Morphology的上课笔记
英语语言学笔记（3）
三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进⾏学习。
语素：语⾔最⼩的意义单位 语素的类型 复合词的类型 复合词的特征 Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. 形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两⼤分⽀。
Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language. 语素：语⾔最⼩的意义单位。
Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent） ⾃由语素可以作为单词独⽴使⽤。
Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. 粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词 Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（词缀） 1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）（inflectional morphemes）: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional 2）Derivational affixes（派⽣词缀） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective. free=free root（⾃由词根） Morpheme（词素） Bound root prefix bound derivational affix suffix inflectional Root and stem（词根和词⼲） 1） Root 2） Stem The differences between root and stem: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. Individualistic Undesirables Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem） Individual （stem） desirable （stem） dividual （stem） desire （root, stem） divide（root, stem） Affixation词缀法（Derivation派⽣法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems. 1）'表⽰否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc. 2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc. 3）'表⽰贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc. 4）'表⽰程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc. 5）'表⽰⽅向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc. 6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc. 7）'表⽰时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. 8）'表⽰数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc. 9）'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice- Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixes Compounding复合法（also called composition） Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Formation of compounds Noun + noun（名词＋名词） —— handbook, sunshine Adjective + noun（形容词＋名词）——highway, deadline Adjective + noun + -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）——white-haired, red-eyed Verb + noun（动词＋名词）——driveway, breakwater（挡⽔板） Adverb + noun（副词＋名词）——downtown, overburden Noun + verb（名词＋动词）——toothpick, snowfall Verb + adverb（动词＋副词）——follow-up, kick-off Noun + adjective（名词＋形容词）——world-famous, lifelong -ing form + noun（ing+名词）——baking power, dining-room other forms（其他）——go-between, father-in-law Features of compounds复合词的特征 1.Orthographically书写特征 （Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid） 2.Syntactically句法特征（复合词的词性⼀般取决于复合词最后⼀个成分的词性） 3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和） 4.Phonetically语⾳特征（复合词的单词重⾳落在第⼀个构成成分上）。
英语语言学笔记
3
语音学
语音（Phonetics）
研究语言的发音机制、音素（音位）的发音特征和分布规律。
/b/、/t/、/d/等辅音音素的发音方式。
4
音位（Phoneme）
语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
在英语中，“bit”和“bet”因音位/ɪ/和/ɛ/的不同而意义不同。
5
音系学
音系（Phonology）
研究语言中音素的组合规则和模式，以及这些规则如何影响语言的意义。
英语中的重音和节奏模式对单词和句子的意义有影响。
6
语法学
语法（Grammar）
描述语言中单词、短语和句子如何组合成有意义的结构的规则系统。
句子“The cat sat on the mat.”遵循英语语法规则。
英语语言学笔记
序号
主题/子主题
关键概念/术语
定义/解释
示例/应用
备注
1
语言学基础
语言学（guistics）
研究语言的科学，包括语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言在社会中的应用。
语言学家研究不同语言的语音、语法、词汇等。
2
语言（Language）
人类特有的、用于沟通的一套符号系统，包括口语、书面语和手势语等。
研究语言中的词汇、短语和句子如何表达意义。
单词“happy”的意义是“快乐的”。
10
语用学
语用（Pragmatics）
研究语言如何在特定情境中使用，以及语言使用者的意图、背景和互动如何影响语言的意义。
“It’s cold in here.”可能不仅仅是描述温度，还可能暗示要求关窗或开暖气。
11
社会语言学
社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）
Chapter 3新编语言学教程 Morphology
the classification of morphemes 1
A. free morpheme自由语素 Morphemes may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemeic单语素词 words are free morphemes.
Free morphemes can be divided into two categories: Lexical morphemes(词汇语素)：ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of messages we convey. E.g. book, desk Functional morphemes(功能语素)：conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. E.g. if, when, because.
2. The smallest unit of morphology & the classification of morphemes
Morpheme(语素): A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. It cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
1.4 Definition of morphology P52
Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
新编简明英语语言学教程【笔记】
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his lan guage. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
Chapter 3 Morphology 要点总结
Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。
Chapter-Morphology--形态学现代语言学
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。
前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。
2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table,room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。
自考英语语言学Chapter 3 Morphology
Chapter 3 Morphology形态学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation. 形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支，前者研究语法屈折和语法意义的表达，后者研究单词的构成和同义的表达。
2.Morpheme语素2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language语素：语言最小的意义单位。
（2004填空）The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. 单词不是语义的最小单位，因为单词可以解析为在意义上更小的意义成分。
语义的最小单位是语素。
语素表达的意义有两种：语法意义和词汇意义。
2.2 Types of morphemes语素的类型2.2.1 Free morphemes自由语素（2005，选择；2006，填空；2007选择）Morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素有着完整的语义，它们被称为自由语素是因为它们可以作为单词独立使用，如helpful中的help就是自由词素，因为help可以作为独立的单词来使用。
简明语言学第三章笔记
3.6 Morphological rules of word formation
productive
less productive
1) Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/ or category distinct from that of its base. Once formed, derived words become independent lexical items and receive their own entry in a speaker’s mental lexicon. a) Affix Change Examples -able V-A fixable, emendable, respectable -al V-N proposal, refusal, disposal -ing V-A exciting, moving, touching -ive V-A exertive, impressive, restrictive -ful N-N mouthful, spoonful -ful N-A hopeful, wonderful, faithful -ize N-V realize, finalize, hospitalize -ness A-N happiness, sadness, shyness Prefix dedisreantiun-
Assignments
1. Explain the following terms morpheme, allomorph free morphemes, bound morphemes 2. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes 1) The farmer’s cows escaped. 2) It was raining. 3) Those socks are inexpensive. 4) Jim needs the newer copy. 5) The strongest rower continued. 6) She quickly closed the book. 7) The alphabetization went well.
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CH 5 Morphology 的上課筆記 1. What is morphology?2. How to use it? Who is it for?3. When to use it?4.Are there rules in it?5. Is there an infix in English?6. The use/ significance of the morphology.Morphology (構詞學) is (1) the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation, i.e., the English word unfriendly is formed from friend , the adjective-forming suffix -ly and the negative prefix un-. (2) a morphemic system(詞素系統).Morphology helps people recognize possible words. 有沒有新字的出現？ 例子1：Bug → a possible word Bog → a possible word Sog → not a possible word 例子2：木神 →Morphology ( it depends on people)(1) 昨晚我的ㄅㄧㄤˋ痛得睡不著。
→從這句話大概知道句子要表達意思：某人遭受疼痛之苦，但不是能清楚知道每個字(individual words)的意思。
在訓練聽力時，是訓練學生get the main concept (idea) in the context/ dialogue.(2) 我的手臂上長了一個ㄅㄧㄤˋ，很癢。
→ㄅㄧㄤˋ可能是瘤或青春痘。
(3) 我的腳上長了一個ㄅㄧㄤˋ，不舒服。
→ㄅㄧㄤˋ可能是皮膚病。
(1)→(2)→(3)：從不同的context，慢慢會懂“ㄅㄧㄤˋ”的意義，但還是有點模糊。
直到你看到實物的那一天，才能真正了解其意義。
因為文字本身就是抽象的，所以如果用文字去表達一個抽象的概念，會很難懂；但若是用具體的實物來講解，會比較容易明白。
教單字→可以把圖片運用在單字教學上。
Morphology可以幫助學習新單字。
例子4：A: Have you seen ―wuggles‖ before?B: What are ―wuggles‖ ?A: They are four-legged animals.B: What do they look like? Dogs, cats, rabbits, or horses?A: No, they look like spiders.B: They are six-legged insects.因為―wuggles‖(a possible word)符合造字原則，所以B會問What are ―wuggles‖ ?辶日：白天遊走的意思迌：晚上遊走的意思→ 辶人 =辶日迌人(一個字代表三個音)鑫→淼→森→焱→垚(三者為多)囚(chiu)：指一個人被困在四面牆中。
Superordinate Affix(附加詞綴)Hyponym(superordinate 是上層關係；hyponym 是附屬在下面的詞)例子6： Infix = Pa Present tensePast tense Jump Tuluk Tu pa luk Jumped Eat chimoChi pa moAte例子7：m+ infix +nsh___p a~e ee ~ ee // ~// /i/~/i+ø/例子8：→ binary cuts = string of sounds: each part must have meanings.healthi nesshealthi –ness → morpheme = the smallest meaningful unit in a language(最小有意義的單位)word ？→depend on situations例子9：Cat = Cat →one morphemeCat+ -s = Cats →two morphemesProantiestablishmentalisms = pro + -anti + establish + -ment + -al + -ism + -sSeven morphemes Against Root PluralAllomorph同位詞素：Any of the different forms of a morpheme.(1)聲音相同或不同( the same or different sounds )(2)拼音相同或不同(the same or different spelling)(3)意義一定相同(with the same meaning)例子10：Hyponym Allomorph Superordinate Dogs []Cats []Churches []Oxen [][][][[]Plural meanings of N 例子11：Teacher []→名詞詞尾。
Bigger []例子12：V→NAgentive morphemesTeach + {er} →TeacherAct+{or} →ActorAssist+{ant} →AssistantArt +{ist} →Artist比較分析→可以用來教單字→創意教學。
傳統教法學生記憶、模仿老師所教的。
學生只是不斷重複同樣的東西。
學生並沒有思考。
How do students learn/acquire the meanings of words?老師要叫學生自己去找字的意義。
學生要分析，才能真正習得字義。
→學以致用，而不是靠記憶。
創意教學找一段文章，同時有中英翻譯(左右對照或上下對照)(1)把英文單字列出來，要學生從中文去尋找字義。
(2)為什麼學生無法把兩、三音節的英文單字背起來？(1)因為中文字是單音節。
(2)讓學生把單字內化成自己的知識。
如果是單字一個一個教，量會太多。
如何分類詞素？(若是用function來分：(1)grammatical morphemes (2) lexical morphemes.)(1)Free morphemes：A form which can be used on its own. (可單獨出現，本身具有意義)(2)Bound morphemes：A linguistic form which is never used alone but must be used withanother morpheme, e.g. as an affix or combining form. (不可單獨出現)(3)Inflectional morphemes: Adding an affix to a word or changing it according to the rulesof the grammar of a language.(4)Derivational morphemes: Adding affixes to other words or morphemes.The difference of Inflectional morphemes and Derivational morphemes:(1)(a) Inflectional morphemes never change the part of speech, i.e., work →works(b)Derivational morphemes can change the part of speech, i.e., wind →windy(2)(a) You can not add any other suffix in final Inflectional morphemes, which can not befollowed any suffix. For example, workings = working + s(b) You can add any other suffix after Derivational morphemes, which can continue to addand can be followed any suffix. For instance, healthiness=health + -y + -ness製作單字教材(科目：新聞英文；對象：高中)作法一：Find out Chinese meanings of the underlined vocabulary or phrases.Britons may not be the world's greatest linguists but an opera company's decision to introduce surtitles to its performances has raised eyebrows-- as it only sings in English.The move by the English National Opera (ENO) that is based in central London prompted some ridicule. ―I think it is a contradiction in terms...this is the thin end of the wedge,‖ John Allison, editor of Opera magazine, told BBC Radio.The trend to install surtitles above or next to stages has been growing since the 1980s in a bid to make operas —traditionally sung in Italian and German — intelligible to non-native speakers.英國人也許不是世界上最偉大的語言家，但一家劇團決定在演出歌劇時，打上英文字幕，著實令人感到驚訝─因為該劇團只演唱英文歌劇。
總部設在倫敦中區的「英國國家歌劇」劇團的這項舉動，招致若干嘲弄。