definition of culture
文化的定义
From tΒιβλιοθήκη e angle of space: the eastern culture, the western culture, the marine culture, the mainland culture and so on.
从空间角度上:东方文化、西方文化、海洋文化、大陆文化等
Types of culture
CULTURE
Definition of culture Types of culture My own understanding of culture
Picture of culture
Definition of culture
Culture is relative to the economic and political character of all human mental activities and its products.
From different ethnic groups, divided into Han culture, Ethnic culture
从不同民族看，分为汉族文化、少数族族文化
According to the different religious influence, is divided into the Islamic culture, the Tibetan culture, the Christian culture
从不同宗教影响看，分为伊斯兰文化、藏族文化、基督教文化
My own understanding of culture
A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next. It is well know that we have many way to defined culture . After using the internet, I think culture is a mixture.
Cultural Issues and Buying Power
The A-B-C-D Paradigm
Introduction
Buyer behavior and consumer needs are largely driven by cultural norms. Global business means dealing with consumers, strategic partners, distributors, and competitors with different cultural mindsets. Within a given culture, consumption processes can include four stages: access, buying behavior, consumption characteristics, and disposal. Each of these stages is heavily influenced by the culture in which the consumer thrives.
Dentsu Lifestyle Survey
Cross-Cultural Comparisons
Cultures differ from one another, but usually share certain aspects. Recent social psychology research reveal key cultural differences between East (high) and West (low) context cultures in how people perceive reality and reasoning (see below). High-context cultures: Interpretation of messages rests on contextual cues; e.g., China, Korea, Japan. Low-context cultures: Put the most emphasis on written or spoken words; e.g., USA, Scandinavia, Germany.
Definition of Culture
Definition of CultureMarshall Soules　　In 1871 E.B. Taylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and many other capabilities and habits acquired by...[members] of society.""Culture means the total body of tradition borne by a society and transmitted from generation to generation. It thus refers to the norms, values, standards by which people act, and it includes the ways distinctive in each society of ordering the world and rendering it intelligible. Culture is...a set of mechanisms for survival, but it provides us also with a definition of reality. It is the matrix into which we are born, it is the anvil upon which our persons and destinies are forged." (Robert Murphy. Culture and Social Anthropology: An Overture. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986: 14)The Predicament of CultureIn the opening chapter of his influential book on the practices of anthropology, James Clifford claims that the modernist age is marked by a sense that "all the beautiful, primitive places are ruined," that there is a kind of "cultural incest, a sense of runaway history" haunting us, and giving us the feeling that cultural authenticity has been lost. (4)Traditionally, change has been interpreted as disorder, as chaos, as loss of authenticity. But in the global intermixture of cultures that we have witnessed in this century, the authenticity of former cultures may not be lost in quite the ways we imagine them to be: "local authenticites meet and merge in transient urban and suburban settings," according to Clifford. This complex process of acculturation, of meeting and merging, poses a predicament for the contemporary student of culture: the student of culture must consider both "local attachments"--regional dialects and traditions, for example--and "general possibilities."This predicament is based on the observation that "there is no going back, no essence to redeem" once authentic traditions yield to the attractions of global culture. Clifford's book does not see the world as populated by "endangered authenticities." Instead, the world "makes space for specific paths through modernity." He concludes from this that "the time is past when privileged authorities could routinely 'give voice' (or history) to others without fear of contradiction" (7). Clifford proposes that the student of culture is faced with a series of important questions which challenge traditional assumptions of "ethnographic authority":Who has the authority to speak for a group's identity or authenticity? What are the essential elements and boundaries of a culture? How do self and other clash and converse in the encounters of ethnography...? What narratives of development, loss, and innovation can account for the present range of local oppositional movements? (8)A question that Clifford does not ask: Who will document and publish these narratives of "local oppositional movements" when the status quo is the first order of the media's business? While we wait for the media to tell our stories accurately, local cultures attempt to find ways of living with invasive cultures without abandoning all their traditional ways.Ethnography, which cannot be separated in practice from anthropology, is the "systematic description of a culture based on firsthand observation" (Haviland 1989), requiring "participantobservation." For Clifford, the predicament of culture involves the difficulty of being in a culture while looking at it, "a form of personal and collective self-fashioning." (Anthropologist Ted Carpenter was fond of quoting John Culkin's remark: "We don't know who discovered water, but we're certain it wasn't a fish.") A modern ethnographer must move between cultures: "[Ethnography] is perpetually displaced, both regionally focused and broadly comparative, a form both of dwelling and of travel in a world where the two experiences are less and less distinct" (9). In The Predicament of Culture, Clifford approaches ethnographic texts as "orchestrations...constructed domains of truth, serious fictions" (10). As such, in many ways they resemble those art forms which make use of collage, juxtaposition, and other forms of extended comparison.In defining culture, then, it is important that we locate ourselves (and our beliefs, ethics, and assumptions) in relation to the culture we are studying, since culture is context-specific. It is also important to keep in mind, according to Clifford, that local cultures (sub-cultures) are often established in opposition to what might be termed the official culture--the status quo--defined by those with significant access to the media. In many cases, this opposition is between the individual, or small group, and the larger cultural body used as a sign of social cohesion and control. While popular culture is often defined as mass culture--the culture of the majority--it can also be seen as a site of continual change, adaptation, and subversion.(James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1988.)Fish Out of Water"We don't know who discovered water, but we're certain it wasn't a fish."John Culkin (qtd. in Edmund Carpenter'sThey Became What They Beheld )We've been born into a world where most of what passes for reality is mediated for us. Even before television, radio, newspapers, computers, and books begin telling us stories about what is happening out there, our parents or caregivers speak to us about the perils and joys of the world. As human beings we intuit that there is something out there that exists, undeniably, apart from us and our perceptions.Who in North America doubts that media play a significant role in our lives? Think of politics, commerce, education, recreation, art and culture, or social interaction--it would be difficult, if not impossible, to discuss any of these activities without some acknowledgement of the medium through which we "know" about these things.We are inundated by messages speaking about technological determinism: the belief that technology must be adopted as it becomes available if we are to evolve as a species (or at least as a global corporate culture!). Where are the perceptive critics of the media who can balance this wave of technological promotion on the one hand, with the cynicism of the common people on the other? The real test for a student of the media is to find the middle path--the path free of ideology and rhetoric, at the mid-point between a technological utopia and the irrational fear of technological change--to arrive at a clear-eyed and knowledgeable assessment of the way we communicate with one another.We're on the edge of the (former) empire, and that gives us a certain vantage point. The Canadian media theorist Harold Adams Innis created a philosophical niche for the media analyst who lives on the margins of powerful nations. Along with his disciple, Marshall McLuhan, Innis established strategies for investigating both the medium and the message. We need a model for investigatingthe media which provides a perspective, a place to stand, without removing us too far from the centre of the action. Like the fish in water, we are so immersed in our (mediated) environment we forget it's even there.。
跨文化交际重点梳理
`重点1Definition of cultureCulture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed through the generations in an identifiable group of people.重点2Characteristics of culture(10)1、Culture is sharedCulture is a system of shared values beliefs or patterns of behaviors held in a group ,organization or society.It is not property of any individual.2、culture is cumulativeHuman beliefs, arts etc. are results of many generations.Every generations can discover the new things.The new knowledge are added to what was learned in previous generations.3、culture is learnedCulture is not inherent with any people.Culture can not be genetically and automatically passed down文档Word`from previous generations.And it should be taught and learned by people.4、culture is adaptiveCulture is created by humans. Humans have to adapt the environment . thus is in development bears the trait of being adaptive 5、culture is dynamicAt the same time that new culture are added, and the old ones are lost because they are no longer useful.6、culture is symbolicSymbols generally serve as communicative tools for a multitude purposes, on a persons as well as culture level.7 、culture is relationalCulture is an organic whole. All the components of culture are interlinked.8 、culture is implicit and explicitSome layers culture are easy to be observe, like eating , dressing, talking. But the ideas underlying the behaviors are generally hard to know. Many scholars label the culture as iceberg.文档Word`culture is universal 9、culture is diversified、10Hall's dimensions3重点High contextHigh-context communication relies heavily on nonverbal, contextual and shared cultural meanings.The meanings are not fully expressed.re determined by “how”things are said , rather than “what”Meanings ais said.阿拉伯欧洲东部和南部日本CollectivismLow contextVerbal codes rather than the information impliesClear straight and to-the-point communication美国德国斯堪的纳维亚IndividualismMonochromic cultureDo one thing at one time, Concentrate on the job, take time seriously, 文档Word`low-context and need information, commit to the job, religiously to the plans, not disturbing others, seldom borrow or lend things, emphasize promptnessPolychromic cultureDo many things at once, subject to interruptions, consider timecommitments an objective to be achieved, high-context and already haveinformation. Change plans often. Emphasize the relationships.重点4Triandis's individualism & collectivismIndividualismFosters independence and individual achievement,Promotes self-expression ,personal choice, individual thinking Associated with egalitarian relationships and flexibility in roles Understand the physical world as knowable apart of human life CollectivismInterdependence and group successPromotes adherence to normsAssociated with stable, hierarchical rolesShared property, group ownership文档Word`重点5Elements of communication Source (sender)EncodingMessageMedium(channel)ReceiverDecodingResponseFeedback重点6Grice's cooperative principle Quantity maximMake your contribute as informative as is required for the current purpose of exchange.Do not make your contribution more information than is required. （量的准则——话语提供充分而不多余的信息）Quality maximMake your contribution is ture（质的准则——话语的容是真实的）文档Word`Relation maximBe relevant（关系准则——话语与话题有关，即与所要实现的意图有关）Manner maximBe perspicuousAvoid obscurity of expressionAvoid ambiguityDe brief and orderly(方式准则——说话要清楚明白、简洁而有条理)重点7Brown & levinson's face theory Face is something that is emotionally invested, can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, and must be often attended to in communication People cooperate while maintaining face in interaction.Face theory : face threatening acts (FTAs)Politeness strategiesPoliteness strategies: bald on-record赤裸裸的公开实行面子威胁行为不使用补救措施off-record indirect strategy 非公开的实行面子威胁行为negative politeness消极礼貌策略Positive politeness积极礼貌策略文档Word`Face: negative facePositive face重点8Thought patternsField dependence场依存性Holistic thinking eastern peoplePerspective of the whole, all the relevant parts take into account.Easily influence by othersField independence场独立性Analytic thinking western peopleDivinding the whole into parts to analyze the features or relations between the partsHardly influence by othersEastern: field-dependence, holistic thinking, high-context Western: field-independence, analytic thinking, low-context文档Word`重点9Phases of negotiation Preparation 准备Non-task sounding 非任务测探Task-oriented exchangePersuasion 劝说ConcessionConclusion重点10Components of a brandBrand name 品牌名称（产品）Brand mark 品牌标志（产品）Trade name商号（公司名字）Trade mark 品牌商标重点11SWOT analysisStrengthsWeaknessesOpportunitiesThreats文档Word`重点12Intercultural advertising strategies Standardization strategyConvey and extend the same advertising message to different markets and culturesKey point:Deal with the different markets using the same massageExample:MarlboroPhilips优点：reinforce the corporate imageSaving energyBe convenient to manage compared with several ads缺点: unlikely to be adaptive without change to all foreign culture Result in misunderstanding or conflict even ruin a business Localization strategyStresses the specialties of the local market and adaptation to the local market environment文档Word`重点13Three meaning layers of adsthe surface meaningthe intended meaningthe cultural meaning文档Word。
大学英语跨文化交际chapter 1 Culture
1. Defining Culture from the Anthropological Perspective
“Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the di, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values”.
INTEGRATED
1. Culture Is Learned
Activity: Group Work H a ve yo u l e a r n e d cul tu r e through the above channels? Discuss with your group members and give examples of your own experiences of learning culture.
DEFINITIONS OF ‘CULTURE’
1. Defining Culture from the Anthropological Perspective 2. Defining Culture from the Psychological Perspective 3. Defining Culture from the Sociological Perspective 4. Defining Culture from the Intercultural Perspective 5. Our Definition of Culture
口译教程-Cultural+Exchange-
Warm-up Practice
• 1. China is a country with an age-old history, a brilliant civilization, and magnificent landscapes. Even before recorded history, primitive humans, including Yuanmou Man, Lantian Man, and Peking Man, lived in what is now China some 4,000,000 to 1,000,000 years ago.
Sydney Opera House-2
• The Sydney Opera House is the mother and father of all modern landmark buildings. Although its architect was forced to resign and it was. never properly finished inside, the opera house has come to define not only a city, but also an entire nation and continent. • 悉尼歌剧院是现代社会所有划时代建筑物的 先驱。虽然歌剧院的设计师被迫辞职，虽然歌 剧院的内装潢从未圆满竣工，但是这件作品已 不仅仅是一座城市的标志，而且也是一个国家 和一个洲的象征。的定义至少有二百多种。笼统地说，文化 是一种社会现象，是人们长期创造形成的 产物。同时又是一种历史现象，是社会历 史的积淀物。确切地说，文化是指一个国 家或民族的历史、地理、风土人情、传统 习俗、生活方式、文学艺术、行为规范、 思维方式、价值观。
Cultural_Conflicts
About Joy Luck Club
小说描写了4位性格、命运各异的中 国女性和她们各自在美国出生、成长 的女儿的生活经历。四个中国母亲， 是解放前离开中国大陆来到旧金山的， 她们不得不入乡随俗，凑合着美国的 生活方式过日子。他们信奉上帝，也 畏惧海龙王。她们希望自己的女儿， 实现自己的心愿，能成为一只华贵的 天鹅，然而，事实却令她们失望：她 们与女儿之间隔着一条心河只能永远 站在对岸看她.
About Joy Luck Club
作家笔下美国女儿们，虽然也是黑头发黄皮肤，但 她们生在美国，长在美国，他们不懂，或者只能讲 不能读中文，也不了解中国，他们是地地道道的美 国人了。美国社会教会她们美国的生活准则，她们 习惯成自然地按照美国准则生活，这些准则恰恰又 是她们的中国母亲嗤之以鼻的“游戏规则”。母女 之间既有深沉执著的骨肉亲情，又有着无可奈何的 隔膜怨恨，既互相关心又互相伤害…… 读这本书，可以了解美籍华人的心态和观念，了解 她们在迥异于中华故国的价值观与环境下成长起来 的，并不得不亲身承受两种文化与价值观的冲撞。
Two theories about culture:
Cultural imperialism
Cultural relativism
Joy Luck Club
About the author: Amy Tan (1952 — )
Amy Tan is one of the prominent American writers that have emerged since the 1980s. She was born in Oakland, California, in 1952, two and a half years after her parents immigrated to the United States from China. She received her master’s degree in linguistics from San Jose State University. Though her parents anticipated she would become a neurosurgeon by trade and a concern pianist by hobby, she instead became a consultant to programs for disabled children, and later a free-lance writer. She published her first novel: The Joy Luck Club in 1989, which was an instant success. It was followed by other novels: The Kitchen’s God’s Wife (1991), The Hundred Secret Senses (1995), and The Bonesetter’s Daughter (2001)
Thedefinitionofculture
T he definition of culture<(A new concise course on linguistics for students of English)by Dai Weidong--Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press>Culture,in a broad sense,means the total way of a people,including the ideology,patterns of belief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,and languages that characterizes the life of human community.As culture is so inclusive,it permeats virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people's behavior.In a narrow sense,culture may refer to local or specific practice,beliefs or customs,which can be mostly found in folk culture ,enterprise culture and food culture etc.A system of shared beliefs,values customs , behaviors and artifacts that the member of a society use to cope with the world and with one another and that are transmitted from generation to generation.Generally speaking,there are two types of culture:material and spiritual. Culture covers aspects of our daily life,like history culture,food culture,attitude,view,and ways of life,The definition of culture differenceCulture difference refers to different response or expression made by people belong to two or more geographical areas,nations when it comes to the similar thing or one same object.As the representative of eastern culture and western culture,China and America both have formed their own systematical cultures.When people from tw9o different countries communicate with each other ,differences in ideology,patterns of belief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques appear.Festival is a very significant part of culture.The traditional festivals deposit each country's long history and culture ,and they are the important carriers of a nation's culture.We can learn detailed cultural differences in belief,food habits,value,and color psychology through comparing the traditional festivals of the two cultures. In this essay ,we will talk about the different ways of celebrating festivals which are of the same importance to China ,symbolizing eastern culture and to America,symbol of western culture.We will also talk about origins ,customs,main characteristics about these festivals.The definition of festival<Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary>A day or period of the year when people stop working to celebrate a specific event ,often a religious one .In China,people universally celebrate the Spring Festival,Dragon Boat Festival,Mid-autumn Festival and Tomb-sweeping day and so on.In western countries,people celebrate Christmas,Easter,V alentine's Day,and Halloween,Thanksgiving Day.Outline:1. Introduction1.1 Significance and purpose of the essay1.2 The foreign situation of the research1.3 The domestic situation of the research2.Definition2.1Definition of culture2.2Definition of cultural difference2.3Definition of festival ,traditional festivals of China and Western countries3.Cultural differences3.1Cultural difference in value3.2Cultural difference in belief3.3Cultural difference in food habits3.3Cultural difference in color phychology4.ConclusionCulture is composed of many items like history , ideology,value,belief ,and food habits。
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狭义：指意识形态所创造的精神财富，包括宗 教、信仰、风俗习惯、道德情操、学术思想、 文学艺术、科学技术、各种制度等。
Байду номын сангаас
文化是人类生活的反映，活动的记录，历史的积沉， 是人们对生活的需要和要求、理想和愿望，是人们的 高级精神生活。是人们认识自然，思考自己，是人精 神得以承托的框架。 她包含了一定的思想和理论，是人们对伦理、道德和 秩序的认定与遵循，是人们生活生存的方式方法与准 则。思想和理论是文化的核心、灵魂，没有思想和理 论的文化是不存在的。任何一种文化都包含有一种思 想和理论，生存的方式和方法。
文化的定义
名词解释
广义：人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物 质财富和精神财富的总和。特指社会意识形态。 在阶级社会中，文化是阶级斗争的武器。一定 文化（当作观念形态的文化）是一定社会的政 治和经济的反映，又给予伟大影响和作用于一 定社会的政治和经济，从洪秀全的金田起义、 康梁的维新变法、何子渊的教育革新，再到孙 中山的民主革命无一不是推动社会向前发展的 动力。
9 、狭义的文化排除人类社会-历史生活中关 于物质创造活动及其结果的部分，专注于精神 创造活动及其结果，主要是心态文化，又称 “小文化”。 10、1871年，英国文化学家泰勒在《原始文 化》一书中提出了狭义文化的早期经典界说， 即文化是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、 习俗和任何人作为一名社会成员而获得的能力 和习惯在内的复杂整体。
《现代汉语词典》上的解释
文化是人的人格及其生态的状况反映。广义的 文化是人类创造出来的所有物质和精神财富的 总和。其中既包括世界观，人生观，价值观等 具有意识形态性质的部分，由包括自然科学和 技术，语言和文字等非意识形态的部分。文化 是人类社会特有的现象。文化是由人所创造， 为人所特有的。有了人类社会才有文化，文化 是人们社会实践的产物。
W.H.Kelley对它提出了以下的批评:
(1)定义的方式有毛病,这种方式永远不能将概 念所包含的全部内容都罗列出来,“其他”虽可 概括未罗列出的东西,但如果没有别罗列出来, 就容易被人忽略.例:定义中没有列出“语言”, 而语言是文化中重要的部分. (2)整体一词不合适,文化的组成部分之间是有 矛盾的,强调整体就只突出了和谐. (3)人类创造出的文化,不一定是为了改善生活, 也有破坏的一面,例:核武器.这种批评是否合适
揭示
（1）文化是人类群体整个的生活方式和生活 过程。主要成分是符号、价值和意义、社会规 范。符号是指能够传递事物信息的一种标志， 它在生活中代表一定的信息或意义。文化的存 在取决于人类创造、使用符号的能力。价值观 是人们评判日常生活中的事物与行为的标准， 决定着社会中人们共有的区分是非的判断力。 社会规范是特定环境下的行动指南，它影响着 人们的心理、思维方式和价值取向、行动。
5 、社会心理是人们日常的精神状态和思想面 貌，是尚未经过理论加工和艺术升华的流行的 大众心态，诸如人们的要求、愿望、情绪等 6 、社会意识形态是指经过系统加工的社会意 识，往往经由文化专家的理论归纳、逻辑整理、 艺术完善、并以著作、艺术作品等物化形态固 定下来并跨时空传播。
7 、根据与社会存在关系的疏密程度，可将社会意识 形态区分为基层意识形态和高层意识形态，前者包括 政治理论、法权观念等，后者包括哲学、文学、艺术、 宗教等。 8 、基层意识形态与社会存在保持着密切联系，是经 济基础的集中体现，但它的产生和发展仍然要经过社 会心理这一中间环节起作用；高层意识形态是更高的 更远离物质经济基础的意识形态，具有较强的独立性， 但它与社会存在之间的中介是社会心理和基层意识形 态。
广义文化v.s狭义文化
1 、对文化的结构解剖，有两分说，即分为物质文化 和精神文化；有三层次说，即分为物质、制度、精神 三层次；有四层次说，即分为物质、制度、风俗习惯、 思想与价值。有六大子系统说，即物质、社会关系、 精神、艺术、语言符号、风俗习惯等。 2 、广义的文化，着眼于人类与一般动物，人类社会 与自然界的本质区别，着眼于人类卓立于自然的独特 的生存方式，其涵盖面非常广泛，所以又被称为大文 化。
3 、广义的文化包括四个层次：一是物态文化层，由物化的知识 力量构成，是人的物质生产活动及其产品的总和，是可感知的、 具有物质实体的文化事物。二是制度文化层，由人类在社会实践 中建立的各种社会规范构成。包括社会经济制度婚姻制度、家族 制度、政治法律制度、家族、民族、国家、经济、政治、宗教社 团、教育、科技、艺术组织等。三是行为文化层，以民风民俗形 态出现，见之于日常起居动作之中，具有鲜明的民族、地域特色。 四是心态文化层，由人类社会实践和意识活动中经过长期蕴育而 形成的价值观念、审美情趣、思维方式等构成，是文化的核心部 分。 4 、心态文化层可细分为社会心理和社会意识形态两个层次。
本质
广义指人类在社会历史实践中所创造的物质财富和精 神财富的总和。狭义指社会的意识形态以及与之相适 应的制度和组织机构。作为意识形态的文化，是一定 社会的政治和经济的反映，又作用于一定社会的政治 和经济。随着民族的产生和发展，文化具有民族性。 每一种社会形态都有与其相适应的文化，每一种文化 都随着社会物质生产的发展而发展。社会物质生产发 展的连续性，决定文化的发展也具有连续性和历史继 承性。 泛指文字能力和一般知识：学习文化｜文化水平。
（2）文化的内隐部分为价值观和意义系统， 起外显形态为各种符号，这些符号主要体现为 物质实体和行为方式。 （3）对整个人类来说文化是人的创造物，对 于特定时间和空间的人而言，文化则是主要体 现为既有的生存和发展框架。 （4）文化随着人类的群体的范围划分不同而 体现出差异。
许多社会学家和人类学家都下过定义,曾作过 统计:自1871——1951年80年里,关于文化的定 义有164条之多,人类学的鼻祖泰勒是现代第一 个界定文化的学者,他认为:文化是复杂的整体, 它包括知识,信仰,艺术,道德,法律,风俗以及其 它作为社会一分子所习得的任何才能与习惯, 是人类为使自己适应其环境和改善其生活方式 的努力的总成绩.