克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第9章 贸易政策中的政治经济学)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第19章宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调19.1复习笔记1．支持浮动汇率制的观点（1）货币政策自主性在布雷顿森林体系的固定汇率制度下，除美国以外的其他国家极少有机会运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡。
由于要抵消资本流动的影响，货币政策的作用被弱化了。
但是，如果各国中央银行不再为固定汇率而被迫干预货币市场，各国政府就能够运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡，并且各国不再会因为外部因素导致本国出现通货膨胀或通货紧缩。
浮动汇率制的提倡者认为，如果中央银行不必再承担稳定其币值的义务，那么它们将恢复对货币的控制。
货币贬值会降低本国产品的相对价格，从而使外国对本国产品的需求增加，进而减少本国的失业。
同样，在经济过热的国家中，中央银行可以通过压缩货币供给来抑制过热的经济活动，而不必担心过多的国际储备流入会破坏其稳定币值的努力。
通过加强对货币政策的控制，各国可以排除那些扭曲国际支付的障碍。
浮动汇率制的提倡者还认为，各国如果使用浮动汇率，就能够选择自己愿意接受的长期通货膨胀率，而不再会被动地引进国外的通货膨胀率。
支持浮动汇率最为有力的理论之一就是认为它能够通过汇率的自动调整来隔绝国外持续性通货膨胀带来的影响。
产生这种隔绝的机制是购买力平价。
（2）对称性浮动汇率制的支持者认为：浮动汇率制可以消除类似布雷顿森林体系所造成的不对称。
由于各国不再将本国货币钉住对美元的汇率，也就不必因此而持有美元作储备。
所以，各国都可以自主决定本国的货币状况。
同样，美国在运用货币政策或财政政策改变美元汇率时，不会再遇到特别的阻碍。
最后，在全球范围内，所有国家的汇率都将由市场而不是由政府决定。
（3）汇率自动稳定器功能与固定汇率相比，浮动汇率相对减少了需求冲击对就业的影响，从而有利于经济稳定。
当对本国产品和劳务的需求下降时，浮动汇率下的货币贬值，会使本国产品和劳务的价格下降，部分地减轻了这种需求下降的不利影响。
《克鲁格曼 国际经济学 第8版 笔记和课后习题详解》读书笔记思维导图
《克鲁格曼 国际经 济学 第8版 笔记 和课后习题详解》
思维导图PPT模板
本书关键字分析思维导图
经济学
克鲁格曼
名校
笔记
教材
贸易
经济
பைடு நூலகம்
国际
习题
政策 汇率
国际贸易
第章
第版
模型
货币
参考书目
答案
精华
01 第1章 绪 论
目录
02 第1篇 国际贸易理论
03 第2篇 国际贸易政策
第1章 绪 论
第1篇 国际贸易理论
01
第2章 世 界贸易概览
02
第3章 劳 动生产率和 比较优势： 李嘉图模型
03
第4章 资 源、比较优 势与收入分 配
04
第5章 标 准贸易模型
06
第7章 国 际要素流动
05
第6章 规 模经济、不 完全竞争和 国际贸易
第2篇 国际贸易政策
第8章 贸易的政 策工具
05
第4篇 国际宏观经济 政策
04
第3篇 汇率与开放经 济的宏观经济学
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（第8版）的考生。 克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（中国人民大学出版社）被列为“十一五”国家重点图书出版规划项目，是我国 众多高校采用的国际经济学权威教材，也被众多高校指定为“国际经济学”等专业考研（含复试）参考书目。为 了帮助考生复习备考，我们精心编著了它的配套辅导用书（均提供免费下载，免费升级）：1．克鲁格曼《国际经 济学》（第8版）笔记和课后习题详解2．克鲁格曼《国际经济学》名校考研真题与典型题详解3．克鲁格曼《国 际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解4．克鲁格曼《国际经济学》配套题库【名校考研真题+课后习题+章节练习+ 模拟试题】本书是克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）教材的配套e书，严格按照克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8 版）教材内容进行编写，共分22章，主要包括以下内容：（1）整理名校笔记，浓缩内容精华。每章的复习笔记 以克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（第8版）为主，并结合国内其他国际经济学经典教材对各章的重难点进行了整 理，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。（2）解析课后习题，提供详尽答案。本书参考大量相关 辅导资料对克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（第8版）的课后习题进行了详细的分析和解答，并对相关重要知识点 进行了延伸和归纳。另外，还提供英文版原题，以便于学员复习备考。（3）最新笔记和课后习题答案，可免费升 级获得。本e书每年都会进行修订完善，补充最新的笔记和课后习题答案。对于最新补充的笔记和课后习题答案， 均可以免费升级获得。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch05
Chapter 5The Standard Trade ModelChapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS CurveGrowth and the Production Possibility FrontierRelative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations? International Transfers of Income: Shifting the RD CurveThe Transfer ProblemEffects of a Transfer on the Terms of TradePresumptions about the Terms of Trade Effects of TransfersCase Study: The Transfer Problem and the Asian CrisisTariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?SummaryAppendix: Representing International Equilibrium with Offer CurvesDeriving a Country’s Offer CurveInternational EquilibriumChapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 17Chapter OverviewPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage which give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a general model which admits previous models as special cases. This “standard trade model” is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and tariffs and subsidies on traded goods are considered in this chapter. The standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference curves describe the tastes of an economy, and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one which takes as given the terms of trade), where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively.You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic economy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to move from a small country analysis to a two country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson Theorems from the previous chapter to address a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of countries like Japan and Korea has helped or hurt the United States as a whole, and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by the particular growth biases of these countries. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion of the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world or the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. export goods.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in Japan or Korea hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth, and the possibility of immiserizing growth is discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. The new terms of trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle which emerges is that a country which experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade, while a country which experiences import-biased growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study points out that growth in the rest of the world has made other countries more like the United States. This import-biased growth has worsened the terms of trade for the United States. The second issue addressed in the context of the standard trade model is the effect of international transfers. The salient point here is the direction, if any, in which the relative demand curve shifts in response to the redistribution of income from a transfer. A transfer worsens the donor’s ter ms of trade if it has a higher marginal propensity to consume its export good than the recipient. The presence of non-traded goods tends to reinforce the deterioration of terms of trade for the donor country. The case study attendant to this issue involves the deterioration of many Asian countries’ terms of trade due to the large capital withdrawals at the end of the 1990s.18 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThe third area to which the standard trade model is applied are the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on imports improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there may be an optimum, non-zero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Intranationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors while subsidies have the opposite effect. An appendix presents offer curve diagrams and explains this mode of analysis.Answers to Textbook Problems1.Note how welfare in both countries increases as the two countries move from productionpatterns governed by domestic prices (dashed line) to production patterns governed by worldprices (straight line).2.3. An increase in the terms of trade increases welfare when the PPF is right-angled. The production pointis the corner of the PPF. The consumption point is the tangency of the relative price line and the highest indifference curve. An improvement in the terms of trade rotates the relative price line about its intercept with the PPF rectangle (since there is no substitution of immobile factors, the production point stays fixed). The economy can then reach a higher indifference curve. Intuitively, although there is no supply response, the economy receives more for the exports it supplies and pays less for the imports it purchases.Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 19 4. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right angles rather thansmooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path for this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of tradeimprovement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.5. The terms of trade of Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R) importer, is the worldrelative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (p M/p R). The terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, such that changes affect the world relative price.a. Oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials, which increasesthe world relative supply. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of t rade.b. Korea’s increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which increasesthe world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price ofmanufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of tr ade.c. U.S. development of a substitute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials. Thisincreases world RD, and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japan’s terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan since world demand for raw materials falls.d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world RS.The world relative supply curve shifts o ut. Also, Russia’s demand for manufactures decreases,which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shifts in. These forcesdecrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japan’s terms of trade.e. A reduction in Japan’s tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of manufactures.This price change will increase Japan’s RS and decrease Japan’s RD, which increases the worldRS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The worldrelative price of manufactures declines and Japan’s terms of trade deteriorate.6. The declining price of services relative to manufactured goods shifts the isovalue line clockwise sothat relatively fewer services and more manufactured goods are produced in the United States, thus reducing U.S. welfare.20 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition7. These results acknowledge the biased growth which occurs when there is an increase in one factor ofproduction. An increase in the capital stock of either country favors production of Good X, while an increase in the labor supply favors production of Good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good which uses intensively the factor which that economy has in relative abundance. Country A exports Good X to Country B and imports Good Y from Country B.The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of a terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country.a. A’s terms of trade worsen, A’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and B’s welfareincreases.b. A’s terms of trade improve, A’s welfare increases and B’s welfare decreases.c. B’s terms of trade improve, B’s welfare increases and A’s welfare decreases.d. B’s terms of trade worsen, B’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and A’s welfareincreases.8. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in an economy’sterms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth, and the economy must be a large enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.9. India opening should be good for the U.S. if it reduces the relative price of goods that China sends tothe U.S. and hence increases the relative price of goods that the U.S. exports. Obviously, any sector in the U.S. hurt by trade with China would be hurt again by India, but on net, the U.S. wins. Note that here we are making different assumptions about what India produces and what is tradable than we are in Question #6. Here we are assuming India exports products the U.S. currently imports and China currently exports. China will lose by having the relative price of its export good driven down by the increased production in India.10. Aid which must be spent on exports increases the demand for those export goods and raises their pricerelative to other goods. There will be a terms of trade deterioration for the recipient country. This can be viewed as a polar case of the effect of a transfer on the terms of trade. Here, the marginal propensity to consume the export good by the recipient country is 1. The donor benefits from a terms of trade improvement. As with immiserizing growth, it is theoretically possible that a transfer actuallyworsens the welfare of the recipient.11. When a country subsidizes its exports, the world relative supply and relative demand schedules shiftsuch that the terms of trade for the country worsen. A countervailing import tariff in a second country exacerbates this effect, moving the terms of trade even further against the first country. The firstcountry is worse off both because of the deterioration of the terms of trade and the distortionsintroduced by the new internal relative prices. The second country definitely gains from the firstcountry’s export su bsidy, and may gain further from its own tariff. If the second country retaliated with an export subsidy, then this would offset the initial improvement in the terms of trade; the“retaliatory” export subsidy definitely helps the first country and hurts th e second.。
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案
Chapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter OrganizationA Model of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies Relative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeFactor Price EqualizationTrade and Income Distribution in the Short RunCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThe Gains from Trade, RevisitedOptimal Trade PolicyIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsBox: Income Distribution and the Beginnings of Trade Theory Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTesting the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelImplications of the TestsSummaryAppendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input Choices Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesChapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade which will arise when countries have different endowments of factors of production, such as labor, capital, and land. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources, and tends to lead to equalization across countries of prices of the factors of production. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods which are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (The appendix develops the model when the production functions have variable coefficients.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good which uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. This is demonstrated by showing that, using the relative supply and relative demand analysis, the country relatively abundantly endowed with a certain factor will produce that factor more cheaply than the other country. International trade leads to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the results from the Stolper-Samuelson effect demonstrate that owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but ownersof a country’s scarce factors lose. The extension of this result is the important Factor Price Equalization Theorem, which states that trade in (and thus price equalization of) goods leads to an equalization in the rewards to factors across countries. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.The chapter also introduces some political economy considerations. First, it briefly notes that many of the results regarding trade and income distribution assume full and swift adjustment in the economy. In the short run, though, labor and capital that are currently in a particular industry may have sector-specific skills or knowledge and are being forced to move to another sector, and this involves costs. Thus, even if a shift in relative prices were to improve the lot of labor, for those laborers who must change jobs, there is a short run cost.The core of the political economy discussion focuses on the fact that when opening to trade, some may benefit and some may lose, but the expansion of economic opportunity should allow society to redistribute some of the gains towards those who lose, making sure everyone benefits on net. In practice, though, those who lose are often more concentrated and hence have more incentive to try to affect policy. Thus, trade policy is not always welfare maximizing, but may simply reflect the preferences of the loudest and best organized in society.Empirical results concerning the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, beginning with the Leontief paradox and extending to current research, do not support its predictions concerning resource endowments explaining overall patterns of trade, though some patterns do match the broad outlines of its theory (e.g., theUnited States imports more low-skill products from Bangladesh and more high-skill products from Germany). This observation has motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be exploredin later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the lengthof the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two cornersrepresenting the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the questionconcerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 anda LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the same reasoning,a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We cansolve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but the slopes of the raysfrom the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (complete specialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, orthere would be unemployment.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 3. What matters is not the absolute abundanceof factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. Thisresult does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on theowners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses fromtrade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from theHeckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certainunskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model will dominate.5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goodsoverall. In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector specific skills who will facetransition costs. There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the U.S., making the entire country better off on average.Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade which is making the nation as a whole better off. In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the U.S. blocked the programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ e xports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be moresuccessful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled workercould earn twice what lower-skilled workers do, and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第6章规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易6.1复习笔记1．规模经济（1）规模经济和国际贸易①规模经济的表现规模经济表现为生产规模越大，生产效率越高，产出的增长大于投入的增长。
表6-1列出了某一行业的投入产出关系，且该产品的生产只需要劳动这一种投入。
从表中可以看出，生产10件产品需要15小时的劳动，而生产25件产品只需要30个小时的劳动。
规模经济表现为：劳动投入增加1倍（从15小时增加到30小时），产出却增加了1.5倍（从10件增加到25件）。
表6-1某一假定行业的投入产出关系②规模经济是国际贸易的动因之一假定世界上只有A和B两个国家，二者都具有生产这种产品的同样技术，最初都生产10个单位。
根据表6-1，该产量在每个国家均要15小时的劳动投入，即全世界用30个小时来生产20单位产品。
但是，现在假定该新产品的生产集中到一个国家，比如说A国，且A国在这一行业也投入30个小时的劳动。
然而，在一个国家内投入30个小时的劳动，却能生产出25件产品。
显然，生产集中到A国可以使得世界以同样的劳动投入多产出25%的产品。
可见，各国可以用比以往更有效的规模专业化地生产有限类别的产品；同时，它们之间的相互贸易又使得消费所有产品成为可能。
（2）规模经济和市场结构①规模经济的分类a．外部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于整个行业规模而非单个厂商规模的规模经济类型。
b．内部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于单个厂商的规模而不是其所在的行业规模的规模经济类型。
②规模经济对市场结构的影响外部的和内部的规模经济对市场结构具有不同的影响。
一个只存在外部规模经济的行业（即大厂商没有优势）一般由许多相对较小的厂商构成，且处于完全竞争的状态；相反，存在内部规模经济的行业中，大厂商比小厂商更具有成本优势，就形成了不完全竞争的市场结构。
外部规模经济和内部规模经济都是国际贸易的重要原因。
但是，由于它们对市场结构的影响不同，下面将对它们进行分别讨论。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解(发展中国家的贸易政策)【圣才出品】
十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台第10章发展中国家的贸易政策10.1 复习笔记1．进口替代战略（1）含义及特征进口替代战略又称内向型发展战略，其基本特征是以国内生产的工业制成品代替进口品，满足国内需求，并以此带动国民经济增长。
（2）一般做法①首先发展相对简易的日用工业，然后发展重化工业。
②压缩政府的不必要开支，增加生产性投资比重。
③对建立替代工业所必须的机器设备、中间品或原料进口采取关税减免和政府补贴的优惠政策。
④通过关税、非关税壁垒以及高估本国币值的方式，限制一般工业品进口，同时保证资本品以较低价格进口。
（3）幼稚工业论（幼稚工业论是进口替代战略的指导思想）①含义发展中国家具有制造业的潜在的比较优势，但发展中国家新建的制造工业最初却不能与发达国家已经成熟完善的制造业竞争。
为了使新成长的制造业获得立足之地，政府应该暂时地给予支持，直到它们足够强大，能够参与国际竞争为止。
②注意之处十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台a．试图从现在就进入未来才会具有比较优势的产业，并不总能得到好处。
b．如果政府保护本身有助于培养制造业的竞争力，那么保护才是值得的。
反之，则不值得。
总之，只有存在某种国内市场失灵的情况下，幼稚工业论才能成为政府干预的有效论据。
③市场失灵幼稚工业是否需要保护取决于幼稚工业的保护必须与一种具体的市场失灵相联系，这种市场失灵会使得私有市场不能以应有的速度发展这一产业。
有两种类型的市场失灵可以作为保护幼稚工业的依据：不完全资本市场和无偿占用问题。
a．不完全资本市场作为保护幼稚工业的依据认为，如果一个发展中国家没有一整套金融机构可以使得传统部门的储蓄用于新成长部门的投资，那么新工业部门的增长将会受这些工业当前盈利能力的限制。
最优政策是建立更完善的资本市场。
但是，由于对这些幼稚工业的保护可以提高利润，从而使其更快成长，所以保护幼稚工业可以作为次优的政策选择。
b．无偿占用问题的思想是：新产业产生的社会福利没有得到补偿。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收入核算与国际收支平衡）【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡）【圣才出品】⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台第12章国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡12.1 复习笔记1．国民收⼊账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是⼀国的国民⽣产总值（GNP），它是⼀国的⽣产要素在⼀定时期内所⽣产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究⼀国产出时所⽤的基本度量⼿段，由花费在最终产品上的⽀出的市场价值量加总⽽得到。
GNP的⽀出与劳动、资本以及其他⽣产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能⽤途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私⼈消费的数额）、投资（私⼈企业为进⾏再⽣产⽽留下的⽤于购买⼚房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使⽤的数额）和经常项⽬余额（对外净出⼝的商品和服务的数额）。
（2）国民收⼊国民收⼊等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移⽀付，再减去间接商业税。
即：国民收⼊＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移⽀付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收⼊的恒等关系完全成⽴，必须对GNP的定义作⼀定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使⽤过程中由于磨损⽽引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收⼊。
为了计算⼀定时期的国民收⼊，必须从GNP 中减去这⼀时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民⽣产净值（NNP）。
⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台②⼀国的收⼊可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移⽀付。
单边转移⽀付的例⼦包括向居住在国外的退休公民⽀付养⽼⾦、赔偿⽀付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移⽀付是⼀国收⼊的⼀部分，但不是⼀国产出的⼀部分，因此，净单边转移⽀付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收⼊。
③国民收⼊取决于⽣产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所⽀付的价格。
但是，这两组价格并不是完全⼀致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的⽀付⼤于销售者的收⼊，导致GNP被⾼估，超过了国民收⼊。
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第9章贸易政策中的政治经济学一、概念题1．约束（binding）答：在国际贸易中，约束一般是指税率的约束，即“约束”关税的税率。
约束税率是指经过谈判达成协议而固定下来的关税税率。
按关贸总协定规定，缔约各国应该在互惠互利的基础上通过有选择的产品对产品的方式，或者为有关缔约国所接受的多边的程序进行谈判，谈判结果固定下来的各国税则商品的税率为约束税率，汇总起来形成减让表，作为总协定的一个附属部分付诸实施。
按关贸总协定规定，关税减让谈判有四种减让形式来约束关税的税率：①降低关税并约束在降低了的关税水平；②约束现行关税税率；③约束在现行关税水平以上的某个关税水平；④约束免税待遇。
2．支持自由贸易的政治依据（political argument for free trade）答：支持自由贸易的政治依据是指，尽管理论上可能还有比自由贸易更好的政策，但从政治上认可和支持自由贸易的原则更重要。
现实中的贸易政策经常会由具有特殊利益关系的集团所左右，而不考虑国家的成本与收益。
虽然从理论上可以证明某些选择性的关税和出口补贴政策能够增进整体社会福利，但现实中，任何一个政府机构在制定一套干预贸易的详细计划时都有可能被利益集团所控制，从而成为在有政治影响的部门中进行收入再分配的工具。
如果上述观点正确的话，那么倡导自由贸易无疑是最好的选择。
3．集体行动（collective action）答：集体行动是指关于经济活动中个人理性并不必然导致集体理性。
如果某项活动或者福利的获得需要两个或者两个以上的人的共同努力才能完成，集体行动问题就出现了，即决策集体的每个成员必须单方面决定是否参与提供某种集体产品。
因为集体产品具有非排他性和非竞争性的特征，所以使得不为集体产品的提供付出成本的集团成员也可以获得集体产品。
集团越大，分享收益的人越多，个人的行动对集团利益的影响越小，集团内的成员“搭便车”的动机就越强烈。
这就意味着仅仅依靠个人的自愿，集体产品的供给将是不足的，集体产品不可能依靠个人的自愿提供来解决。
因此，个人理性并不必然导致集体理性，个人理性不是实现集体理性的充分条件。
4．特惠贸易协定（preferential trading agreement）答：特惠贸易协定是指各签约方之间相互减让关税或实行其他贸易优惠措施，但不将其给予非签约方的贸易优惠协定。
由于这种协定违反了最惠国待遇原则，因而一般被世界贸易组织所禁止。
但是，如果它能够促进签约方之间的自由贸易，那么世界贸易组织就允许其存在。
如下两种方式的特惠贸易协定是世界贸易组织允许的：（1）自由贸易区，各签约方设立对外关税率，但相互之间免除关税和取消非关税壁垒；（2）关税同盟，各成员国制定统一的对外关税率，而成员国之间则是“特惠”的。
5．关税同盟（customs union）答：关税同盟是指两个或两个以上参加同盟的国家划为一个关税区域，在区域内取消关税和非关税壁垒，实行自由贸易，同时对区域外采取统一的关税及其他贸易限制等措施。
关税同盟是跨国区域经济一体化的一种基本形式。
关税同盟可以分为完全关税同盟和不完全关税同盟。
完全关税同盟是指将各加盟国的关税完全废除，这种关税同盟按惯例不受最惠国待遇原则的约束。
但事实上，当关税同盟成立时，各国原有的关税并不能立即完全废除，为避免引起经济混乱，只能循序渐进。
所以，在过渡时期，加盟国仍有一些关税存在，这种情况就是“不完全关税同盟”。
不完全关税同盟由于不能避免最惠国待遇原则的约束，因此必须取得同盟外其他各国的谅解。
6．囚徒困境（Prisoner’s dilemma）答：囚徒困境是博弈论中用以说明合作博弈与非合作博弈的经典例子。
犯罪嫌疑人甲和乙共同作案后被警察抓住，警察缺乏充分的证据对他们进行指控，因此需要他们相互提供彼此犯罪的证据。
警察将他们分别关在不同的房间内进行审讯并且告诉他们：如果两人都坦白，各判刑2年（表中右下角单元）；如果两人都抵赖，因证据不足，各判刑1年（表中左上角单元）；如果一个坦白，一个抵赖，坦白者从宽释放，抵赖者从严判刑4年（表中左下角或右上角单元）。
表中每一格的两个数字代表对应的行动组合下两个嫌疑人的收益（判刑是负收益），第一个数字代表甲的收益，第二个数字代表乙的收益。
尽管对双方来说，都抵赖（合作）的结果比都坦白（不合作）的结果要好，但是自利动机使两人均不会选择抵赖。
在乙选择坦白时，甲的最优策略是坦白；在乙选择抵赖时，甲的最优策略也是坦白。
即不管乙如何行动，甲的最优策略均为坦白。
乙面临的情况和甲完全一样，所以乙的最优策略也是坦白。
因此，这个博弈的纳什均衡是（坦白，坦白）。
囚徒困境反映了一个深刻的问题：个人理性并不是实现集体理性的充分条件。
尽管双方都抵赖的结果明显比都坦白好，但是这样做不满足个人理性要求，尽管它是集体理性的。
实际上，即使双方在被审讯之前达成了合作协议，都选择抵赖，这个协议也不会被遵守。
因为遵守协议不符合个人利益，理性的自利主义者不会遵守协议。
7．国内市场失灵（domestic market failures）答：国内市场失灵是指国内市场没有发挥应有功能，导致生产者剩余没有正确衡量成本和收益。
国内市场失灵论认为，对国内市场而言，只有当其他所有市场都能正常发挥作用时，自由放任的政策才是最理想的政策；如果在某些市场上存在市场失灵现象，那么政府干预虽然可能扭曲某一市场的激励机制，但也会抵消市场失灵，从而带来净收益，提高整个社会的福利水平。
对国际贸易而言，由于国内市场失灵现象的存在，使得贸易保护比贸易自由更能促进一国的福利。
可见，国内市场失灵是从国内市场的失灵现象中为政府采取国际贸易保护与干预政策寻找根据的一种理论。
8．寻租（rent-seeking）答：寻租是指为了达到某种垄断势力或获取超额利润而支付的租金或成本。
这一概念由戈登、图洛克于1967年最早阐述，并由克鲁格于1974年正式引入经济学。
传统理论认为垄断的形成本身没有成本，而寻租理论则认为形成垄断是由于利用了一部分的实际资源。
有关寻租的大部分讨论一般集中在由政府培养或保护的垄断上，这是最普遍也是最强有力的垄断形式。
寻租理论说明：存在一个确定的个人寻租而引起的净社会损失领域。
图洛克和克鲁格认为，寻求利润的厂商会努力运用各种资源而达到垄断，其间完全由个人进行或由政府资助，这样投入的资源正好与获得垄断而增加的盈利相等。
于是代表垄断高价造成的超额利润的部分资源就被耗费掉了，而不是由消费者向垄断者转移。
这种资源的耗费是用于取得垄断这种非生产性的活动。
形成垄断的活动也是一种竞争性产业，因此从社会角度来看，投入寻租活动的所有资源等于所有的垄断利润。
由于垄断会产生类似租金的垄断利润，追求利润的动机总会使一些人进行争取垄断地位的活动，这样形成垄断的活动就吸引了许多资源投入，结果导致社会财富再分配和巨大的资源浪费。
9．支持自由贸易效率（efficiency case for free trade）答：支持自由贸易的效率依据是指，关税会给小国经济造成净损失（如图9-1中阴影部分的两个三角形面积），损失来自于关税扭曲了该国生产者与消费者行为的经济动因。
但是，采用自由贸易政策就可以提高生产效率，消除上述扭曲并增进整个社会福利。
因此，一国应实行自由贸易政策，提高社会福利水平。
图9-1 支持自由贸易的效率依据10．赞成关税的贸易条件改善论（terms of trade argument for a tariff）答：赞成关税的贸易条件改善论是指对一个能够影响国际价格的大国而言，关税可以降低进口产品的价格，从而使贸易条件得到改善的幅度大于关税带来的成本，所以，贸易条件改善的收益可能会超过其成本。
理论上存在一个关税水平，即最优关税，能够使一国的福利水平达到最大。
对最优关税的解释参见本章概念题第21题“最优关税”。
11．自由贸易区（free trade area）答：自由贸易区是指一国在其本土内划定的置于海关辖区之外、以贸易为主要内容的特殊区域，或指由签订了自由贸易协定的国家组成的贸易区。
就一国国内的自由贸易区来说，外国货物一般可以免征关税，并且允许在区内自由储存、取样、分级、装卸、重新包装、贴标签等；就国与国组成的自由贸易区来说，区内各成员取消各自的关税和非关税贸易壁垒，使区域内的商品可以自由流动，但各成员仍各自保持独立的对区外非成员的贸易壁垒。
12．次优理论（theory of the second best）答：次优理论是指，如果一般均衡体系中存在着某些情况，使得帕累托最优的某个条件遭到破坏，那么即使其他所有的帕累托最优条件都得到满足，结果也未必是令人满意的。
通俗而言，次优理论的含义是，假设达到帕累托最优状态需要满足十个假设条件，如果这些条件中至少有一个不能得到满足，即被破坏掉了，那么，满足全部剩下来的九个条件而得到次优状态，未必比满足剩下来的九个条件中一部分（如满足四个或五个）而得到的次优状态更加接近于十个条件都得到满足的帕累托最优状态。
次优理论的政策含义是：①否定了完全竞争模型作为微观经济政策的基础；②当经济中出现市场失灵时，并不应当尽量满足帕累托最优要求的条件，而是应该依照某些福利目标来设计适宜的政策。
13．《关税和贸易总协定》（GATT）（General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade，GATT）答：《关税和贸易总协定》（GATT）是指1947年签署、1948年生效的关于关税和贸易政策的国际性多边贸易条约，同时也是负责实施该协定、组织缔约方之间进行多边贸易谈判和解决贸易争端的非正式国际组织。
《关税和贸易总协定》的宗旨是：各缔约方政府在处理贸易和经济事务的关系时，应以提高生活水平、保证充分就业、保证实际收入和有效需求的。