语言学练习答案
语言学练习题(附答案) Chapter 1 Language
Chapter One Language1. Define the following terms1) discreteness 2) design features3) arbitrariness 4) duality5) displacement 6) cultural transmission7) the imaginative function of language 8) the personal function of language9) the heuristic function of language 10) language2. Multiple ChoiceDirections: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or to complete the sentence best.1) Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang2) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative3) In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present arelikely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling theforces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which function does itperform?A. Interpersonal.B. Emotive. C Performative. D. Recreational.4) Which of the following properties of language enables language users to overcome thebarriers causedby time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a languageare free to talk about anything in any situation?A. interchangeability.B. Duality.C. Displacement.D. Arbitrariness.5) Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions oflanguage?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. Phatic.C. Peformative.D. Interpersonal.6) Unlike animal communication systems, human language is .A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.7) Which of the following is the most important function of language?A. interpersonal functionB. performative functionC. informative functionD. recreational function8) In different languages, different terms are used to express the animal “狗”, this shows the nature of --- of human language.A arbitrarinessB cultural transmissionC displacementD discreteness9) Which of the following disciplines are related to applied linguistics?A. statisticsB. psycholinguisticsC. physicsD. philosophy10) has been widely accepted as the father of modem linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons3. Word CompletionDirections: Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words.1) Design features, a framework proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett, referto the ________ properties of human language that distinguishes it from any animalsystem of communication.2) ________ refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfullydistinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually verygreat, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such away that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful.3) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usuallytermed p_______ or c________.4) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about language itself. Thisfunction is m________ function.5) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is c________ transmitted. It ispassed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than byi_________.6) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.7) The ________ function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge aboutthe world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on.8) The ________ function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phaticcommunion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologistBronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere ormaintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts.9) Language is a system of arbitrary symbols used for human Communication.10) Language has two levels. They are ______ level and ______ level.11) Language is a ________ because every language consists of a set of rules whichunderlie people’s actual speech or writing.12) The _function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once theyhappen.13) The design features of language are (1) (2) (3)(4) (5) (6) and (7) _______.14) By saying “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection be tweenmeaning and .15) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2) (3)and (4) .4. True or False QuestionsDirections: Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false in the bracket before each of them.1) ( ) The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural.2) ( ) When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informativefunction.3) ( ) The reason for French to use cheval and for English to use horse to refer to the sameanimal is inexplicable.4) ( ) Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.5) ( ) Language change is universal,ongoing and arbitrary.6) ( ) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a givenculture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate orinteract.7) ( ) In theory, the length of sentences is limited.8) ( ) The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.9) ( ) Linguistic symbols are a kind of visual symbols, which include vocal symbols.10) ( ) Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs.11) ( ) Every language has two levels: grammatically —meaningless and sound —meaningful.12) ( ) Such features of language as being creative, vocal, and arbitrary can differentiatehuman languages from animal communicative systems.13) ( ) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact thatlanguage has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.14) ( ) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication wayused by the deaf-mute is not language.15) ( ) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality oflanguage makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreignlanguage learner, the latter is more important for us.5. Glossary translation1)personal function2)heauristic function3)ideational function4)interchangeability5)控制功能6)表现功能7)文化传递性8)分离性9)区别性特征10)不受时空限制的属性11)Interactional function12)instrumentational function13)imaginative function14)寒暄功能15)元语言功能16)Personal function17)performative function18)娱乐功能19)信息功能20)人际功能6. Short Essay Questions1)What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.2)Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.3)Is language productive or not? Why?4)What is language?5)What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of them withexamples.Key to Chapter One1. Define the followina terms1) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pad and bad leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds/p/ and /b/in English. Each sound in the language is thought of as discrete. It is possible to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the sounds /p/ and /b/.2) “Design features” refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. (3分)3) “Arbitrariness” means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig.Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely arbitrary, because there are cases where there are or at least seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo Words, like “bang”, “crash”,”roar”,’ which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary eit her. “Snow” and “storm” are arbitrary or unmotivated words, while “snowstorm” is less so. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.4) Linguists refer “duality” of structure to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhuanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (For example, we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!) Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.5) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words,one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. People can use language’ to d escribe something that had occurred, is occurring, or is to occur. But a dog could not bark for a bone to be lost. The bee’s System has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.6) Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a geneticbasis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one rather than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The wolf-child reared by the wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. And it was difficult for him to acquire human language.7) The imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. It is also language used for sheer joy of using language, such as a baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting, a poet’s pleasuring.8) The personal function refers to language used to express the indi vidual’s feelings, emotions and personality.9) The heuristic function of language refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world they live in and to construct possible answers.10) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Multiple Choice1) – 5): A C C C B 6) – 10): A C C B B3. Word Completion.1) defining 2) Descreteness 3）productivity or creativity 4) metalingual 5) culturally, instinct or inheritance 6) speech 7) representational 8) interactional; 9) vocal;10) gramatically meaningful, sound meaningless; 11) system; 12) regulatory 13) arbitrariness, duality, productivity, cultural transmission, interchangeability, discreteness, displacement. 14) sound; 15) exhaustiveness, economy, objectivity, consistency4. True or False Questions1 – 5: FFTFF 6 – 10: FFTFT 11 – 15: FFTFT5. Glossary Translation1)personal function: 人际功能2)heauristic function：启发功能3)ideational function：概念功能4)interchangeability：互换性5)控制功能：regulatory function6)表现功能: representational functin7)文化传递性: cultural transmisssion8)分离性: discreteness9)区别性特征: design features10)不受时空限制的属性: displacement11)Interactional function: 互动功能12)instrumentational function：工具功能13)imaginative function：想象功能14)寒暄功能：phatic function15)元语言功能: metalingual function or metafunction of language16)personal function: 自指性功能17)performative function: 表达功能18)娱乐功能: recreational function19)信息功能: informative function20)人际功能: interpersonal function6. Short Essay Questions1) What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.According to Wang Gang (1988: 11), the functions of language can be mainly embodied in three aspects. i) Language is a tool of human communication; ii) Language is a tool whereby people learn about the world; iii) Language is a tool by which people create art.As a matter of fact, different linguists have different terms for the various functions of language. The British linguist M. A. K. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:(1) InstrumentalThe instrumental function of language refers to the fact that language allows speakers to get things done. It allows them to control things in the environment. People can cause things to be done and to happen through the use of words alone. An immediate contrast here is with the animal world in which sounds are hardly used in this way, and, when they are, they are used in an extremely limited degree. The instrumental function can be primitive too in human interaction. Performative utterances such as the words which name a ship at a launching ceremony clearly have instrumental functions if the right circumstances exist；they are acts, e.g. I name this ship Liberty Bell.(2) RegulatoryThe regulatory function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others. People do try to control themselves through language, e.g. Why did I say that?/ Steady! / And Let me think about that again. Language helps to regulate encounters among people. Language provides devices for regulating specific kinds of encounters and contains words for approving or disapproving and for controlling or disrupting the behavior of others. It allows us to establish complex patterns of organization in order to try to regulate behavior, from game playing to political organization, from answering the telephone to addressing in foreign affairs. It is the regulatory function of language that allows people some measure of control over events that occur in their lives.(3)RepresentationalThe representational function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge about the world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language is represented by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, geographical surveys, business accounts, scientific reports, government acts, and public data banks. It is an essential domain of language use, for the availability of this material guarantees the knowledge-base of subsequent generations, which is a prerequisite of social development.(4) InteractionalThe interactional function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phatic communion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts. A greeting such as how are you?is relatively empty of content, and answers like fine or very well, thank you are equally empty, because the speaker is not interested in the hearer’s health, but rather to demonstrate his politeness and general attitude toward the other person when he gives a conversational greeting.(5) PersonalThe personal function refers to language used to express the individual’s feelings, emotions and personali ty. A person’s individuality is usually characterized by his or her use of personal function of communication. Each individual has a “voice” in what happens to him. He is free to speak or not to speak, to say, as much or as little as he pleases, and to choose how to say what he says. The use of language can tell the listener or reader a great deal about the speaker or writer — in particular, about his regional origin, social background, level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.Language also provides the individual with a means to express feelings, whether outright in the form of exclamations, endorsements, or curse, or much more subtly through a careful choice of words. Many social situations display language used to foster a sense of identity: the shouting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the reactions of the audience to television game shows, the shouts of affirmation at some religious meetings. For example, the crowds attending Pres ident Regan’s pre-election meetings in 1984 repeatedly shouted “Four more years!” which united among those who shared the same political views.(6) HeuristicThe heuristic function refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Insofar as the inquiry into language itself, a necessary result is the creation of a metalanguage, i.e. a language used to refer to language, containing terms such as sound, syllable, word, structure, sentence, meaning and so on.(7) ImaginativeThe imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. The imaginative function also allows people to consider not just the real world but all possible worlds — and many impossible ones. Much literature is the most obvious example to serve this function as an account of Robinson Crusoe in the deserted island. The imaginative function enables life to be lived vicariously and helps satisfy numerous deep artistic urges.2) Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.Language is organized at two levels or layers-- sounds and meaning-- simultaneously. This property is called duality, or “double articulation”. In terms of speech production, we have the physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b, and i. As individual sound, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. When we produce those sounds in a particular combination, as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning, which is differentfrom the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact,: one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (relatively finite words and infinite number of sentences) which are distinct in meaning. No animal communication system has duality, or ever comes near to possessing it.3) Is language productive or not? Why?(1) Language is productive or creative. (233) This means that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Every day we send messages that have never been sent before, and we understand novel messages. Much of them we say and hear for the first time; yet there seems no problem of understanding. For example, the sentence” A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” must be new to you and it does not describe a common happening in the world. Nevertheless, nobody has any difficulty in understanding it.(2) Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, gibbon calls are not productive, for they draw all their calls from a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) The productivity or creativity of language partially. originates from its duality, because of which the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. It is the recursive nature of language that provides a theoretical basis for this possibility.4) What is language?(1) It is very difficult to give this question a satisfactory definition. However, most linguists would accept a tentative definition like this: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (2) Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will. If language were not systematic, it could not be learned or used consistently. (3) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. The fact that different languages have different words for it (钢笔in Chinese for instance) speaks strongly for the arbitrary nature of language. (4) This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. (5) We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper (6) The term “human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is human.specific; that is, it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.5) What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of themwith examples.(1) Displacement is one of the defining properties of human language, which refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are present or not present, real or not real, and about matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of its users.This phenomenon is thought of as “displacement”, which can provide its users with an opportunity to communicate about a wide range of subjects, free from any barriers caused by separation in time and space. That is, the feature of displacement can enable us to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot even be sure of. We can refer to mythical creatures, demons, fairies, angels, Santa Claus, and recently invented characters such as superman. This feature is unique to human language. No animal communication system possesses it. Some animal calls are often uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. For instance, during the mating season, in the present of danger or pain, animals will make calls. Once the danger or pain is missing, their calls stop.(2) Discreteness The sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. For example, the difference between the sounds b andp is actually not very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pack and back leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds p and b in English. This property of language is described as discreteness. Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. It is possible; in fact, to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the p and b sounds. However, that continuous stream will only be interpreted as being either a p sound, or a b sound (or, possibly, as a non-sound) in the language. We have a very discrete view of the sounds of our language and wherever a pronunciation falls within the physically possible range of sounds, it will be interpreted as a linguistically specific and meaningfully distinct sound(3) Language is a system. It is organized into two levels simultaneously. We have distinct sounds at the lower level (sound level), which is seen as a sequence of segments which have no meaning in themselves. At the higher level, we have distinct meanings (meaningful level). Language is analyzed in terms of combination of meaningful units. Then the meaningful units (such as morphemes, words, etc.) at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. The organization of language into levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality or double articulation. This unique feature of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system possesses the feature of duality.。
语言学练习题(附答案) Chapter 1 Language说课讲解
Chapter One Language1. Define the following terms1) discreteness 2) design features3) arbitrariness 4) duality5) displacement 6) cultural transmission7) the imaginative function of language 8) the personal function of language9) the heuristic function of language 10) language2. Multiple ChoiceDirections: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or to complete the sentence best.1) Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang2) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative3) In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present arelikely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling theforces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which function does itperform?A. Interpersonal.B. Emotive. C Performative. D. Recreational.4) Which of the following properties of language enables language users to overcome thebarriers causedby time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a languageare free to talk about anything in any situation?A. interchangeability.B. Duality.C. Displacement.D. Arbitrariness.5) Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions oflanguage?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. Phatic.C. Peformative.D. Interpersonal.6) Unlike animal communication systems, human language is .A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.7) Which of the following is the most important function of language?A. interpersonal functionB. performative functionC. informative functionD. recreational function8) In different languages, different terms are used to express the animal “狗”, this shows the nature of --- of human language.A arbitrarinessB cultural transmissionC displacementD discreteness9) Which of the following disciplines are related to applied linguistics?A. statisticsB. psycholinguisticsC. physicsD. philosophy10) has been widely accepted as the father of modem linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons3. Word CompletionDirections: Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words.1) Design features, a framework proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett, referto the ________ properties of human language that distinguishes it from any animalsystem of communication.2) ________ refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfullydistinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually verygreat, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such away that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful.3) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usuallytermed p_______ or c________.4) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about language itself. Thisfunction is m________ function.5) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is c________ transmitted. It ispassed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than byi_________.6) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.7) The ________ function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge aboutthe world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on.8) The ________ function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phaticcommunion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologistBronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere ormaintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts.9) Language is a system of arbitrary symbols used for human Communication.10) Language has two levels. They are ______ level and ______ level.11) Language is a ________ because every language consists of a set of rules whichunderlie people’s actual speech or writing.12) The _function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once theyhappen.13) The design features of language are (1) (2) (3)(4) (5) (6) and (7) _______.14) By saying “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection be tweenmeaning and .15) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2) (3)and (4) .4. True or False QuestionsDirections: Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false in the bracket before each of them.1) ( ) The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural.2) ( ) When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informativefunction.3) ( ) The reason for French to use cheval and for English to use horse to refer to the sameanimal is inexplicable.4) ( ) Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.5) ( ) Language change is universal,ongoing and arbitrary.6) ( ) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a givenculture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate orinteract.7) ( ) In theory, the length of sentences is limited.8) ( ) The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.9) ( ) Linguistic symbols are a kind of visual symbols, which include vocal symbols.10) ( ) Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs.11) ( ) Every language has two levels: grammatically —meaningless and sound —meaningful.12) ( ) Such features of language as being creative, vocal, and arbitrary can differentiatehuman languages from animal communicative systems.13) ( ) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact thatlanguage has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.14) ( ) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication wayused by the deaf-mute is not language.15) ( ) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality oflanguage makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreignlanguage learner, the latter is more important for us.5. Glossary translation1)personal function2)heauristic function3)ideational function4)interchangeability5)控制功能6)表现功能7)文化传递性8)分离性9)区别性特征10)不受时空限制的属性11)Interactional function12)instrumentational function13)imaginative function14)寒暄功能15)元语言功能16)Personal function17)performative function18)娱乐功能19)信息功能20)人际功能6. Short Essay Questions1)What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.2)Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.3)Is language productive or not? Why?4)What is language?5)What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of them withexamples.Key to Chapter One1. Define the followina terms1) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pad and bad leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds/p/ and /b/in English. Each sound in the language is thought of as discrete. It is possible to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the sounds /p/ and /b/.2) “Design features” refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. (3分)3) “Arbitrariness” means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig.Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely arbitrary, because there are cases where there are or at least seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo Words, like “bang”, “crash”,”roar”,’ which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either. “Snow” and “storm” are arbitrary or unmotivated words, while “snowstorm” is less so. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.4) Linguists refer “duality” of structure to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhuanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (For example, we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!) Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.5) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words,one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. People can use language’ to describe something that had occurred, is occurring, or is to occur. But a dog could not bark for a bone to be lost. The bee’s System has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.6) Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a geneticbasis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one rather than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The wolf-child reared by the wolves turned out to speak the wo lf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. And it was difficult for him to acquire human language.7) The imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. It is also language used for sheer joy of using language, such as a baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting, a poet’s pleasuring.8) The personal function refers to language used to express the individual’s feelings, emotions and personality.9) The heuristic function of language refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world they live in and to construct possible answers.10) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Multiple Choice1) – 5): A C C C B 6) – 10): A C C B B3. Word Completion.1) defining 2) Descreteness 3）productivity or creativity 4) metalingual 5) culturally, instinct or inheritance 6) speech 7) representational 8) interactional; 9) vocal;10) gramatically meaningful, sound meaningless; 11) system; 12) regulatory 13) arbitrariness, duality, productivity, cultural transmission, interchangeability, discreteness, displacement. 14) sound; 15) exhaustiveness, economy, objectivity, consistency4. True or False Questions1 – 5: FFTFF 6 – 10: FFTFT 11 – 15: FFTFT5. Glossary Translation1)personal function: 人际功能2)heauristic function：启发功能3)ideational function：概念功能4)interchangeability：互换性5)控制功能：regulatory function6)表现功能: representational functin7)文化传递性: cultural transmisssion8)分离性: discreteness9)区别性特征: design features10)不受时空限制的属性: displacement11)Interactional function: 互动功能12)instrumentational function：工具功能13)imaginative function：想象功能14)寒暄功能：phatic function15)元语言功能: metalingual function or metafunction of language16)personal function: 自指性功能17)performative function: 表达功能18)娱乐功能: recreational function19)信息功能: informative function20)人际功能: interpersonal function6. Short Essay Questions1) What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.According to Wang Gang (1988: 11), the functions of language can be mainly embodied in three aspects. i) Language is a tool of human communication; ii) Language is a tool whereby people learn about the world; iii) Language is a tool by which people create art.As a matter of fact, different linguists have different terms for the various functions of language. The British linguist M. A. K. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:(1) InstrumentalThe instrumental function of language refers to the fact that language allows speakers to get things done. It allows them to control things in the environment. People can cause things to be done and to happen through the use of words alone. An immediate contrast here is with the animal world in which sounds are hardly used in this way, and, when they are, they are used in an extremely limited degree. The instrumental function can be primitive too in human interaction. Performative utterances such as the words which name a ship at a launching ceremony clearly have instrumental functions if the right circumstances exist；they are acts, e.g. I name this ship Liberty Bell.(2) RegulatoryThe regulatory function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others. People do try to control themselves through language, e.g. Why did I say that?/ Steady! / And Let me think about that again. Language helps to regulate encounters among people. Language provides devices for regulating specific kinds of encounters and contains words for approving or disapproving and for controlling or disrupting the behavior of others. It allows us to establish complex patterns of organization in order to try to regulate behavior, from game playing to political organization, from answering the telephone to addressing in foreign affairs. It is the regulatory function of language that allows people some measure of control over events that occur in their lives.(3)RepresentationalThe representational function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge about the world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language is represented by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, geographical surveys, business accounts, scientific reports, government acts, and public data banks. It is an essential domain of language use, for the availability of this material guarantees the knowledge-base of subsequent generations, which is a prerequisite of social development.(4) InteractionalThe interactional function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phatic communion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts. A greeting such as how are you?is relatively empty of content, and answers like fine or very well, thank you are equally empty, because the speaker is not interested in the hearer’s health, but rather to demonstrate his politeness and general attitude toward the other person when he gives a conversational greeting.(5) PersonalThe personal function refers to language used to express the i ndividual’s feelings, emotions and personality. A person’s individuality is usually characterized by his or her use of personal function of communication. Each individual has a “voice” in what happens to him. He is free to speak or not to speak, to say, as much or as little as he pleases, and to choose how to say what he says. The use of language can tell the listener or reader a great deal about the speaker or writer — in particular, about his regional origin, social background, level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.Language also provides the individual with a means to express feelings, whether outright in the form of exclamations, endorsements, or curse, or much more subtly through a careful choice of words. Many social situations display language used to foster a sense of identity: the shouting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the reactions of the audience to television game shows, the shouts of affirmation at some religious meetings. For example, the crowds attending President Regan’s pre-election meetings in 1984 repeatedly shouted “Four more years!” which united among those who shared the same political views.(6) HeuristicThe heuristic function refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Insofar as the inquiry into language itself, a necessary result is the creation of a metalanguage, i.e. a language used to refer to language, containing terms such as sound, syllable, word, structure, sentence, meaning and so on.(7) ImaginativeThe imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. The imaginative function also allows people to consider not just the real world but all possible worlds — and many impossible ones. Much literature is the most obvious example to serve this function as an account of Robinson Crusoe in the deserted island. The imaginative function enables life to be lived vicariously and helps satisfy numerous deep artistic urges.2) Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.Language is organized at two levels or layers-- sounds and meaning-- simultaneously. This property is called duality, or “double articulation”. In terms of speech production, we have the physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b, and i. As individual sound, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. When we produce those sounds in a particular combination, as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning, which is differentfrom the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact,: one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (relatively finite words and infinite number of sentences) which are distinct in meaning. No animal communication system has duality, or ever comes near to possessing it.3) Is language productive or not? Why?(1) Language is productive or creative. (233) This means that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Every day we send messages that have never been sent before, and we understand novel messages. Much of them we say and hear for the first time; yet there seems no problem of understanding. For example, the sentence” A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” must be new to you and it does not describe a common happening in the world. Nevertheless, nobody has any difficulty in understanding it.(2) Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, gibbon calls are not productive, for they draw all their calls from a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) The productivity or creativity of language partially. originates from its duality, because of which the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. It is the recursive nature of language that provides a theoretical basis for this possibility.4) What is language?(1) It is very difficult to give this question a satisfactory definition. However, most linguists would accept a tentative definition like this: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (2) Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will. If language were not systematic, it could not be learned or used consistently. (3) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. The fact that different languages have different words for it (钢笔in Chinese for instance) speaks strongly for the arbitrary nature of language. (4) This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. (5) We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper (6) The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human.specific; that is, it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.5) What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of themwith examples.(1) Displacement is one of the defining properties of human language, which refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are present or not present, real or not real, and about matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of its users.This phenom enon is thought of as “displacement”, which can provide its users with an opportunity to communicate about a wide range of subjects, free from any barriers caused by separation in time and space. That is, the feature of displacement can enable us to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot even be sure of. We can refer to mythical creatures, demons, fairies, angels, Santa Claus, and recently invented characters such as superman. This feature is unique to human language. No animal communication system possesses it. Some animal calls are often uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. For instance, during the mating season, in the present of danger or pain, animals will make calls. Once the danger or pain is missing, their calls stop.(2) Discreteness The sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. For example, the difference between the sounds b andp is actually not very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pack and back leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds p and b in English. This property of language is described as discreteness. Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. It is possible; in fact, to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the p and b sounds. However, that continuous stream will only be interpreted as being either a p sound, or a b sound (or, possibly, as a non-sound) in the language. We have a very discrete view of the sounds of our language and wherever a pronunciation falls within the physically possible range of sounds, it will be interpreted as a linguistically specific and meaningfully distinct sound(3) Language is a system. It is organized into two levels simultaneously. We have distinct sounds at the lower level (sound level), which is seen as a sequence of segments which have no meaning in themselves. At the higher level, we have distinct meanings (meaningful level). Language is analyzed in terms of combination of meaningful units. Then the meaningful units (such as morphemes, words, etc.) at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. The organization of language into levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality or double articulation. This unique feature of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system possesses the feature of duality.。
《语言学导论》(练习题及答案)
《语言学导论》(练习题及答案)语言学导论练题及答案1. 什么是语言学？语言学是研究语言的科学。
它涉及语言的结构、演化、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。
2. 语言学的主要分支有哪些？- 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
- 语法学：研究语言的规则和结构。
- 语义学：研究语言意义的构成和理解。
- 语用学：研究语言在特定情境下的使用和交际功能。
- 社会语言学：研究语言与社会的关系。
3. 什么是语言的结构？语言的结构是指语言中各个层次（如语音、词汇、句子等）的组织方式和规则。
4. 语音学研究的是什么？语音学研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
它关注语音的音素、音位、音节以及音系等方面。
5. 语法学研究的是什么？语法学研究语言的规则和结构。
它涉及句子的构成和分析，包括词类、短语、句法关系等。
6. 语义学研究的是什么？语义学研究语言意义的构成和理解。
它关注词汇、句子和篇章层面的语义关系和意义表达。
7. 语用学研究的是什么？语用学研究语言在特定情境下的使用和交际功能。
它关注言语行为、话语策略和交际意图等。
8. 社会语言学研究的是什么？社会语言学研究语言与社会的关系。
它探讨语言在不同社会群体中的变化、语言的地位和使用情境等。
9. 语言学在日常生活中的应用有哪些？- 语言教育：帮助人们研究和教授语言。
- 语音技术：开发语音识别和合成等技术。
- 翻译和口译：促进不同语言之间的交流和理解。
- 语言规范：制定语法规则、文字标准等。
- 语义分析：帮助机器理解和处理自然语言。
10. 语言学为理解人类语言能力提供了哪些洞见？语言学研究揭示了语言是人类认知和交流的基本工具，提供了对语言产生、理解、学习和变化的深入认识。
语言学概论试题及答案
《语言学概论》练习1参考答案（导言、第一章、第二章）一、填空1、语言学的三大发源地是中国、印度和希腊－罗马。
2、现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》。
3、印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。
4、文字、音韵、训诂是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。
5、语言的功能包括社会功能和思维功能。
6、语言的社会功能包括信息传递功能和人际互动功能。
7、儿童语言习得一般经过独词句阶段和双词句阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。
8、说出的话语句子是无限的，但无限多的句子都是由有限的词和规则组装起来的。
9、符号包括形式和意义两个方面，二者不可分离。
10、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是语言符号的基本性质。
11、心理现实是存在于客观现实和语言符号之间的人脑中的信息存在状态。
12、语言系统二层性的一大特点是形式层的最小单位一定大大少于符号层的最小单位。
13、组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两种根本关系。
14、动物无法掌握人类的语言，从生理基础看是不具有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。
二、问答题。
1、为什么说语言学是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁？从语言学发展的历史来看，语言学首先深受哲学、逻辑学等历史悠久的人文学科思想方法的影响，后来语言学摆脱对传统人文学科的附庸地位成为独立的学科后，受到许多自然科学研究的影响。
比如，19世纪，历史比较语言学的语言观念和研究方法深受生物学的影响；20世纪初的语言结构思想与科学的整体论思想密切相关；生成语言学受数学、逻辑学影响；等等。
与此同时，其他学科也开始从语言学理论中汲取有益的思想观念。
20世纪的社会学、人类学、文学批评等都深受结构主义语言学的影响。
从19世纪后期开始，现代语言学的研究理念在很大程度上接受了物理学等自然科学的方法论原则，一些学者甚至提出语言学是一门自然科学。
但另一方面，语言学又从未割断与传统人文学科的联系。
语言学的这一特点在很大程度上源于语言现象的独特性。
语言既具有社会属性，又是人类天赋的能力，既是贮存人类已有文明的宝库，又是人类新的精神创造的依托。
语言学考试题型标准答案
题型I．简答题5×1’=5’例：类似于自由词素、词根、词干、连着词素、曲折词素等待解释II．判断正误T/F 20×1’=20’例：动词是逆构词法中产生最多的词。
III．单项选择题20’例：奥斯丁、姆斯金、德莱斯提出的理论？IV．写音标10×1’=10’P35～36V．划分词素10×3×0.5’=15’VI．翻译10×1’=10’分英翻汉和汉翻英例：合作原则、聚合关系、组合关系、曲折后缀、词缀、前缀、后缀VII．选择答题2×5’=10’VIII．树形图给词，分析意思，是否有歧义？用树形图解释出来。
样卷AI．1. displacement2. pragnatics3. stem4. syntax5. hyponymyII. T/F9. Lang is arbitrary to the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to. F10. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language. F11. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in umber, and yet there is no limit to the umber of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. F12. Agreement is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each in terms of categories. T13. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use; it originated with John Langs Shaw Austin. T14.15.Vibretion of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voucing. F?16. The word “flower” is the super ordinate of the typonyms “rose” “tulip” and “rose”. T17．Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. T18.The English sound [m]is a bilabial nasal voice. T19. A study of the features of the Chinese used in the Tang Dynasty in diachronic study. T?20.While English has borrowed most heavily form French, other languages have also made their contributions. F21. Inflectional affixs are those whose major function is to attach themselves to the morphemes to form a new word. F22. A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable. F23. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. F24. The phrase “green house” with the first element stressed means “a house which is green in colour” F25. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order. F26. The compound word “book store” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaning of its compounments. F27. Only when a maxim under cooperative principle is blatantly violated can the hearer know that it’s being violated and conversational implications arise. T28. The word “photo graphically” is made up of 4 morphemes. TIII.29. The famous quotation from Romeo and Juliet arose by any other name world smell as sweet well illustrates: the conventional nature of language.30. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it’s a said to be: descriptive.31. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? Phonology32. Phonetially, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element.33. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic… …36. The word “trasist~” is formed through: lending37. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of classed displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns.38. Concord is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.39. Chomsky uses the term performance to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his langua ge in linguistic com.40. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][s][d][z][n] share the feature of P3541. Translate formational Generative Crammer was introduced by N. Chomsky in 1957.42. The relationship between “married/ single” is complementary.43. Of the 3 speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because of this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.44. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are synomy~s.45. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn’t it?” is 寒暄46.47. We can do things with words “this” is main idea of the speech act theory.48. The utterance “we are already working 25 hours a day, 8 days a week” obviously violates the maxim of quantity.IV.49. voiceless dentalfricative50. high front tense unroundedvowel51. voiced alveolarstop52. high back tense roundedvowel53. voiceless bilabialstop54. voiced labiodentalfricativeV.55. What are the 4 maxims of the cooperative Principle?56. What are the distinctions between inflectional affix and derivational affix?VIII.Leave the book on the shelf.1 leave the book on the shelfPut the book on the shelf.2 leave book on the shelfKeep away from the book on the shelf1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Design Features of LanguageArbitrariness (Saussure)This feature means that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.DualityThe elements of the spoken language are sounds that do not convey meaning in themselves.CreativityBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.DisplacementThis means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Functions of Language(1) Informative FunctionLanguage serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker thinks, to give information about facts.(2) Interpersonal functionThis is by far the most important socio-logical use of language. People establish and maintain their status in a society.(3) Performative FunctionThis function is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful usesof language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.(5) Phatic communionIt refers to the social interaction of language which is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than forexchanging information or ideas.Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.(6) Recreational functionThis function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.(7) Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is scientific discipline with the goal of describing language and speech in all relevant theoretical and practical aspects and their relation to adjoining disciplines.5. Main Branches of Linguistics*PhoneticsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.* MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning---morphemes and word-formation processes.*PhonologyIt studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.*SyntaxIt is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, andthe relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.*SemanticsIt examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.*PragmaticsIt is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.6. Important Distinctions in Linguistics*Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is DESCRIPTIVE if it describes and analysesfacts observed; it is PRESCRIPTIVE it tries to lay down rules for “correct” behavior.* Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic description refers to a language description at some point in time;Diachronic description is about a language description as it changes through time.* Langue & paroleLANGUE refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;PAROLE refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.*Competence & performanceCompetence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language;Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance.7. CONSONANTS and VOWELSConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity;A vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.8. Manners of Articulation*Stop (or plosive)(爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth.There are two kinds of stops: oral stops and nasal stops* Fricative(摩擦音): close approximation of two articulators sothat the air-stream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.* Approximant(无摩擦延续音):This is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extentthat a turbulent air-stream is produced.* Lateral(舌边音): obstruction of the air-stream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one orboth sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.* Affricates (破擦音)：When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly withthe friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates. In English there are two affricates.* Nasals (鼻音):When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English.* Glides (滑音):They are sometimes called “semivowels”. They are produced with a narrower passage between the lips and the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction. In English, they are [w,j]9. The place of Articulation* Bilabial(双唇音):In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. In English, bilabial sounds include [p,b,m]* Labiodental(唇齿音):In the obstruction of these sounds, the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f,v* dental(齿音):The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English.* alveolar(齿龈音):The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t,d,s,z,n,l,r]* palatal(颚音):The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.* velar(软腭音):The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum(软腭), or the soft palate.* glottal(喉音):The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English: [h].10. Classification of English vowels* Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.11.12. The Phoneme theoryThe phoneme simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”13. Allophones(音位变体)Peak and speak are not actually pronounced as they are transcribed in dictionaries.We know that in English there is a rule that this sound is unaspirated after /s/ but aspirated in other places. In what we have talked about, different variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution(互补分布) because they never occur in the same context.14. Assimilation(同化)*This is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.*There are two possibilities of assimilation:If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation(逆同化);The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation(顺同化).* Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown in the following:pancakesunglassesYou can keep them.He can go now.Define the following termsconsonant phoneme allophoneWhat isassimilation?15. SuprasegmentalsThe syllable structureStressIntonationTone16. Identification of words*StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement.* Relative uninterruptibility:This means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing can be used to insert in the three parts of the word disappointment: dis+appoint+ment.* A minimum free form:This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form”, the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance.17. Classification of wordsVariable & invariable words*Variable words refer to those that we can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms, for the word write, there are several grammatically different forms: wrote, written, writing* Grammatical words & lexical words:Those which express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words, also known as function words. Those which have lexical meanings,i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words, also known as content words.* Closed-class words and open-class words:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.New expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.* Word class:Traditionally, we had such word classes as “n. adj. v. adv. prep. etc.” But here are some of the categories newly introduced:a. ParticlesThey include the infinitive marker “to”, the negative marker “not” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.Chapter Three: Morphologyb. AuxiliariesAuxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs, but linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class:Negation: I can’t come.*I wantn’t come.Inversion: Is he coming? *Keeps he coming?Code: I’ll come and so will Bill.*I intend to come and so intend Bill.Emphasis: He has come. *He seems to come.c. Pro-formIn order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, it is advisable to regard pro-form as a separate word class.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: Jane’s hiding there, behind the door.d. Determiners:This is a new word class which refer to words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference: the, a, some, all, etc.Quirk, et al proposes that there are three subclasses of determiners:Predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third,etc.Central determiners: the, a, this, that, these, those, etc.Postdeterminers.next, last, past, other, (a) few, much, etc.18. The formation of word* Morpheme & morphologyMorpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g.boys---boy+-schecking---check+-ingdisappointment---dis-+appoint+-mentMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. For example, the verb purify consistsof two parts: pur(e) and –ify, from which we can work out a rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may explain the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ify, such as simplify, beautify, amplify,etc.。
语言学概论课练习题附答案
一、填空题1.语言学的三大发源地是古代印度、中国和古希腊－罗马。
2.语言学是19 世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是欧洲历史比较语言学的出现。
3.现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》。
4.生成语法的标志是1957 年乔姆斯基的《句法结构》的出版。
5.语言交际过程可分为编码－发送－传递－接收－解码五个阶段。
6.现代语言学最主要的流派有形式语言学、功能语言学和认知语言学。
三、分析题1.下面是居住在尼罗河和红海之间的苏丹游牧部落的贝贾语。
（1）根据给出的贝贾语与英语的对照造出一个新的句子：He makes someone walk。
1. tamani I eat2. tamiini He eats3. giigani I walk4. tamsani I feed(someone)（2）请指出从这些词语中看到的该语言的一些基本特征。
2.依据以下语言片段写出推测性答案西非Ewe语汉译uwa ye xa amu 那个头领看着一个孩子uwa ye xa ufi 那个头领看着一棵树uwa xa ina ye 一个头领看着那幅画amu xa ina 一个孩子看着一幅画amu ye vo ele ye 那个孩子想要那把椅子amu xa ele ye 一个孩子看着那把椅子ika vo ina ye 一个妇女想要那幅画问：Ｅｗｅ语中相当于汉语指示代词“那”的是什么？“那个妇女看着一把椅子”在Ｅｗｅ语中怎么说？四、问答题1.为什么说历时比较语言学在语言学史上具有重要地位？2.请找出形式主义与功能语义语言学观点上的主要对立。
3.再找出汉语中的至少一种反映象似性原则的句子。
第一章语言的功能一、填空题1.语言的功能包括社会功能功能和思维功能功能。
2.语言的社会功能包括信息传递功能和人际互动功能。
3.在各种信息传递形式中，语言是第一性的、最基本的手段。
4.人的大脑分左右两半球，语言功能以及相关的计数、分类、推理等功能由左半球掌管，音乐等艺术感知、人的面貌识别、立体图形的识别、整体把握能力、内在想象力等由右半球掌管。
语言学练习答案
语言学练习答案《语言学概论》练习一、名词解释：1、语言学：语言学是研究语言的科学，研究语言的性质、功能、结构，揭示语言的发展规律的科学。
2、语言：语言是语音和语义结合的符号系统，是人类社会最重要的交际工具，是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类思维的最有效的工具。
3、符号：符号是用于传递信息、指代事物或思想的标记。
4、组合关系：组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位（如音位与音位、词与词等等）按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。
简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。
5、聚合关系：聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位（如音位、词）之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。
6、语音：语音是语言符号系统的载体，它是由人的发音器官发出的、负载着一定的语言意义的语言的声音7、音素从音质的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。
8、发音部位：发音部位是指发辅音时形成阻碍的器官部位。
9、音位：音位是指具体语言（或方言）中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小的语音单位。
10、音位变体：是一个音位的不同变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。
11、区别特征：一个音位之所以区别于别的音位，是因为它具有某种特殊的不同于别的音位的语音特征。
这种能区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征。
12、音节：音节是音位与音位组合起来构成的最小的语音结构单位。
13、语法：语法就是用词造句的规则系统，它是词的构成规则、变化规则、组合规则的总和。
14、句子：句子是交际中最基本的表述单位，是交流思想的基本语言单位。
15、词：词是造句的时候能够独立运用的最小单位；16、语素：语素是最小的语音语义结合体，语言的最小单位；17、变词语素：没有构词作用，但是能改变一个词的形式的语素，是变词语素，词尾就是变词语素。
18、构词语素：具有构词作用的语素就是构词语素，词根和词缀能参与构词，就是构词语素。
19、单纯词：是由一个词根语素构成的词。
例如汉语的“人、手、水、河、啊、琵琶、枇杷、哗啦、坦克”等，英语如man、teach、book、moon、sun、long 等都是单纯词。
(完整版)英语语言学习题与答案
Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.”is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn't it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user's knowledge of the rulesof his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn't be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the designfeature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way usedby the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.anyof details the means which language, acquire to ability the with born all were We 15.language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare's time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed__________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure's langue and Chomsky's __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)）1999（青岛海洋大学，How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? 37.Key:[In the reference keys, I won't give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. –icywarmtea]I.1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACACII.11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker's knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, ina way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V.35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of asmall number of elements –for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to formunlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system whichwill be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words,which are distinct in meaning.36.It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.VI.37.It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis –collect data –checkagainst the observable facts –come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as__________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquirethe quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merelya different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.15.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give37.an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative答案I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation,and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change theword-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and__________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCOoverwhelmedd. inflectional morpheme (4)(5) prefix e. calculationKey:I.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADBII.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFFIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combiningthe meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type ofbase to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati?cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.D. subordinatorC. preposition B. particle A. coordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf”belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.”is a__________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an__________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in oneway or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and amongnatural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers”by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key:I.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBAII.11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded28. Adjacency27. open29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences ina language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It's suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure.E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, oppositeto the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples ofthis type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning[Mainly taken from lxm1000w's exercises. –icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive”and “dead”are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features。
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《语言学概论》练习一、名词解释：1、语言学：语言学是研究语言的科学，研究语言的性质、功能、结构，揭示语言的发展规律的科学。
2、语言：语言是语音和语义结合的符号系统，是人类社会最重要的交际工具，是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类思维的最有效的工具。
3、符号：符号是用于传递信息、指代事物或思想的标记。
4、组合关系：组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位（如音位与音位、词与词等等）按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。
简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。
5、聚合关系：聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位（如音位、词）之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。
6、语音：语音是语言符号系统的载体，它是由人的发音器官发出的、负载着一定的语言意义的语言的声音7、音素从音质的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。
8、发音部位：发音部位是指发辅音时形成阻碍的器官部位。
9 、音位：音位是指具体语言（或方言）中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小的语音单位。
10、音位变体：是一个音位的不同变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。
11、区别特征：一个音位之所以区别于别的音位，是因为它具有某种特殊的不同于别的音位的语音特征。
这种能区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征。
12、音节：音节是音位与音位组合起来构成的最小的语音结构单位。
13、语法：语法就是用词造句的规则系统，它是词的构成规则、变化规则、组合规则的总和。
14、句子：句子是交际中最基本的表述单位，是交流思想的基本语言单位。
15、词：词是造句的时候能够独立运用的最小单位；16、语素：语素是最小的语音语义结合体，语言的最小单位；17、变词语素：没有构词作用，但是能改变一个词的形式的语素，是变词语素，词尾就是变词语素。
18、构词语素：具有构词作用的语素就是构词语素，词根和词缀能参与构词，就是构词语素。
19、单纯词：是由一个词根语素构成的词。
例如汉语的“人、手、水、河、啊、琵琶、枇杷、哗啦、坦克”等，英语如man、teach 、book、moon、sun、long 等都是单纯词。
20、合成词：合成词是由两个以上的语素构成的词。
21、复合词：完全由几个词根语素按一定规则构成的词就是复合词。
例如汉语的“思想、学习、黄瓜、大豆、胆怯”等，英语的如“snowwhite、makeblieve、earthfall 、friendship 、motherland ”等。
22、语法意义：指相对于词汇意义而言由词的变化所体现出来的意义。
23、形态：也叫做词形变化，指词与词组合时发生的词形变化所形成的聚合。
24、社会方言：社会方言是指社会内部不同年龄、性别、职业、阶级、阶层的人们在语言使用上表现出来的、在全民语言基础上产生的语言变体。
25、地域方言：地域方言指全民语言在不同地域上的分支，或一种语言的地方变体。
26、借词：也叫外来词，是音义都借自外语的词。
二、填空：1、中国、印度、希腊一罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
2、我国传统的语文学“小学”包括音韵学、文字学、训诂学。
3、根据研究对象的不同，语言学可分为专语语言学、普通语言学两类。
4、结构主义语言学分布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派三个分支学派。
5、文字是建立在语言之上的一种最重要的辅助性交际工具。
6、任何符号，都包括形式和意义两个方面，是统一不可分割的。
7、语言符号具有任意性、线条性两个特点。
&符号和符号组合起来的关系就是组合关系，一群具有相同作用的符号在同一个环节可以互相替换，它们之间的关系就是聚合关系。
9、音素是从语音的自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位，音位是从语音的社会属性角度划分出来的能区别词的语音形式的最小语音单位。
10、语音具有物理属性、生理属性、社会属性，其中社会属性是语音的本质属性。
11、语音的四要素是指音高、音重、音长、音质。
12、音质是由发音体、发音方法、共鸣器形状三个方面的因素决定的。
13、人体发音器官可分为动力部分、发音体、共鸣腔三大部分。
14、根据发音特点，音素可分元音和辅音两大类。
15、元音的音色是由舌位的高低、舌位的前后、圆唇与否三个方面的因素决定的。
女口a是前、低、不圆唇元音,u 是后、高、圆唇元音。
16、辅音的音质是由发音部位和发音方法两个方面决定的,如s是舌尖前清擦逋音，p是双唇不送气清塞辅音。
17、音位变体可分两种，出现条件受环境制约的是条件变体，没有条件限制的是自由变体。
18、声调具有区别意义的作用，叫非音质音位。
19、汉语声调可分阴平、阳平、上声和去声四种，调值分别是55、35、214 和51。
20、t和k的区别特征是：t是舌尖前音,k是舌面后音。
21、汉语音节可分声母、韵母、声调三部分，其中韵母又分韵头、韵腹和韵尾三部分。
22、从韵头情况看，汉语韵母可分开口呼、齐齿呼、合口呼、撮口呼四类。
23、语法单位包括语素、词、词组、句子。
24、语素可分词根、词缀、词尾三类,其中词根、词缀是构词语素,又叫词干，词尾是变词语素。
如dislikes ，其中dis是前缀,like 词根,dislike 是词干,s是词尾。
25、词从结构成分看可分单纯词与合成词两类。
26、合成词可分复合词与派生词两类，如“女性”是复合词，“弹性”是派生 ?词。
27、语法组合的基本类型有主谓、偏正、述宾、述补、联合五种，如“热爱生活”是述宾,“说不清楚”是述补。
28、常用的语法手段主要有选词、词序、虚词、词形变化。
29、常见的语法范畴包括性、数、格、时和体、人称、态、级等。
30、基本词汇具有普遍性、稳固性、能产性三个特点。
31、词义概括性具体表现在一般性、模糊性、全民性三个方面。
32、词义引申的方式有两种，如“红领巾”本义是红色的领巾，派生义指少先队员，这是换喻;“高峰”本义是指高的山峰，派生义指事物发展的最高点，这是隐喻。
33、同义词“妻子”和“夫人”的语体色彩不同,“团结”和“勾结”感情色彩不同。
34、“桃树”、“李树”、“杏树”可归入果树义场,“汽车”、“火车”、“轮船”、“飞机”可归入交通工具义场。
35、词语的搭配一方面要受到语法规则的支配,另一方面要受到语义条件的限制。
36、文字的主要作用是突破了语言的时间和空间限制,扩大了语言的使用范围。
37、从造字法看，文字经历了表意、意音和表音三个阶段的发展。
38、书面语是在口语的基础上产生发展的，口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
39、语言要随着社会的发展而发展,社会发展是语言发展的基本条件。
40、语言系统的发展具有渐变性和不平衡性特点。
41、社会方言包括行业用语、阶级方言、科技术语等。
42、现代汉语有七大方言，如吴方言以苏州话为代表，北方方言以北京话为代表，湘方言以长沙话为代表。
43、汉语属于汉藏语系，英语、法语属于印欧语系。
44、从语法结构角度看，语言可分孤立语、屈折语、黏着语、复综语四种。
45、共同语一般是在某一种语言或方言的基础上建立起来的。
46、汉语借词主要有音译、音译加意译和半音译半意译等方式。
47、从词义演变结果看，新义主要有词义的扩大、缩小和转移三种情况。
三、判断：1、“小学”是我国传统的语文学，包括文字、音韵、训诂三方面内容。
（对）2、古人研究语言，以口语为主，目的是指导人们更好地运用语言。
（错）3、专语语言学以某一具体的语言为研究对象，如现代汉语就是专语语言学。
（对）4、历史比较语言学的建立是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
（对）5、索绪尔的代表著作是《语言论》。
（错）6、、单纯的语-_:是不存在的，都以个体的形式存在着。
（对）7、语 -_:言是抽象的，说话是具体的。
（对）8、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字也是最重要的交际工具（错）9、不同的阶级使用语言有不同的特点，这反映了语言是有阶级性的。
（错）10、符号的意义内容比符号的外在形式更重要（错）11、没有形式，符号不可能存在，因此符号的形式比意义内容更重要。
（错）12、语言符号的任意性特点是指语言的运用是依据个人好恶组织材料的。
（错）13、人类不同的语言说明了语言的任意性特点，是语言任意性的反映。
（对）14、语言二层性的核心是以少驭多，反映了语言的生成性特点（对）15、聚合反映了语言的结构法则，组合是对法则的运用和扩展（错）16、语音的最小单位是音位，是从自然属性角度划分出来的（错）17、汉语拼音中的h ，国际音标用x 表示（对）18 、生理属性是语音的本质属性（错）19 、音高在汉语中具有区别意义的作用（对）20、元音和辅音的本质区别在于发音时气流是否受阻（对）21 、口腔中最为灵活的发音器官是上腭（错）22、元音u和o的区别是舌位高低不同，其他方面没有区别（对）23、辅音的音质特点是由发音部位决定的（错）24、［b］的发音情况是：双唇、不送气、清、塞音（错）25、音位和音素的内涵是一样的，一个音素就是一个音位（错）26、国际音标［t ‘ ］相当于汉语拼音中的声母z和zh（错）27、普通话的声调分四类，其中上声的调值是35（错）28、音位/p/和/p ‘ /只有一个不同的区别特征（对）29、聚合规则是潜在的，它储存于人们的脑子中（对）30 、后缀又叫词尾，具有构词功能（错）31、一个词中的变词语素是指除去词根的部分（错）32 、词干通常由一个语素构成（错）33 、一个语素一般不能小于一个音节（对）34、词从结构成分角度看可分单纯词和合成词两类（对）35、无论英语还是汉语，加词缀的词都是合成词（对）36、“买一本”是述宾结构，“买一次”是述补结构（对）37、“红”的语法意义就是指一种颜色，与白、黑等相对而言（错）38、语法范畴就是语法意义的类的概括，语法手段是构成语法形式的方式。
（错）39、在有形态变化的语言中，加词尾或内部曲折都是重要的语法手段。
（对）（如果印刷错误“屈折”印成“曲折”也算错，那就是错的）40、“ He write a letters ”这个句子，在人称和数的方面都错了（对）41、施事就是主语，主语就是施事，二者是对应的。
（错）42、“那是一只狼也不怕的狗”，就是一个歧义句。
（对）43 、孤立语的主要特点是缺乏词形变化。
（对）44、“啊”“五” “的”等词能产性差，不是基本词汇。
（错）45、词义的模糊性不是说词的意义不可捉摸。
（对）46、“铁窗”本义指有铁栅栏的窗户，派生义指监牢，这是换喻（对）47、同义词“商量一磋商”的意义差别主要是语体风格不同（对）48、文字是记录语言的书写符号系统，记录语言的声音和意义（对）49、汉字的特点亍与汉语语素的特点相适应（对）50、汉字是非拼音文字，主要记录意义（错）51、英文是拼音文字，主要记录语（错）52、汉字以形声字为主，是一种典型的意音文字。
（对）53、口语是在书面语基础上产生的，其发展离不开书面语的发展。