(erbert).G(eorge). Wells: realistic novels, scientific fantasies, discussion novels（识记，一般）4) Thomas Hardy (to be discusses in detail)5) John Galsworthy (to be discusses in detail)2. Other important novelists of the early 20th century1) Rudyard Kipling(1865-1936): called “the bard of imperialism”.His works: Kim(1901); The Jungle Book (1894); The Second Jungle Book (1895) （识记，次重点）2) Arnold Bennett (1867-1931)The Old Wives’ Tales（识记，一般）3) Joseph Conrad (1857-1924): a Pole by birth, starting Learning English at his twenties. His works; Heart of Darkness; Lord Kim; Nostromo（识记，重点）3. Henry James (1843-1916)1)Born and educated in the U.S.as an American, but was naturalized as a British subject in 1915.He was the forerunner of the “Stream of consciousness” literature.（识记，重点）2)His representative works: Daisy Miller (1879); The Portrait of a Lady (1881); The Wings ofthe Dove (1902); The Ambassador (1903); The Golden Bow l (19040（识记，重点）4. Katharine Mansfield (1888-1923): Born in New Zealand, famous woman writer of short stories.（识记，一般）Chapter 3 Hardy1. Thomas Hardy （1840-1928）: Novelist and poet, one of the English Critical realism at the turn of the 19th century. （识记，一般）2. His principal works are the Wessex Novels, i.e. novels describing the characters and environment of his native countryside. （识记，次重点）3. The Wessex novels: Under the Greenwood Tree (1872); Far From the Madding Crowd (1874); The Return of the Native (1878); The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886); Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891); Jude the Obscure (1896). （识记，次重点）4. Tess of the D’Urbervilles, a Pure Woman Faithfully Portrayed, Hardy’s most famous book.（理解，重点）5. Jude the Obscure:“a deadly war waged between flesh and spirit” and “ the contrast between the ideal life a man wishe d to lead and the squalid real life he was fated to lead.” (Hardy’s words)（理解，次重点）Chapter 4 Galsworthy1. John Galsworthy (1867-1933): a representative of bourgeois realism in the 20th-century English novel，winner of Nobel Prize in Literature in 1932.（识记，一般）2. The Forsyte Saga: the prose epic of the Forsyte family in two trilogies, each consisting of three novels and two interludes. （识记，一般）1) The first trilogy: The Forsyte Saga: The Man of Property(1906); The Indian Summer of a Forsyte (Interlude, 1917); In Chancery (1920); Awakening (Interlude, 1921); To Let (1921) （识记，重点）2) The second trilogy: A Modern Comedy: The White Monkey (1924); A Silent Wooing (interlude, 1927); The Silver Spoon (1926); Passers-by (interlude, 1927); Swan Song (1928) （识记，一般）3) The two trilogies The Forsyte saga, and A Modern Comedy, should be considered a monumental work of critical realism in the English literature in the 20th century. （识记，次重点）4) The Man of Property（理解，重点）Chapter 5 The Irish Dramatic MovementThe leaders of the Irish Renaissance (The Irish dramatic revival) were the poet, William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) and Lady Augusta Gregory (1852-1932), both founders of the national Irish theatre, called the Abby Theatre. （识记，重点）Chapter 6 Bernard Shaw1. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950): Irish playwright, “a good man fallen among the Fabians”. (Lenin’s words)（识记，一般）2.He lived a long life and wrote 51 plays, which include: Widower’s Houses（识记，一般）; Mrs Warr en’s Profession（理解，重点）; The Devil’s Disciple（识记，一般）; Man and Superman （识记，一般）; Major Barbara（理解，次重点）; Heartbreak House（理解，次重点）; Saint Joan （识记，一般）; The Apple Cart（识记，一般）; Pygmalion（识记，一般）。
The Renaissance英国文学文艺复兴时期总结
The RenaissanceThis is a greatest and most advanced revolution in the human history. This is the age the giants are needed and produced.------F. Engles<1> Brief introduction▪Renaissance in European history, refers to the period between 14th century to 17th century. It started in Italy and ended in England and Spain.▪“Renaissance” means “revival”, the revival of interest in Ancient Greek and Roman culture and getting rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introducing new ideas that express the interests of the rising bourgeoisie.▪Renaissance sprang first in Italy (Florence and Venice) with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture, and gradually spread all over Europe;▪Renaissance originally indicated a revival of classical arts and science (ancient Greek and Roman culture) after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism.During the period of Renaissance:1. the Roman Catholic Church was shaken,2. old sciences revived and new sciences emerged,3. national languages and cultures took shape,4. art and literature flourishedBrief introduction▪There arose an interest in the manuscripts surviving from ancient Greece and Rome. Classical learning and philosophy were enthusiastically studied.▪The intellectual wisdom of ancient Greece and Rome encouraged a rebirth of human spirit，a realization of human potential for development and creation．▪Never before in human history were men and women so eager to create and discover something new．In Italy a group of artists，scientists，politicians，and writers created the most brilliant page of culture and science in Renaissance Europe．Examples:①Copernicus (哥白尼) asserted that the earth was not the center of the universe；②The passionate Petrarch produced sonnets that influenced Shakespeare and many others；③Boccaccio(卜伽邱) wrote tales of eternal charm: The Decameron；④Marco Polo (马可波罗) made journeys into the remote kingdom of China；⑤Michelangelo（米开朗琪罗），Leonardo da Vinci (达芬奇)，Raphael (拉斐尔)，and Titian (提香) createdpaintings and sculptures that are invaluable treasures of the world．<2>Essence and features▪Essence: It is the reflection of the rise of bourgeoisie in the sphere of cultural life.（另版本）：Renaissance, in essence, is a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to:to get rid of conservatism in Feudalist Europe;to introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie,to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.Briefly it is the reflection of the rise of bourgeoisie inthe sphere of cultural life.▪Features: there are two striking features①A thirsting curiosity for the classical literature.②The keen interest in the activities of humanity.<3>Renaissance and HumanismRenaissance: the term originally indicated a revival of classical arts and science after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism. Indeed, a great number of the works of classical authors were translated into English during the 16th century.Humanism：The progressive thinkers of the humanists held their chief interest not in ecclesiastical knowledge, but in man, his environment and doings and bravely fought for the emancipation of man from the tyranny of the church and religious dogmas.Humanism is the key-note of the Renaissance. It reflected the new outlook of the rising bourgeois class;<4>HumanismHumanism is the essence of the Renaissance. It sprang from the endeavor to restore a reverence for the Greek and Roman civilization based on the conception that man is the measure of all things.Contrary to the subordination of individuals to the feudal rules and the sacrifice of earthly life for a future life in the medieval society, Renaissance humanists found in the classics a justification to exalt human nature and came to see that human beings were glorious creatures capable of individual development for perfection.By emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, they voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to enjoy life, but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wonders.<5>Features of humanism in RenaissanceEmphasizing the power, value and dignity of the human being and holding that human beings are glorious creatures The core of Renaissance thought is the greatness of man/giants. This is best summarized in the lines of Shakespeare’s HamletWhat a piece of work is man; how noble in reason; how infinite in faculty, in form and moving how express and admirable; in action how like and angel; in apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world, the paragon of animals.人是一件多么了不起的杰作！多么高贵的理性！多么伟大的力量！多么优美的仪表！多么文雅的举动！在行为上多么像一个天使！在智慧上多么想一个天神！宇宙的精华！万物的灵长！▪1. Emphasizing secular happiness and individualism against the medieval ideas of asceticism;▪2.shifting man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to philoso phy, from beauty and greatness of God to the beauty of human body in all its joys and pains.▪3. Applying Aristotle’s theory, Humanist literature mainly use realistic style and take literature as the mirror or miniature of the society.<6>Influence and English RenaissanceInfluences:1.These Italians, and many others, helped to make Italy the center of the Renaissance movement in Europe.2.The movement changed the medieval Western Europe into a modern one．3.The intellectual wisdom of ancient Greece and Rome encouraged a rebirth of human spirit，a realization of human potential for development and creationEnglish Renaissance:Oxford Reformers: the Oxford reformers, scholars and humanists introduced classical literature to England. Education was revitalized and literature became more popular.This was England’s Golden Age in literature. There appeared many English literary giants such as Shakespeare, Spenser, Johnson, Sidney, Marlowe, Bacon and Donne.English RenaissanceContents●I.TheSixteenthCentury England ●II. Renaissance in England ●III. The main artistic styles●IV. William Shakespeare●V. Francis BaconI. The Sixteenth Century England1. Enclosure Movement2. The establishment of absolute monarchy3. Religious reformation4. International situation5. Cultural preparati●The background of the humanism in Europe●The introduction of printing led to an enlarged reading public and a commercial market for literature;●The great economic and political changes led to the rise of democracy;●The spirit of nationalism;●The growing of "new science” etc.Characteristics of the Elizabethan Age1. An age of comparative religious tolerance;2. An age of comparative social contentment;3. An age of dreams, of adventures, of unbounded enthusiasm;4. An age of intellectual liberty, of growing intelligence and comfort among all classes and of unbounded patriotism.II. Renaissance in England▪The time: mainly from the reign of Henry VIII, Edward, Mary and then to Queen Elizabeth and Jacobean Eraa. Beginning: the last years of the 15-th century---first half of the 16-th centuryb. Flourishing: the Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)c. Declining: the period of James I (1603-1625) early 17-th centuryThe flowering of English literatureThe second half of the 16th century, “a nest of singing birds”The early period:imitation and assimilation, translated works, poetry and poetic drama were the most outstanding literary forms. ▪Sonnet: an exact form of poetry in 14 lines of iambic pentameter intricately rhymed.▪Blank verse: iambic pentameter unrhymedThe latter period:Drama— the real mainstream of the English Renaissanceyears 1587-93. they were all of humble birth and struggled for a livelihood by writing. Through hard work, they revised old plays and wrote new ones. They made rapid progress in dramatic techniques because they has close contact with the actors and audiences. They were looked down upon by the gentlemen and suspected by the government. It was their industrious works that furnished the Elizabethan stage.Christopher MarloweWilliam ShakespeareIII. The main artistic stylesThe artistic styles as lyric poetry, narrative poetry, drama are maturized; new styles which characterized the modern literature such as sonnets, short stories and novels were produced.translation:Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Homer’s Iliad, Montaigne’s Essays▪travel books:More’s Utopia▪poetry: Edmund Spenser▪drama: “University Wits”, Marlowe, Shakespeare▪essay: Francis BaconForerunner of utopian socialism▪An imaginative travel narrative written in the form of conversation between More and Hythloday, a returned voyager describing an ideal state governed by reason.▪The subject is the search for the best possible form of government: Utopia---a community of property---a pure, pre-Marx form of communism.The Sheph erd’s Calendar 《牧人日历》: 12 pastoral poems and eclogues, one for each month, put into the mouths of speakers distinguishing themselves as shepherds, really representing Spenser and his friends.▪Amoretti《爱情小诗》:a series of 88 sonnets in honor of his lover Elizabeth. All except one was written in the Spenserian sonnet.▪Epithlamion 《婚后曲》: marriage hymns to celebrate his marriage with Elizabeth.The Faerie Queene《仙后》:▪The blending of religious and historical allegory with chivalric romance: a long poem planned 12 books. 12 knights for the qualities of the chivalric virtues--- the six completed books are holiness, temperance, chastity, friendship, justice and courtesy.Fairy Queen—Queen Elizabeth, the knights as a whole --- England, the evil figures—enemies.Themes of the poem :●nationalism( celebration of Queen Elizabeth)●humanism (strong opposition to Roman Catholicism),●Puritanism (moral teaching)Spenserian stanza:it is a nine-line stanza with the first 8 lines iambic pentameter and the ninth, iambic hexameter 六步格的诗rhyming abab,bcbc,c which is the typical verse in The Faerie Queene.For its rare beauty, this verse form was much used by many later poets, esp. imitated by the romantic poets of the 19th century.Spenser’s position in English Literature:the publica tion of “The Shepherd’s Calendar” marks the budding of Renaissance flower in the northern island of England.The language he used was modern English which has distinguished itself from the Middle English of Chaucer's day. Spenserian stanza: a model of poetic art among the Renaissance English poets.“the poet’s poet”, the first master to make the Modern English the natural music of his poetic effusion and held his position as a model of poetic art. His influence can be traced in the works of Milton, Shelley and Keats.Life: short but riotous⏹Major works:➢Tamburlaine the Great:《帖木耳》•A drama in a blank verse•About the rise and fall of Tamburlaine the Mongol conqueror on the 14th century central Asia.•A tragedy about a man who thinks he can but actually can not control his own fate.•By depicting a great hero with high ambition and sheer brutal force, the author voiced the supreme desire of the man of the Renaissance for infinite power and authority.•➢The Jew of Malta:《马耳他的犹太人》•A study of the lust for wealth, which centers around Barabas the Jew, an old money lender, whose only philosophy is the art of gaining advantage.•Suggestive of Shylock in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice.•A tragic result: typically greedy of riches and gold, which is another feature shared by those in Renaissance England. •➢The History of Doctor Faustus 《浮士德博士》•Refer to compare with Goethe’s Faust•The Faust myth in 16th century Germany: the myth of men seeking great earthly power from demons at the cost of their immortal soul.•The conventional view: Dr. Faustus is a morality play that vindicates humility, faith and obedience to the law of God. •The new view: Dr. Faustus celebrates the human passion for knowledge, power and happiness, and also reveals man’s frustration in realizing the high aspiration in a hostile moral order.⏹Social significance and literary achievement1.showing the spirit of the rising bourgeoisie. Its eager curiosity for knowledge, power and gold.The praise of individuality freed from the restraints of medieval dogmas and the conviction of the boundless possibility of human efforts in conquering the universe.The heroes are mainly individualists. Their individualistic ambition often brings ruin to the world and to themselves.…soul of the Age!The applause! Delight! The wonder of our stage! Triumph, my Britain, thou hast one to show To whom all scenes of Europe homage owe. He was not of an age, but for all time!William Shakespeare1. Brief Introduction2. Shakespeare’s dramaFour periods of his literary career Categories of his drama 3. the artistic features of his plays4. Shakespeare’s place and contribution5. Shakespeare’s sonnetsWhat to be at least known about ShakespeareLife: birthplace, birth date, death date, important time in his life and career●His major works: 37 plays(10histories, 10 comedies, 10 tragedies), 2 long narrative poems, 154 sonnets.Plays to be read: great comedies & 4 great tragedies●Writing features in each of four periodsI. Brief IntroductionA dramatist “not of an age, but of all time” by Ben Jonhson, not of Engla nd, but of the world.●Not only a master of English language but also a genius of character portrayal and plot construction●A “poet of reality” for his idea that literature should reflect nature and reality.●37 plays, 154 sonnets and 2 long poems.II. Shak espeare’s dramaFour Periods of Shakespeare’s Literary careerFour major phrases represent respectively his early, mature, flourishing and late periods.1. Period of early experiment and apprenticeship (1590-1594)Background:A. it was in the middle of the highly thriving Elizabethan Age.B. The thoughts of humanism and the ideas of man’s emancipation, freedom of love was rapidly spread.C. Shakespeare was a young man full of astonishing versatility and wonderful talent and the great interest in the political questions of his time.Features:A. the writer made experiments in a number of dramatic forms: the historical plays, comedy, the revenge tragedy and the romantic tragedy.B. this period is distinctively marked by youthfulness and exuberance of imagination, by extravagance of witty language or speech, and by the final and frequent use of blank verse. In his hand, blank verse developed into a happy vehicle to express all kinds of thoughts and emotions (thus shaking off the rigidity of rimed and mechanic lines) .2. Period of maturity (1595-1600)Features:A. a period of “great comedies” and mature historical plays and sonnets.B. a sweet and joyful time when the writer portrays successfully a magnificent panorama of the manifold pursuit of people in real life.C. a great shift in characterization. A notable gallery of heroines in the comedies and vivid characters in historical plays is presented: Portia, Posalynd, Voila, Beatrice, Sir John Falstaff.3. Period of gloom and depression (1601-1607)Background:A. the aggravation of the social situation: the rising of peasants, the corruption, the tension between bourgeoisie and the feudal lands.B. the change of mood in the playwright: gloomy and indignantFeatures:A. a period of “great tragedies” and “dark comedies”B. the writer gave a scathing exposition of the somber pictures and scenes of murder, lust, treachery, ingratitude and crime.C. a higher level of crafts is reached: more intricate plotting, intense inner conflict, meticulous depiction of human mind.4. Period of calm and reconciliation (1608-1612)Background:A. the fall and collapse of absolute monarchB. the retirement of the playwright back into the tranquil countrysideFeatures:A. some serenity and optimism, instead of the beginning lightness and the middle somber violence reigned.B. romantic dramas and comedies were the main form.C. moral teaching and supernatural forces were relied on to restore the rightful honor and position. These plays all show a falling off from his previous works.Categories of his dramacomedies histories tragedies romances？？Comedy is a light form of drama aiming primarily to amuse and ending happily. It often deals with people in their human state, restrained and ridiculous by their limitations, faults, bodily functions.Four Great ComdiesThe Merchant of VeniceA Midsummer Night’s DreamAs you Like itTwelfth NightComedies of the First PeriodThe keynote of his comedies:●to portray people just freed from the feudal fetters, sing of youth, love and ideas of happiness.●The heroes and heroines fight against destiny and mould their fate according to their own free will. Thus becomethe sons and daughters of Renaissance.●The victory of humanist ideal is inevitable. The general spirit of these plays is optimistic.The Merchant of Venice•The double plot: one is about the Bassanio’s winning of a bride by undergoing a test; the other is about the demanding of a pound of human flesh by Shylock.•The traditional theme is to praise the friendship between Antonio and Bassanio, to idealize Portia as a heroine of great beauty, wit and loyalty and to expose the insatiable greed and brutality of the Jew.•The new one is to regard the play as a satire of the Christian hypocrisy and their false standards of friendship and love, their cunning ways of pursuing worldliness and unreasoning prejudice against Jews.Portia: a rich heiress of Belmont in Shakespeare's comedy The Merchant of Venice.●1. Portia is a woman of Renaissance—beautiful, prudent, cultured, courteous and capable of rising to an emergency. She is one of Shakespear’s ideal women.●2. the young heroes in Shakespeare's comedies are always independent in character and take their own path of life.History plays aim to present some historical age or character, and may be either a comedy or a tragedy.●His histories include two tetralogies (四部曲)and two other plays. Characterizes two centuries of English history from Richard III to Henry VIII (1377-1547)●There is only one ideal king---Henry V who represents the aspiration for national unity under a powerful and efficient monarchy.The image of Henry V:Henry V is the symbol of Shakespear’s ideal kingship. He represents the upsurging patriotism of the time. In depicting Henry V as a prince and as a man, Shakespeare looks deep into the personality of his hero and shows a profound understanding of the politics and social life of the time.Theme: Shakespeare’s historical plays describe the decaying of the old feudal society an d the rising of the new forces. His historical plays sum up the necessity for national unity under a mighty and just sovereign. The idea is anti-feudal inIt is concerned with the harshness and injustice of life. They are often serious plays with sad endings.●Often the hero’s tragedy is due to a weakness in his or her character which brings self-destruction. A weakness such as the excessive pride of Faustus, the overweening ambition of Macbeth, or the uncontrolled jealousy of Othello.●In S hakespeare’s plays, he saw sharp contradictions between his lofty humanistic ideals and the evil social forces. Background for Shakespeare’s tragediesHe began to observe life with penetration, to expose mercilessly the contradiction of the Elizabethan society. The economical and social crisis which began at the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth continued right up to the English Revolution.The bourgeoisie intended to break up the yoke of absolute monarchy and struggled for free development.It was in this atmosphere of general unrest that he created his great tragedies.Four Great Tragedies All analyzing the human wickedness.●Hamlet: the hero’s weakness makes him vulnerable in fighting against the outward evil.●Othello shows how an outward evil make s use of the hero’s weakness and causes his fall.●King Lear demonstrates how man’s mistake sets free the evils of treachery, hypocrisy, flattery, selfishness and distrust.●Macbeth reveals how the outward evil stirs up the wickedness in man and destroys him.Hamlet“Hamlet” is considered the summit of Shakespeare's art.Hamlet is a man of genius, highly accomplished and educated, a man of profound perception and sparkling wit. He is a scholar, soldier and statesman all combined. His image reflects the versatility of the man of Renaissance.Hamlet’s melancholy is not the negative, over-subtle and fruitless kind, it is the result of his penetrating mind. It expresses, in away, the crisis of humanism at the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century.III. the artistic features of his plays1. Characterization: By using comparison and contrasts, he depicts a group of individuals with strong and distinct personalities.The melancholy of Hamlet, the wickedness of Claudius and Iago, the honesty of Othello, ambition of Macbeth and the beauty and wit of Portia.2. Psycho-analytical study: He reveals the intricate inner workings of the character’s minds through the full use of soliloquies(独白).3. Structure:⏹His plays usu. have more than one plot. Through contrast and parallel, the major and minor plots are woven intoan organic whole.⏹the device of a play within the play also plays an important part.4. Language: Shakespeare is a master of the English language, with a large vocabulary of 16000 English words. More important are the figurative speeches such as analogy and metaphor.5. style: realistic style. The reader may be impressed by the typical speech modes —the question in Hamlet, the ambiguities in Macbeth, the exclamations and very simple but also very basic questions in King Lear.IV. Shakespeare’s place and contributionOne of the founder of realism in world literature. Living in the historical period of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, he paints a panorama of the decline of the old feudal nobility and the rise of new bourgeoisie.Amazing prolificacy. In 22years, nearly 40 plays, no two of which evoke the same feeling or image among the audience, a master of every forms of drama.Skilled in many poetic forms. The songs, sonnets, couplets, esp. at home with blank verse, which became a vehicle of utterance to all the possible sentiments of his characters.A great master of English language. He has an amazing wealth of vocabulary and idiom. He is known to have used 16,000 different words. His coinage of new words and distortion of the meaning of the old ones also create striking effects on the reader.He was universally regarded are the summit of English Renaissance. His influence on later writers is immeasurable. Almost all English writers after him have been influenced by him either in artistic point view, in literary form or in language.SonnetDefinition:▪A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter with a carefully patterned rhyme scheme.Origin:▪A form of lyrical poetry was originated in Italy. “sonnet” was derived from Provencal (普罗旺斯语) “Sonet”. It was once a short popular poetry used for singing in the medieval age.▪Italian poet Petrarch was the major representatives of the poets who used this poetic form. He wrote altogether 375 sonnets, dedicated to his lover. That is the Petrarchan sonnet.▪Sonnet was introduced into England by Thomas Wyatt . It flourished in the 1590s and reach its peak of popularity with the surge of Renaissance in England.Two types of sonnetThe Italian, or Petrarchan sonnet :Petrarchan Sonnet▪The Italian form, in some ways the simpler of the two, Its fourteen lines break into an octave （八行诗）(or octet), which usually rhymes abba,abba, and a sestet （六行诗节）, which may rhyme cdecde or cdcdcd, or any of the multiple variations possible using only two or three rhyme-sounds.▪It usually projects and develops a subject in the octave, then executes a turn at the beginning of the sestet, which means that the sestet must in some way release the tension built up in the octave.▪Example: see Wyatt's "Farewell Love and all thy laws for ever."Farewell, LoveSir Thomas Wyatt (1503~1542)Farwell, Love, and all thy laws forever,Thy baited hooks shall tangle me no more;Senec and Plato call me from thy lore,To perfect wealth my wit for to endeavor,In blind error then I did persever,Thy sharp repulse, that prickth aye so sore,Hath taought me to set in trifles no storeAnd’ scape forth since liberty is leverTherefore farewell, go trouble younger hearts, And in me claim no more authorityWith idle youth go use thy property,And therein spend thy many brittle darts,For hitherto though I have lost all my time,Me lusteth no longer rotten boughs to climb.别了，爱，以及你所有的法则，你上饵的钩子不再能把我缠绞，塞内克与柏拉图叫我离开你那套，并尽我才智把完美的财富获得。
英语国家概况名词解释
英语国家概况名词解释英国部分Chapter1◆Official name 官方名称：The official name of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.◆British Empire 大英帝国：About a hundred years ago, as a result of its imperialist expansion, Britain ruled an empire that had one fourth of the world’s people and one fourth of the world’s land area. However, the two world wars greatly weakened Britain. The British colonies became independent one after another. The British Empire gradually disappeared and it was replaced by the British Commonwealth in 1931.◆Commonwealth of Nations/the British Commonwealth 英联邦：It’s a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was established in 1931, replacing the former British Empire. Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading arrangements. The Commonwealth has no special power. The decision to became a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation .At present there are 50 member countries within the Commonwealth.Chapter2◆Heptarchy七王国：During the Anglo—Saxon’s time, Britain was divided into many kingdoms. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East,Anglia,Mercia and Northumbria. They were giventhe name of Heptarchy.◆Alfred the Great 亚尔弗雷得大帝：Alfred was the King of Wessex, who was strong enough to defeat the invading Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them. He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy” .He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He established schools and formulated a legal system. He translated books from Latin into English.◆William the Conqueror 征服者威廉：He was also known as William, Duke of Normandy. In 1066, he invaded England, defeated and killed Harold near Hastings in Sussex and conquered England. He confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Chapter3◆Domesday Book 末日审判书：It’s a book compiled by a group of clerks under the sponsorship of King William the First in 1086.The book was in fact a property record. It was the result of a general survey of England. It recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and ownership of the land. It was one of the important measures adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it’s kept in the Public Records Office in London.◆The Great Charter[Magna Carta]大宪章： The Great Charter has been also known as Magan Carta which King John was forced to sign in 1215.The Great Charter has been regarded as the foundation of English liberties, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and the spirit of it was the limitation of the powers of the King.◆Joan of Arc 圣女贞德：Joan of Arc was a national heroine in French history. She led and encouraged the French in driving the English out of France in the HundredYear’s War.Chapter4◆The Wars of the Roses 玫瑰战争：The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485.Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Field in 1485 and put the country under the rule of the Tudors, From these wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.◆Bloody Mary血腥玛丽：It’s the nickname given to Mary I, the English Queen who succeeded to the throne after Henry Ⅷ.She was a devout Catholic and had so many Protestants burnt to death that shi is remembered less by her official title Mary I by her nickname Bloody Mary.◆The English Renaissance 英国文艺复兴：(1)Renaissance was a cultural movement in Europe from the 14th century to the 16th century.(2)It originated in Italy and began to come to England in the late 15th century.(3)The English Renaissance was largely literary, and achieved its finest expression in poetry, drama and prose.(4)The greatest literary writer of the English Renaissance was William Shakespeare.Chapter5◆The Reform Act of 1832 改革法案： (1)It’ s also known as the Greater Charter of 1832, it was passed by Parliament in 1832.(2)According to the Act, “rotten boroughs” were abolished, and parliament seats were redistributed more fairly among the growing industrial towns.(3)It also gave the vote to many householder and tenants who were required to have certain property.◆Charles Darwin 查尔斯达文：(1)A famous British scientist in the 19th century.(2)He has been especially remembered for his important book“the Origins of Species” in which he developed his theory of evolution.(3)The theory of evolution caused evident reaction of the Victorians and contributed to the decay of Victorianism.◆The Victorian Age 维多利亚时期：(1)It refers to monarchy of Britain under Queen Victoria from 1837 to 1901, the longest reign in British history.(2)The Victorian Age was an age of national development and national optimism.(3)The Victorians were very religious and conservative in family life. It was also, in its later stages, an age of imperialism.◆The State of Westminster 威斯敏斯特条例：(1)In 1931, the British Parliament passed a bill which later has been known as the Statute of Westminster, according to which, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Southern Ireland, New Foundland and South Africa turned into “Dominions”.(2)These selfgovernment both internally and externally, although they still regarded the British monarch as their head of state .(3)This marked the disruption of the British Empire and the establishment of the British Commonwealth.◆The Europe Economic Community 欧共体：(1)Also known as the Common Market, it was established by the Treaty of Rome on January 1,1958.(2)Originally it was composed of six Western Europe countries—France, West Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg.(3)Britain didn’t become a full member of the Community until 1973. Today, there are altogether 12 member in the Community.Chapter7◆The Constitutional monarchy 君主立宪制：It’s a political system that has been practiced in Britain since the Glorious Revolution of 1688.According to this system; the Constitution is superior to the Monarch. In law, the Monarch has many supreme powers, but in practice, the real power of monarchy has been greatly reduced and today the Queen acts solely on the advice of her ministers. She reigns but doesn’t rule. The real power lies in the Parliament, or to be exact in the House of Commons.◆The British Constitution英国宪法：It’s not written in any single document. It’ s made up of Statute Law, common law and Conventions. It’s more flexible than the written constitution of other countries.◆British Parliament 英国议会：It includes three elements: the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It’s the Supreme lawmaking authority in Britain. The real center of parliamentary power lies in the House of Commons. Its other functions include: to control and criticize the executive government; to control the raising and the spending of money.Chapter9◆The Church of England 英格兰国教：(1)Also called the Anglican Church, it’s one of the many Protestant sects which broke away from Roman Catholic church during the Reformation tin the 16th century.(2)It’s an established church which means that it represents the official state religion.(3)Its religious leader is the Archbishop of Canterbury and its secular leader is the British Monarch.◆Free Churches 自由教会：(1)Also known as NonConformist Churches in England, Free churches are protestant sect that have separated from the established church of England.(2)These include the Methodist, the Congregational, the Baptist,an the Quakers, and many others.(3)All these sects agree on the essentials of Christianity, but have different forms of service and points of emphasis.◆The Quakers 贵格派：(1)Also known as the Religious Society of Friends. The Quakers are a Protestant group that originated in England in the 17th century, under George Fox.(2)They refuse to participate in the church of England services.(3)They advocate simple living and hard work and believe in complete equality and fraternity.Chapter10◆The elevenplus 十一岁附加考试：（1）Under the old selective system of secondary education in Britain, the “elevenplus” is the examination taken by children in their last year at primary school.(2)The results of this examination determine the kind of secondary schooling each child will receive.(3)Those with the highest marks go to grammar school ;other children may go to technical schools or secondary modern schools.(4)In the 1960s and 70s, this examination was abolished and has ever since gradually been replaced by comprehensive schools which take children of all abilities.◆Grammar schools 语法学校： (1)It’ s a type of state secondary schools in Britain. It has been in existence since the 16th century.(2)These schools concentrate on academic subjects and expect many of their children to take higher examinations and go on to universities.(3)Now, its importance in the British educational system has been largely diminished due to the growth of comprehensive schools.◆Public school公学：(1)It’s a kind of independent privatelyowned secondary boarding schools in Britain.(2)These schools are financially supported by tuition fees and private funds.(3)Most of their students come from rich families and arevery likely to go on to famous universities.(4)The word “public” is a traditional one with little meaning today since far from being public these schools are restricted to a comparatively small section of the population.◆Prep schools 准备学校：(1)Also called preparatory schools. They are private elementary schools in Britain, which prepare their students for public schools.(2)The prep school curriculum differs considerably from that of the state junior schools, and there is a distinctive emphasis on classical subjects.(3)At the age of thirteen, the pupils will take the “common entrance” examination for admission to a public school.◆Open University 开放大学：(1)As a new type of higher education, Open University only appeared in Britain in 1969.(2)It’ s open to everybody, especially to people who have missed the opportunity for higher education.(3)It doesn’t demand the same formal qualification as the other universities.(4)It uses modern communications means such as television, radio or correspondence.(5)It’s nonresidential although there is a network of study centers throughout the country for contact with tutors and fellow students.(6)After passing the examinations of all required course, students are awarded a university degree.◆Comprehensive schools 综合中学：Comprehensive schools take pupils without reference to ability or aptitude and provide a wideranging secondary education for all or most of the children in a district.◆The Times 泰晤士报： (1)It’ s the most famous of all British national newspapers and is read by the most important British all over the world.(2)Politically it is independent, though it is traditionally inclined to be more sympathetic to the Conservative Party.(3)It’s not an organ of the British government and has areputation for extreme caution is its attitude.◆BBC 英国广播公司：(1)It’s the abbreviation of British Broadcasting Corporation.(2)It has both radio and television services.(3)For radio broadcasting, it uses 39 languages and broadcasts to the whole world.(4)There is no advertisement on any BBC program.(5)It’s financed by payments which must be made by all people who own television sets.(6)It has a Board of Governors, who are appointed by the Government.美国部分Chapter14WASPs：Traditionally, the mainstreams American were called WASPs, that is, White Anglo—Saxon Protestants.◆Indentured Servants 契约劳工：Indentured servants refer to some immigrants who had to work for a fixed term for their masters to repay the cross—Atlantic fare and debts.◆Ellis Island 爱利斯岛：Ellis Island of New York was an important immigration reception spot in the 1980s and at the turn of the century.Sunbelt areas 阳光地带：Chapter15◆Bill of Right 人权法案：(1)In 1789,James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification.(2)Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and this first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bill of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.◆Uncle Tom’s Cabin汤姆叔叔的小屋：It’s written by Beecher Stowe’s novelUncle Tom’s Cabin, public feeling against slavery was increased. Many people joined the abolitionists. They considered slavery inhuman and brutal.◆Emancipation Proclamation解放宣言：Lincoln issues it during the Civil War, when Lincoln realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making war a just war against slavery. Under the Emancipation of Proclamation, all slaves in areas still controlled by the Confederacy were freed.◆Abolitionists 废奴主义者：They were people, mostly Northern humanitarians, who strongly opposed slavery and aimed to abolish the system.◆The Constitutional Convention制宪会议：(1)Since 1781, the thirteen states had been governed by the Articles of Confederation which set up a very weak central government.(2)In May,1787,the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia with instructions to revise the Articles of Confederation.(3)After much debate, the Constitution was later ratified.◆The “Great Compromise”大妥协： On the American constitutional Convention, contradictions emerged between the bigger and smaller states, between the industrial—commercial interests and landed interests, etc. The Great Compromise of July 16,1787,gave each state an equal vote in the Senate, making representation in the House reflect the size of each state’s population.◆The Federalist Papers 联邦文集：(1)During the ratification period, beginning on October 27,1787, the newspapers of New York City carried at short intervals a total of 85 letters to the public written under the name of Publius.(2) Later it was known that these letters were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay and they came to be called the Federalist Papers.◆The Compromise of 1850 1850 年妥协：(1)With the territorial expansiontowards the west, the problem of whether slavery should be allowed to spread into these areas arose. (2)The compromise of 1850 was passed which allowed California to be accepted as a free state, New Mexico and Utah to be organized as territories without legislation either for or against slavery and more efficient machinery to be set up for returning runaway slaves to their masters.◆The Boston Tea Party波士顿倾茶事件：In 1773,when ships carried tea reached Boston, the governor decided to protest the distribution of tea. Several dozen Boston residents dressed as Indians boarded the ships at night and threw the tea into the harbor. This came to be known as the “Boston Tea Party ”.Chapter16◆The Muckrakers 揭丑者：The Muckrakers, a group of reform—minded journalists, made investigations and exposed various dark sides of the seemingly prosperous society.◆The Progressive Movement 进步运动：The Progressive Movement, a movement demanding government regulation of the economy and social conditions, spread quickly with the support of large numbers of people across the country .The Progressive Movement was not an organized campaign with clearly defined goals. Rather, it was a number of diverse efforts at political, social, and economic reforms.◆The Big Four 四大列强：It refers to the four most influential countries after the WWI. They were the United State, Britain, France, and Italy.`◆Henry Ford 亨利福特： Henry Ford was one of the most admired businessmen in the 1920s.He introduced the assembly line into automobile production.◆The Red Scare 红色恐惧：Between 1919 and 1920, the Red Scare happened in American where at that time a highly aggressive and intolerance nationalismexisted. On November 7,1919, and January 2,1920, the Justice Department launched two waves of mass arrests. Over 4,000 suspected communists and radicals were arrested and many were forced to leave the United States.◆The ku Klux Klan三 K 党：The KKK was first organized in 1866 and then reformed in 1867 after the Civil War in the South and by 1924 it claimed membership of four to five million. It was a violent society, which terrorized and attacked on not only blacks, but also progressives, communist and socialist party members, etc.◆The Black Thursday黑色星期四： It refers to the day of October 24,1929.On that day the New York stock market collapsed and the Great Depression began.◆The Great Depression 大萧条：(1)It refers to the economic depression started from the New York stock marker collapse on October 24,1929.(2)After that, thousands of bands and businesses failed.(3)Many people lost their jobs.(4)It was due the New Deal started in 1933 and the defense build up before and during the WWII, that the United States finally recovered from the Great Depression. Chapter17（1） George Kennan was a highranking official in the ◆George Kennan乔治坎南：American embassy to Moscow.(2)He sent a long telegram to the State Department and suggested the containment policy towards the Soviet Union.◆The Truman Doctrine 杜鲁门主义：On March 12,1949, American President Truman made the open declaration of containment policy in a speech to the joint session of Congress. The US would support any country which said it was fighting against Communism. This is the Truman Doctrine.◆The Marshall Plan马歇尔计划：It was announced by Secretary of State GeorgeMarshall on June 5,1947.The purpose of the Plan was to offer Western Europe countries economic aid and to protect Western Europe from possible Soviet expansion.◆McCarthyism 麦卡锡主义：(1)Senator Joseph R. McCarthyism started a campaign of wild accusation and arrests in 1950s.(2)His fullscale antiCommunist hysteria was called McCarthyism.(3)In 1954 he was condemned by the Senate and McCarthyism ended.◆War Power Act战争权利法案： (1)The Vietnam War led to contradiction between Congress and the Executive.(2)The War Power Act was passed to limit the President’s power in sending troops abroad and required the President to consult Congress before any such decision.◆The New Frontier 新边疆计划：It was the name of American President Kennedy’s program which promised civil rights for blacks, federal aid to farmers and to education, medical care for all and abolition of poverty.◆The Civil Right Act of 19641964 年民权法案：Within months Johnson had signed into law the Civil Right Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination not only in public housing, but also in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.Chapter18◆Monetarist policies货币主义政策： Since the American economy was plagued by stagflation, in the early 1980s, the traditional Keynesian theory was replaced by new monetarist, which sought to fight inflation by increasing supply and reducing demand. On one hand, taxes were cut to increase economic dynamism. On the other hand, interest rates were raised to reduce the supply of money.Chapter19◆The Federal system联邦制：In American, the Federal system has two layers of rule. There is a central or federal government for nation. There are also state or local government. Each layer of government has separate and distinct powers laid down in the Constitution.◆Separation of powers 三权分立：The government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the power.◆Checks and balances 权利制衡：This is a major principle of the American government system by which each branch of the government exercises a check on the actions of others. Such three branches as the legislative, the executive, and the judicial are thus in balance. This is called “checks and balances”.◆The Supreme Court 最高法院：The Supreme Court is the highest court of the United States and is the only organ, which has the power to interpret the Constitution. The Supreme Court at present consists of a Chief Justice and eight Association Justices.Chapter20◆Public schools 公立学校：Public schools, usually larger in size, are created , financially supported and governed by states or communities.◆Private schools 私立学校： There’ re by religious groups, or nonreligious private organization or individuals.◆Diversity of American education美国教育的多样化：(1)Diversity considered to be and outstanding characteristic of American education.(2)This can be seen not only in the type, size and control of the institutions but educational policies andpractices.(3)As is stated by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, education is a function of the state, not the federal government.(4)As each state has the freedom the develop its own school system and delegate its power over education to local districts, many variation can be found in the education system of the 50 states.◆State board of education州教育委员会：An elected or appointed board. It’s responsible for establishing policies and, through a state department of education, delegates authority for the operation of schools to local school districts.◆School districts 学区：(1)They are subdivisions of the states.(2)Currently, there are some 15,500 operating local public school districts.(3)Each local school district has a government board which is usually elected by the voters.(4)Its major responsibilities are the hiring of professional and support staff, determining the most suitable local curriculum, and budget to carry out educational programs.◆High school 高中：High schools are made up of comprehensive, academic, vocational and technical schools with somewhat different tasks.◆The general standards for admission to institutions 入学标准水平：They include successful completion of high school, high school grade point average (GPAP) and class rank, course studied in areas of English, mathematics, and science and results from standardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and American College Testing Program’s examination (ACTP). Open admissions are also being practiced in some public institutions.◆Graduate study 研究生教育：(1)Graduate study, both at the master’s and doctoral levels, is intended to prepare students for professional work.(2)At the master’s level the program is primarily course oriented, an extension ofundergraduate study. The master’s degree can normally be earned in one year by students holding a bachelor’s degree in the field of study; in some cases, the program is designed to require two years.(3)The program of study for the Ph.D. is rarely as specific as that for the master’s degree. The student’s program is usually decided by the student and his advisor or with a committee of professors. It’ s based on the student’s previous study and experience and career plan and interests. The doctoral program requires at least three years’ postgraduate study including the master’s degree. The average number of years’ study beyond the bachelor’s degree for the Ph.D. is roughly about 5—8 years.◆Community college 社区大学：(1)An aspect of American higher education that has drawn attention is the community college and the role it plays.(2)In the early 1900s, this kind of twoyears colleges emerged to meet the immediate need of the economic expansion and rapid rise in immigrants of the times.(3)Since then, it has undergone a rapid growth. It calls for education to serve the good of both the individual and society. It embodies general and liberal education career and vocational education and adult and continuing education. It performs important function. The guiding principle of it is higher education for every one.Chapter21◆Benjamin Franklin本杰明富兰克林：(1)He was the only writer in the colonial period whose works are read today.(2)There are very famous saying in his Poor Richard’s Almanac.(3)His uncompleted autobiography is perhaps the first real American writing as well as the first real autobiography in English.◆Knickerbockers era 纽约市人时代：In the early 19th century, New York City is the center of American writing. Its writers called “Knickerbockers”. The periodfrom 1810 to 1840 is known as the “Knickerbockers era” of American literature. The name comes from A History of New York, written by Washington Irving.◆华盛顿欧文：(1)He was the first American writer who gained international fame.(2)His book A History of New York gives the name “Knickerbockers era ” to the period from 1810 to 1840.His book created a lot of interest in the local history of New York.(3)His most famous book was“The Sketch Book”containing two of the best loved stories from American Literature “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”.◆Ralph W. Emerson and Transcendentalism 爱默生和先验主义：(1) In the 1830s and 1840s, there emerged a movement among American young intellectuals, which emphasized man’s potentiality for goodness, creativity and selfdevelopment. It was called “Transcendentalism”.(2)Emerson was regarded as the leader of this movement. In “Nature” he stared that man shouldn’t see nature merely as something to be used; that man’s relationship with nature transcends the idea of usefulness.(3)In his speech “The American Scholar”, which was considered the intellectual Declaration of Independence, he attacked the influence of tradition and the past, and called for a new burst of American creativity. A man should know himself through intuition and the study of nature, not of books.(4)His other famous books include Selfreliance, Representative Men, English Traits and Poems.◆Nathaniel Hawthorne 霍桑：(1)One of those who attacked Transcendentalism with no regard for any social impact.(2)He thought that man was superior to all other living things because man could make a conscious choice between good and evil.(3)In his most famous novel “The Scarlet Letter” the considers the effect on an individual’s character of guilty conscience, of hypocrisy and of hatred.◆Mark Twain 马克吐温：(1)His real name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens. He gained a wide knowledge of humanity through his life experience.(2)In 1865, he became famous with his short story“The celebrate Jumping Frog” .(3)His boyhood experience furnished his with ample material for writing. “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” was an immediate success as “a boy book”, and “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” became his master work.(4)All stories of his novels are simple and he represented American social life through portrayal of local places he knew best and through his colloquial style. His other famous book are :”A Tramp Abroad”, “Life on the Mississippi”.◆Walt Whitman 沃尔特惠特曼：(1)American poet, he praised an emerging America, its expansion and its individualism. He broke free from the convention of the poetic rhyme exhibiting a freedom in from unknown before.(2)In his master piece “Leaves of Grass”, he praised the ideas of equality and democracy and celebrated the dignity, the selfreliant spirit and the joy of the common man.(3)He was the first to explore fully the possibilities of free verse. He invented a completely new and completely American form of poetic expression.◆Emily Dickinson 艾米莉迪更森： (1)She was female American poet. She praised an emerging America, its expansion and individualism.(2)Cut off from the outside world, she created a very personal and pure kind of poetry. Her poetry is now seen as very modern for its time.(3)She made the “search for faith ”one of the great themes of her work. Apart from Bible, her most important guide in this search war the philosophy of Emerson.◆Theodore Dreiser 西奥多德莱曼：(1)He was one of the naturalists who in their works reported truthfully and objectively the life in the slums.(2)His first novel。