英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.doc

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英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx

第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。

（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。

这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。

1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。

将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。

法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。

汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。

1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。

汉语是典型的孤立语。

（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。

在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。

日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。

（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。

英语是不太典型的屈折语。

（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。

因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。

根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。

英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳

英语语言学复习整理

nguage and Linguistics1.What are design features of language? (P 2-P 12)nguage is systematicnguage is symbolicnguage is arbitrarynguage is primarily vocalnguage is human specificnguage is used for communication2.What are general functions of language? Please illustrate your point with examples.(P 14-P 17)a.physiological functionb.phatic functionc.recording functiond.identifying functionmunicating functionf.pleasure functiong.reasoning function3.4.a.The diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of alanguage.b.The synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at asingle point of time. It is necessary for the synchronic description to find out these systematic rules as they operate in the language at a particular time.5.Distinctions between competence and performance (P 33)petence refers to the know that native speakers have of their language as system ofabstract formal relations.b.Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the infinite variedindividual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistences, and errors.2.Phonetics and Phonology1.What is phonetics and its three subdivisions? (P 43)a.Phonetics is the scientific study of speech and is concerned with defining andclassifying speech sounds.b.Articulatory phoneticsAcoustic phoneticsAuditory phonetics2.Distinctions among bilabial, dental, alveolar, labiodental, velar sounds. (P 47-P 49)a.Bilabial are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together./p/,/b/,/m/.b.Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper frontteeth. th→/ð/,/ø/.biodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to theunderside of the upper front teeth. /f/,/v/.d.Alveolars are sounds produced by the tip and/or blade of the tongue touching or nearlytouching the gum ridge behind the upper teeth. /t/,/d/,/n/,/s/,/z/,/l/.e.Velar sounds are produced with the back of the tongue dorsum raised up to the softpalate (or velum) at the back of the mouth. /k/,/g/,/w/.3.What is phonology? (P 56)Phonology is the study of the sound patterns in human language. (The term phonology is used in two ways, either as the study of the sound patterns in language or as the sound patterns of a language.)4.Distinctions between phonemes (P 56) and allophones (P 58).a.The segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes.Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Phoneme is the abstract set of units as the basis of our speech.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.A phoneme may have its variants.b.There is only one phoneme between two words and it turns up in two variant forms inthese two words. These phonetics variants of phoneme are called allophones.5.What are minimal pairs? (P 58)a. A pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair.b.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment thatoccurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.6.What are components of a syllable? (P 66)Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, the coda.3.Morphology and Lexicon1.What is morphology? (P 73)Morphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation.2.Distinctions between word (P 74)/morpheme (P 81)/lexeme (P 91).a.Word is the smallest form that can occur by itself. (“a minimum free form”—Bloomfield)A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocalequipment.A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings, orideas.Words are part of the large communication system we call language.Words help human beings interact culturally with one another.b. A morpheme is a smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semanticmeaning. That means it cannot be further divided into smaller grammatical units.A morpheme may undergo certain phonetic changes when combined with the baseword.c. A lexeme is referred to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other smaller units.A lexeme is an abstract unit and may occur in many different forms in actual spoken orwritten texts.Collocation is an important feature in the combination of lexemes.3.What are open-class words? (P 79)We can add new words to these classes of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4.What are closed-class words? (P 79)It is not easy to think of new pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, or prepositions that enter the language recently.5.Distinctions between bound morpheme and free morpheme. (p 83)a.If a morpheme can constitute a word by itself, it is called a free morpheme, like room,bottle, stand, large.b.If a morpheme has meaning only connected with at least another morpheme, it is calledbound morpheme, like un- in unlucky, and the plural –s in bags.A bound morpheme is also called an affix in the sense that it is always added to anothermorpheme. Affix can be divided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes.6.Distinctions between inflectional morpheme and derivative morpheme (P 84)a.Bound morphemes can be divided into two types according to whether they provide thelexical item to which they are added any further grammatical meaning and/or lexical meaning.b.An inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical information about an existinglexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix. Only in some few irregular plurals can we identify the existence of infixes.c. A derivative morpheme refers to one that creates an entirely new word. It may take theform of a prefix or a suffix.7.Distinctions between prefixes and suffixes. (P 83)a. A prefix is one that added to the beginner of the stem, like un- in unlucky, in- ininappropriate, dis- in disorder.Prefixes generally do not change the grammatical categories of the stem. They only add some lexical meanings to the stem.b. A suffix is one that is added to the end of the stem, like –ing in waiting, -ful in useful,-less in meaningless.Most suffixes have two functions: (1) to add some grammatical meanings to the stem or(2) to change its grammatical categories.Sometimes suffixes do not change the grammatical categories of the stem.8.What are major processes of word-formation? Give each one or two examples. (P 86)pounding (refers to the process of conjoining two or more free morphemes toform a new word. The new word form is called a compound.i.e. fifteen, Sunday, Monday.b.Derivation i.e. antislavery, deprogram, disapprove, robotics.c.Conversion i.e. n.→v. elbow →to elbowv.→n. to doubt →doubtadj./adv.→v. dry →to dryadj. →n. native →two nativesd.Abbreviation i.e. bicycle →bikegymnasium →gymomnibus →busUNWTOe.Back formation i.e. to audit ←auditionto donate ←donationto enthuse ←enthusiasmf.Neologism i.e. moonwalker, software, internetg.Borrowing i.e. paper tiger, moonrise, cold war4.Syntax1.What are constituents in syntactic analysis? (P 98)Constituents are structural units, i.e. any linguistic form, such as words or word groups.When constituents are considered as part of the successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known as its immediate constituents.2.What is immediate Constituent Analysis? (P 98)The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cuttings until its ultimate constituents are obtained is an important approached to the realization of the nature of language, called Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis). The analysis can be carried out in ways of tree diagrams, bracketing, or any other.3.According to their structures and forms, what are major types of English sentences?According to their structures and forms, sentences can be divided into simple sentences, coordinate sentences, and complex sentences. (P 100)a. A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought.b. A coordinate sentence or compound sentence is a group of words which expresses twoor more connected and coordinate thoughts.c. A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts,one of which is the main or principle thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts.4.According to functional approach, what are major types of English sentences? List themwith examples. (P 101)a.declarativePauline gave Mary a digital watch for her birthday.b.interrogativeDid Pauline give Tom a digital watch for his birthday?c.imperativeGive me a digital watch for my birthday.d.exclamatoryWhat a fine watch he received for his birthday!5.Semantics1.What is semantic field? (P 134)Semantic field refers to the organization of related lexemes into a system which shows their relationship to one another.2.Distinctions between conceptual meaning and associative meaning. (P 126)a.Conceptual meaning refers to the definition given in the dictionary.It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication and is integral to the essential functioning of language.b.Associative meaning refers to the meaning associated with the conceptual meaning,which can be further divided into following five types:Connotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaningReflected meaningCollocative meaning3.Distinctions among synonymy (P 136), antonym (P 138), meronymy (P 140), hyponymy(P 140).a.Words or expressions with the same or similar meaning are said to be synonymous.Synonyms are words or expressions that share common semantic features.Synonyms can be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions coherent, varied and/or more colorful.b.Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning.Antonyms can be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions more contrastive and impressive.c.Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items.Meronymy reflects hierarchical classifications in the lexicon.d.Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific-general semantic relationship between lexicalitems.A word may be the meronymy of one term but the hyponymy of another. Hyponymydiffers from meronymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive in the sense that there is a hierarchical relation between different terms. In contrast, meronymy may or may not be hierarchical. Meronymy and hyponymy are important routes of semantic relations along which lexical-semantic changes occur. Meronymy and hyponymy are among the widely used rhetorical devices to make the expressions more varied andcolorful.4.Distinctions between sentence meaning and utterance meaning (P 132)a.sentence meaning is directly predictable from the grammatical meaning and utterancefeatures of the sentence.b.Utterance meanings may not be directly related with them. You have to depend onvarious contextual factors to comprehend the utterance meaning.5.Distinctions between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. (P130)a.lexical meaning is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as noun. verb,adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary.b.Grammatical meaning is expressed by such syntactic categories as the distinctionbetween the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense and number, and function words and intonation.c.The total meaning constitute the linguistic meanings, not the total meaning. The totalmeaning of our utterance consists always of the linguistic meanings plus the social-cultural meanings.6.Pragmatics and Text Analysis1.What is the cooperative principle? Please give some examples flouting these four maximswhich may cause the conversational implicature. (P 169)a.According to the cooperative principle, the participants in a conversation normallycommunicate in a maximally efficient, rational and cooperative way. They should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly, while providing sufficient information.b.The maxim of qualityc.The maxim of quantityd.The maxim of relevancee.The maxim of manner2.Identify the cohesive ties (grammatical devices or lexical ones) in a discourse. 如课后练习会找出语篇中的衔接手段(P 184)nguage and Social Culture1.What is dialect? (P 204) (regional (P 206), social (P 207), ethnic (P 209))a.Dialect refers to any regional, social, or ethic variety of a language.The dialects of a single language may be defined as mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways from each other.b.Regional dialect refers to the language variety used in a geographical region.c.Social dialect is used to describe differences in speech associated with various socialgroups or classes.d.Ethnic varieties are used by ethnic groups and regarded as social dialect.2.Features of Black English. (P 210)a.Consonant deletion rule is used.b.In syntax, the frequent absence of various forms of “be” is one of its prominent syntacticfeatures.c.Another syntactic feature of black English is the systematic use of the expression “it is”where Standard English uses “there is” in the sense of “there exists”.d.Another syntactical feature of black English is the use of double negation constructions.3.Shifts of meaning (P 219) and syntactical change (P 222) in language change process.a.More productive as a way enlarging the vocabulary than borrowing and creating newwords from native elements is expanding the meaning of word that already exists in the language.(by amelioration; the opposite of amelioration; through generalization; through specialization and refer to a smaller class of objects; through all of these.)b.Some differences between the sentence structures in Old English and those in ModernEnglish involve word order. (the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes from many part of speech; the loss, the addition, and the modification of rules; the syntactic behavior of auxiliary verbs and negation.)nguage Acquisition and Thought1.Can you identify two major causes for learners’ errors in second or foreign languagelearning? Please illustrate with examples when necessary.(P 271)a.Interlingual transfer.b.Intralingual transfer2.What are three major syllabuses for foreign language teaching? (classification anddefinition) (P 254—P 257)a.Grammatical syllabus takes grammar as the basis for (foreign) language teaching. To theadvocates of this syllabus, grammar is primary in the study of a foreign language, and the study of grammar is not only beneficial to the learner’s comprehension and translation of the target language but also to the development of the learner’s intelligence.b.Situational syllabus refers to a syllabus in which the instruction of language teaching isplanned around the situations in which the linguistic forms to be taught are normally used. It has sociolinguistics as its theoretical basis.municative syllabus focuses language teaching on the development of the learner’scommunicative competence. The communicative syllabus is based on the assumption that language is used for communication, and that learning a language is learning to communicate.。

语言学英语期末总结

语言学英语期末总结IntroductionLanguage is an essential tool for communication and is a fundamental aspect of human interaction. The study of language, known as linguistics, involves examining the structure, meaning, and function of language in its various forms. Throughout the semester, I have explored several significant topics in the field of linguistics, including phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, as well as sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics. In this final summary, I aim to consolidate my understanding of these areas and reflect on my overall language study experience.Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics deals with the study of speech sounds and how they are produced, while phonology focuses on the sound patterns and systems in a language. I have learned about various features of speech sounds, such as place and manner of articulation. Additionally, I have become familiar with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which is a system used to transcribe speech sounds.MorphologyMorphology refers to the study of word formation and the internal structure of words. I have learned about the different morphemes that make up words, including prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Moreover, I have explored morphological processes, such as inflection, derivation, and compounding. This knowledge has allowed me to understand how words are created and how they can change in different contexts.SyntaxSyntax is the study of the rules governing the structure and arrangement of words in sentences. I have gained a deeper understanding of basic sentence structures, such as subject-verb-object (SVO) and subject-object-verb (SOV). Furthermore, I have learned about phrase structure rules and the hierarchy of constituents within a sentence. This knowledge has helped me analyze and understand the grammatical structure of sentences.SemanticsSemantics is concerned with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. Throughout the semester, I have explored various aspects of semantics, including lexical semantics, compositional semantics, and pragmatics. I have learned about different semantic relationships, such as synonymy, antonymy, and hyponymy. Moreover, I have examined how context influences meaning and how presuppositions and implicatures play a role in communication.SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and society. I have learned about language variation and language change, as well as language attitudes and ideologies. Additionally, I have explored sociolinguistic factors, such as gender, social class, and ethnicity, which can influence language use and variation. This knowledge has highlighted the importance of considering social and cultural factors when studying language.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics explores the psychological processes involved in the production, comprehension, and acquisition of language. Throughout the semester, I have learned about language processing, including how we recognize and access words, and how we understand and produce sentences. Moreover, I have explored theories of language acquisition and the stages of language development in children. This knowledge has deepened my understanding of how language is processed and acquired by individuals. ConclusionThe study of language has provided me with a comprehensive understanding of various linguistic aspects and their significance in communication. From examining speech sounds to analyzing sentence structures and understanding meaning, I have gained a multifaceted perspective on language. Furthermore, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics have helped me recognize the social and psychological factors that influence language use and acquisition.As I conclude this language study journey, I am filled with appreciation for the complexity and beauty of language. The knowledge and skills I have acquired will undoubtedly continue to benefit me in my personal and professional endeavors. Language is an ever-evolving field, and I look forward to continuing my exploration and further expanding my understanding of this fascinating subject.。

语言学期末复习资料整理版

语言学期末复习资料整理版Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

英语语言学期末复习

语学特征prescriptive-descriptive;synchronic-diachronic; speech-writing;langue-parole(Saussure,sociological); competence-performance(Chomsky,psychological); traditional grammar-modern linguistics语言特征1system;arbitrary;vocal;human-specific2Arbitrariness;productivity;duality;displacement;cultural transmission语言function:descriptive;expressive;socialJakobson:Addresser-emotive;addressee-conative;context-referential;message-poetic;contact-phatic communion;code-metalinguisticHalliday macrofunction:ideational;interpersonal;textual器官:lips;teeth;teeth ridge;hard palate;soft;uvula;tip of tongue;blade;back;vocal cords;pharyngeal cavity;nasal Phonology rules:sequential;assimilation(ir- im-);deletion(sign-signature)词分类open/closed class words词素分类free and bound;allomorphsComplex words:a root+N affixes构词法conversion;derivation;compounds短语结构head+specifier+complementTree structure:a static representation-a dynamic formatThe XP rule(revised):XP→(Specifier)X(Complement*)扩展XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod) Coordination rule :X→X*Con X句The S rule:S→NP VP同义synonyms:dialectal(autumn-fall)stylistic(father-dad)differ in emotive meaning;collocational(搭配)semantically different(amaze-surprise)反义antonymy:gradable(cold-cool-warm)complementary(alive-dead)relational(buy-sell)Context:situational;linguistic句关系X is synonymous with Y;X is inconsistent with Y一正一误;X entails Y(Y包含X)X presupposes Y(Y为前提)X is a contradiction自我矛盾X is semantically anomalous荒谬Searle’s classification of 言外representative阐述directives请指commissives承诺expressives;declaration宣告Principle of conversation(Grice)CP(cooperative principle)the maxim of quantity(过多) quality(假)relation(无关)mannerLeech:face value(1) Both Saussure and chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ( as) the realization of langue in actual use. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance ( as) the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Linguistics:the scientific study of language(base on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure)1 Phonetics:is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language2 Phonology:aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication3 Morphology:is concerned with word formation and word structure4 Syntax:is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentencesPhrases:syntactic units that are built around a certain word category5 Semantics:can be simply defined as the study of meaning6 Pragmatics:the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language useAntonymy:word that are opposite in meaning Homonymy:words have different meanings have the same formHyponymy:the sense relation between a more general.more inclusive word and a more specific wordInflectional morphemes:bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify Language:is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationMorpheme:the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionMorph:distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morphemePolysemy:different words have the same or similar meaning,the same one word have more than one meaning Reference:a linguistic form refers to in the real world Sense:is the inherent meaning of a linguistic form,the collection of all its featuresSynonymy:words that are close in meaningSyntactic categories:a fundamental fact about words in all human languagesSpeech act theory(John Austin)a philosophical explanation of the nature os linguistic communication(locutionary act言内,illocutionary act外,perlocutionary act后)(2) Both made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. Both think that what linguists should do is to study the abstract language system rather than the actual use of language and to discover the rules governing the actual use of language(3) While Saussure' s distinction and Chomsky' s are very similar, they differ at least in one aspect That is, Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual。

英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结

英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentare called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素:Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class ofwords are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and therules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes,called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties,is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have thesame form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive wordand a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2)Productivity:provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach or languageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically induced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting,requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression.② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.。

语言学期末复习总结

5. What is Linguistics?⏹The scientific study of human language⏹Aims of linguistic theory:⏹What is knowledge of language? (Competence)⏹How is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition)⏹How is knowledge of language put to use?(Performance/languageprocessing)⏹ A grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’slanguage:⏹Phonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the sound system orpatterns)⏹Lexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)⏹Morphology (the structure of words)⏹Syntax (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints onwell-formedness of sentences)⏹Semantics (the meaning of words and sentences)Semantics⏹The following are what the key concepts look like:⏹semantic components⏹denotation of words⏹sense relations between words such as antonymy andsynonymy⏹sense relations between sentences such as entailmentand presupposition and others⏹The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge thesynchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles?⏹ 1. English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.⏹ 2. Protean Shape: A study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.⏹ 3. Pejorative Sense Development in English.⏹ 4. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.⏹ 5. Language in the inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Synchronic: 2, 4, 5.Diachronic: 1, 3.⏹Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or realizationof langue.⏹As a social product, langue is a set of conventions that members of a speechcommunity seem to abide by. It can be thought of as the generalized rules ofthe language. Parole, on the other hand, is the concrete use of the conventions or application of the rules.⏹We can compare them along the following dimensions. Langue is abstract;parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs. Langue is not actuallyspoken by anyone; parole is always a naturally occurring event. Langue isrelatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints.⏹Parole is a mass of confused facts and not suitable for systematic investigation.What the linguist has to do is to abstract langue from instances of parole —that is, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and makethem the subject of linguistics.⏹For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly onlywithin a collectivity. In separating language (langue) from speaking (parole)we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual ;and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental. Competence and performanceThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965).Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.⏹Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinitenumber of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.⏹ A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced bypsychological and social factors.⏹Chomsky’s distinction and Saussure’s distinction are not exactly the same.Saussure’s langue is a social product, a set of conventions for a speechcommunity. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of eachindividual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological point of viewwhile Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.8.5 Linguistic potential and actual linguistic behavior⏹Another similar distinction is made by English linguist M. A. K. Halliday inthe 1960s, the distinction between linguistic potential and actual linguisticbehavior.⏹Halliday looks at language from a functional point of view, he ismore concerned with what speakers do with language.⏹With language, there is a wide range of things a speaker can do inthe culture he is in. There are many things he can say, for example, to manypeople, on many topics.⏹What he actually says on a particular occasion to a particularindividual is what he has selected from among the many possible things hecould have said.⏹This leads to Halliday’s distinction between linguistic potential andactual linguistic behaviour.⏹His linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s Langue andChomsky’s competence, and his actual linguistic behaviour is similar to thenotions of parole and performance.⏹Among the distinctions, parole, performance and actual linguistic behaviourhave a lot in common; but langue, competence and linguistic potential differconsiderably. They are similar only in one aspect, that is, they all refer to theconstant which underlies the utterances that constitute parole/ performance/actual linguistic behaviour.⏹Their difference is fairly obvious. Langue is a social property while linguisticpotential is something available for the speaker to select from. Competence isa form of ―knowing‖ while linguistic potential is a set of possibilities for―doing‖.⏹The competence versus performance distinction is one between what a person―knows‖ and what he ―does‖, while the linguistic potential versus actuallinguistic behaviour distinction is one between what a person ―can do‖ andwhat a person ―does‖.⏹Chapter Two Speech Sounds⏹As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only someof these sounds have become units in the language system.⏹We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two majorareas of study are phonetics and phonology.The sounds of English⏹Received Pronunciation (RP)⏹General American (GA)⏹English consonantsThe consonants of English can be described in the following manner:⏹[p] voiceless bilabial stop⏹[b] voiced bilabial stop⏹[s] voiceless alveolar fricative⏹[z] voiced alveolar fricative⏹The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:⏹the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);⏹the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);⏹the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short),and⏹lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).⏹We can now describe the English vowels in this way:From phonetics to phonologySpeech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.For example, map , lamb .CoarticulationWhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation .If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb , it is known as anticipatory coarticulation .If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation , as is the case of map .[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak .This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h , as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription . The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription .Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].Phonological rules1. assimilation rule2. sequential rule3. deletion ruleSequential rules : The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, e.g. in English, “k, b, i, l ” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.If a word begins with a [ l ] or a [ r ], then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:a) the first phoneme must be /s/;b) the second phoneme must be /p/ /t/ or /k/;c) the third phoneme must be /l/ /r/ or /w/.E.g.Spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.Deletion rule: The phonological rule, which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, is called deletion rule.For example, in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design,and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. The rule can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.ChapterThree LexiconMorphologyMorphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.Types of morphemesFree vs. Bound morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg-s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root:the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness.Roots may befree: those that can stand by themselves, eg nation+-al.bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg-ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided intoprefix (dis-, un-) andsuffix(-en, -ify).Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly> friendly.Word-formationInflectionNominal forms:boys, boy’sVerb forms: wants, wanted, wantingAdjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallestCompoundingCompound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmillVerb compounds: brainwash, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds:maneating,heartfelt ,dutyfreePreposition compounds: into, throughoutEndocentric & exocentricEndocentric:one element serves as the head, the relationship of ―a kind of‖; egself-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric:there is no head, so not a relationship of ―a kind of something‖, eg ScarecrowbreakneckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation:businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, nooneDerivationClass-changing:N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discardN>A: friendly, delightful, speechlessV>N: worker, employee, inhabitantV>A: acceptable, adorableA>N: meanness, rapidityA>V: deafen, sweetenAdj>Adv: exactly, quicklyClass-preserving:N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, bookletV>V: disobey, unfastenA>A: grayish, irrelevant⏹The base for the affix -ion is opt, the base for the suffix -al is option, and thebase for the suffix –ity is optional.⏹Yes, opt is the root for the entire word.. Lexical changeFormation of new wordsPhonological changeMorphosyntactic changeSemantic changeOrthographic changeTypes of loan wordsLoanwords:au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu, sputnikLoanblendcoconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)Loanshiftbridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte Loan translation, or calquefree verse< L verse libreblack humor<Frhumour noirfound object<Fr objet trouvéLoss of sound:loss of the velar fricative /x/ which existed in O.E.loss of soundin fast speech,egcabinet, postscriptand>’n in connected speech,egrock-’n-rollAddition of sound:English: rascal > rapscallionMetathesis: changing the sequence of soundO.E. brid> bird, O.E. ox/ax> askAssimilation:impossible, immovableirregular, irresponsibleillogical, illegalSemantic changeBroadening:holiday: holy day (religion) > day for restbird: young bird > any kindtask: tax imposed >a piece of workNarrowing:meat: food >girl: young person > young womandeer: beast > a special kind of animalMeaning shift:bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood Class shift:conversion to other word classesengineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase . history:Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.his story>herstoryFake etymology: a kind of folk etymologyManhattan: man with hat onMBA: married but availablePhD: perhaps have divorcedgolf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies ForbiddenOrthographic changeChange of spelling:Iesus> Jesussate> satSunne> Sun。

英语专业语言学期末复习资料

Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。

英语语言学期末复习宝典.doc

LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and LinguisticsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Features of language: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity/creativity, cultural transmission, duality, discreteness不连续性1.1考论述①language is systematic. In natural verbal communication, people can learn and use alanguage consistently. This shows that language is systematic. This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans.②language is symbolic. As we know, people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs. The conception of sign through has evolved through a long history of philosophical discussions, dating to the Middle Age.③language is arbitrary. (convention) Arbitrariness does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.④language is primarily vocal. All languages use sounds. Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write; children automatically learna language as they grow up; the spoken form came earlier than the written in human history; writingis based on speech; people use spoken language more often than writing⑤language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species. Although most animals are assumed to communicate in some way, they convey limited information and only express emotions such as fear and warnings.⑥language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communicative needs. Itsattractiveness comes from its social utility. Language enables us to communicate our general attitudes toward life and others.1)language is systematicEach human language is organized into two basic systems, a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.Linguistics is concerned not only with characteristics of the two systems but also with their relationship.Sounds are units which combine to make words or parts of words, different sequences of sounds have difference in meaning. Elements have no meaning themselves. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite.In a language we can find agreed-upon sound-meaning relations and agreed-upon sequences.These principles can be called rules. These rules make up the syntax of the language.2)language is symbolicLanguage involves signs whose conception can be date back to the Middle Ages. There has been a discipline to study the working of signs, Sassure calls it “semiology”, and Peirce terms it “semiotics”.Charles Peirce views semiotics as a branch of logic and philosophy. Signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. Signs are ubiquitous in human society and can be categorized into three major types: icon象征符, index标记符and symbol代码符.3)language is arbitraryAccording to Saussure, the linguistic signs unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression it makes on our senses.考判断Arbitrary does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable but that human languages use neutral symbols. Concept and sound-image are replaced by signified所指and signifier能指respectively. The most arbitrary level of language is that of the distinctive units of sound. It is because sound units are distinctive. Syntax句法is less arbitrary than words. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.4)language is primarily vocalVerbal communication can involve various forms. Speech and writing are the most common. The primary medium of language is sound. Writing is based on speaking and can influence speaking.Writing systems represent some levels of the spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds.5)language is human specific (purely human)Human language is generally said to be different from animal communication in the following aspects:nguage has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space.2.Humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite无限期的，不明确的numberof novel utterance.（openness or productivity）3.Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.nguage is complex in its structure.5.Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6.According to speech act theory, humans can perform acts with language just as they can withobjects of different kinds.6)language is used for communicationA conversation s assumed to be a pattern of two-way communication.1.2The functions of language: general functions of language; metafunctions of language元功能.1)General functions of languagePhysiological function（or emotive/expressive function）, phatic function交际功能（creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers）, recording function, identifying function, reasoning function(as a tool of thought), communication function, pleasure function(or recreational function)……Informative function, performative function施为功能（ppt补充）2)Metafunctions of languageIdeational function 概念功能:Divide into experimental function and logical function; as a symbolic code to represent the world around usInterpersonal function 人际功能:The participatory function of language/enable the speakers (writers) and the listeners (readers) maintain interactions and thus enact a social and intersubjective relationshipTextual function 语篇功能: represent the speaker’s text-forming potential. Relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.1.3The origin and classification of language1)The origin of language(divine source, the natural-sound source, evolutionary source)The belief that all languages originated from a single source is found in Genesis. Many scientists today believe that man arose in many different places of the world.Three broad categories of the origin of language: creation, evolution and invention.Creation/Divine Origin: almost every religion has stories about how man received language from God. But it is impossible for man to name things without acquiring languageEvolution：Man evolved from lower forms of life. Language evolved as an adjunct to early communicationInvention: believe that there is natural connection between the forms of language and the essence of things. (onomatopoetic words)2)Language families语系Two main ways of classifying languages: genetic classification and typological classification (group language into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary---isolating, infecting屈折语, agglutinating 黏着语language)1.4What is linguistic ( Phonetics. Phonology. Morphology. Semantics. Pragmatics. Syntax)1)to do with sounds, vocabulary, grammar, meaning and historicaldevelopment of language.The main purpose of linguistics is to develop a general theory of language and theories on aspects of language.2)语言by all members of a community of speakers.(social, conventional side of language, collective body of knowledge, abstract knowledge)Parole言语is the particular realization of language. (individualized speech, the use of language in utterance, concrete)Prescriptive陈述的and descriptive 描述的：Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Prescriptivism describe what should be in language, but descriptivism describes the way people actually speak and write their language.---what is in the language.synchronic 共时and diachronic历时:Synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language. (two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries)speech and writing:language is primarily vocal. No community has a written form only. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech---the spoken first, then the writtenSpeech has the restriction of both time and space. Without writing, human progress would be extremely slow.With modern technology, the distinction between speech and writing is being blurred.syntagmatic and paradigmatic:Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences.(re+write)Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms (foot-feet) competence and performance:Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance refers to the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.Chomsky sees the linguist’s task as primarily describing competence because performance is impossible without competence.functionalism and formalism.For Chomsky, competence is not a social but a psychological phenomenon, not a shared generality but a genetic endowment in each individual.1.5The scope of linguistics1)Use of linguisticsPragmatics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics 神经语言学, applied linguistics, computational linguistics.2)Recent developments考小题Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, cognitive linguistics, systemic functional grammar.Chapter 2 phonetics and phonology1.1production of sounds1)scope of phoneticsMaking sounds consists three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message, and the reception of the message.Phonetics is composed of three separate fields:articulatory phonetics, acousctic phonetics, auditory phonetics.2)articulation of sounds发音V oice: sound may be either voiced or voiceless.Two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated:manner of articulation & place of articulationManner of articulation: plosives and nasal stops; fricatives; affricates; approximants; trills and taps Place of articulation: bilabial; dental; post-alveolar; retroflex; uvular; glottal; labiodental; alveolar;palatal; velar; pharyngealV owels:The primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: 1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth 2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips.the height of the tongue raising---high, mid, lowthe position of the highest part of the tongue---front, central, backthe length or tenseness of the vowel---lax or tensethe shape of the lips ---rounded, unrounded3)characteristics of English speech soundsEnglish vowel s: There are 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs双元音, and 5 trip thongs 三元音.P5 monophthongs单元音English consonant s: consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have 24 consonants: 6 plosive consonants,9 fricatives 摩擦音, 2 affricates塞擦音, 3 nasals 鼻音, 3 approximants and 1 lateral consonant. P534)the transcription of soundsA phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds. Aphonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper. The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphebet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad transcription.1.2which studies the distinctive sound units of a language and their relationship.1)definition of phonemesThe segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes. Phonemes equal distinctive sounds. Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Human languages use a large number of orally transmitted units called phonemes.2)minimal pairs最小语音主力: a pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. When twodifferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed. Phonemic distinctions can occur in any position within a word. The substitution of one feature for another does not result in a change in meaning. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation.3)Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown as either present [+] or absent [-]. Most distinctive features are binary, that is, they can have only one of two values--plus or minus. [s] is [-voiced] and [z] is [+voiced]1.3refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissiblearrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting or changing sounds. It is highly unlikely that any two languages have exactly the same sound pattern.1）sequential constraints（语音）序列的限制All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.2）★complementary distribution互补性分布When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. The aspirated and the unaspirated phones(pea [Ph] and speed [P; hit and sing [h][n])are in complementary distribution. According to Wardhaugh, phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones音位变体of a single phoneme.1.4suprasegmental features 超音段特征of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less sound. According to Roach, a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak(vowel), and the coda.首音，音核，音节尾。

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英语语言学一、名词解释第一课共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.第二课音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology iscalled phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occursin the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed .morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lledmorphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that governthe formation of sentences.categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntacticcategories.structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure.structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationshipbetween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a morespecific word.第六课语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.二、简答题第一课1． What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them studyPhonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds andindicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology: It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to conveymeaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a languageSyntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics:the study of the use of language in a social context.2． What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition oflanguageThe important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately:systematic, arbitrary and vocal .First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language.Third , language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3． What are the main features of human language that have been specified by to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system1)Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2)Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and forunderstanding novel messages.3)Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4)Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interestedin the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist Why 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别为什么Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differencesin meaning.2.What is phone How is it different from a phoneme how are allophones related to a phonemePhone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme/l/ Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to.Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to.Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach or languageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically induced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning: once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain w ith examples“ homonymy” ,“ polysemy” , and“ hyponymy”.Homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n.tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy : while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have morethan one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The morecommonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the wordtable has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are calledits hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1. What does pragmatics study How does it differ from traditional semantics答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way andas a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from thetraditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way,while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics doesnot. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified What is the illocutionary pointof each type答： (1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2)directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3)commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4)expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5)declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to thetruth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker ismaking a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating,hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting,advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction, . when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are themost typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, . apologizing, thanking,congratulating.The last class “ declarations ” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.3. What are the four maxims of the CP Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maximsgives rise to conversational implicature答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2)The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3)The maxim of relation(4)The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.。