外文翻译

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毕设外文翻译是什么意思(两篇)

毕设外文翻译是什么意思(两篇)

引言概述:在现代高等教育中,毕业设计(或称为毕业论文、学士论文等)是学生完成学业的重要环节。

而对于一些特定的专业,例如翻译专业,有时候还需要完成外文翻译这一项任务。

本文将探讨毕设外文翻译的意义和目的,以及为什么对翻译专业的学生而言这一任务极其重要。

正文内容:1.提高翻译能力和技巧外文翻译是一项对翻译专业学生而言十分重要的任务,通过进行外文翻译,学生们可以通过实践提高自己的翻译能力和技巧。

在这个过程中,他们可以学习如何处理不同类型的外文文本,熟悉不同领域的专业术语,并掌握一些常用的翻译技巧和策略。

2.扩展语言和文化知识毕设外文翻译要求学生们对翻译语言的相关知识和背景有一定的了解。

在进行翻译时,学生们需要遵循目标语言的语法规则,并确保所翻译的内容准确、清晰地传达源语言的意义。

通过这一过程,学生们可以进一步扩展自己的语言和文化知识,提高自己的跨文化沟通能力。

3.提供实践机会毕设外文翻译为学生们提供了一个实践的机会,让他们能够将在课堂上所学到的理论知识应用于实际操作中。

通过实践,学生们可以对所学知识的理解更加深入,同时也可以发现并解决实际翻译过程中的问题和挑战。

这对于学生们将来从事翻译工作时具备更好的实践能力和经验具有重要意义。

4.培养翻译专业素养毕设外文翻译要求学生们具备良好的翻译专业素养。

在进行翻译过程中,学生们需要保持专业的态度和责任心,严谨地对待每一个翻译任务。

他们需要学会如何进行翻译质量的评估和控制,以确保最终翻译稿的准确性和流畅性。

这一系列的要求和实践,可以帮助学生们培养出色的翻译专业素养。

5.提升自我学习和研究能力毕设外文翻译要求学生们进行广泛的文献阅读和研究,以便更好地理解所翻译的内容,并找到适当的翻译方法和策略。

在这个过程中,学生们需要培养自己的自主学习和研究能力,提高对学术和专业领域的敏感性,并能够独立思考和解决问题。

这将对学生们未来的学术研究和进一步的职业发展产生积极的影响。

总结:引言概述:毕业设计外文翻译(Thesis Translation)是指在毕业设计过程中,对相关外文文献进行翻译,并将其应用于研究中,以提供理论支持和参考。

外文翻译 - 英文

外文翻译 - 英文

The smart gridSmart grid is the grid intelligent (electric power), also known as the "grid" 2.0, it is based on the integration, high-speed bidirectional communication network, on the basis of through the use of advanced sensor and measuring technology, advanced equipme nt technology, the advancedcontrol method, and the application of advanced technology of decision support system, realize the power grid reliability, security, economic, efficient, environmental friendly and use the security target, its main features include self-healing, incentives and include user, against attacks, provide meet user requirements of power quality in the 21st century, allow all sorts of different power generation in the form of access, start the electric power market and asset optimizatio n run efficiently.The U.S. department of energy (doe) "the Grid of 2030" : a fully automated power transmission network, able to monitor and control each user and power Grid nodes, guarantee from power plants to end users among all the nodes in the whole process of transmission and distribution of information and energy bi-directional flow.China iot alliance between colleges: smart grid is made up of many parts, can be divided into:intelligent substation, intelligent power distribution network, intelli gent watt-hourmeter,intelligent interactive terminals, intelligent scheduling, smart appliances, intelligent building electricity, smart city power grid, smart power generation system, the new type of energy storage system.Now a part of it to do a simple i ntroduction. European technology BBS: an integration of all users connected to the power grid all the behavior of the power transmission network, to provide sustained and effective economic and security of power.Chinese academy of sciences, institute of electrical: smart grid is including all kinds of power generation equipment, power transmission and distribution network, power equipment and storage equipment, on the basis of the physical power grid will be modern advanced sensor measurement technology, network technology, communicationtechnology, computing technology, automationand intelligent control technology and physical grid highly integrated to form a new type of power grid, it can realize the observable (all the state of the equipment can monitor grid), can be controlled (able to control the power grid all the state of the equipment), fully automated (adaptive and self-healing) and system integrated optimization balance (power generation, transmission and distribution, and the optimization of the balance between electricity), so that the power system is more clean, efficient, safe and reliable.American electric power research institute: IntelliGrid is a composed of numerous automation system of power transmission and distribution power system, in a coordinated, effective and reliable way to achieve all of the power grid operation: have self-healing function;Rapid response to the electric power market and enterprise business requirements;Intelligent communication architecture, realizes the real-time, security, and flexible information flow, to provide users with reliable, economic power services. State grid electric power research institute, China: on the basis of the physical power grid (China's smart grid is based on high voltage network backbone network frame, different grid voltage level based on the coordinated development of strong power grid), the modern advanced sensor measurement technology, communication technology, information technology, computer technology and control technology and the physical power grid highly integrated to form a new type of power grid.It to fully meet user demand for electricity and optimize the allocation of resources, guarantee the safety, reliability and economy of power supply, meet environmental constraints, ens ure the quality of electric energy, to adapt to the development of power market, for the purpose of implementing the user reliable, economic, clean and interactive power supply and value-added services.BackgroundStrong smart grid development in the wor ld is still in its infancy, without a common precisely defined, its technology can be roughly divided into four areas: advanced Measurement system, advanced distribution operation, advanced transmission operation and advanced asset management.Advanced meas urement system main function is authorized to the user, make the system to establish a connection with load, enabling users to support the operationof the power grid;Advanced core distribution operation is an online real-time decision command, goal is to disaster prevention and control, realizing large cascading failure prevention;Advanced transmission operation main role is to emphasize congestion ma nagement and reduce the risk of the large-scale railway;Advanced asset management is installed in the system can provide the system parameters and equipments (assets) "health" condition of advanced sensor, and thereal-time information collected by integrat ion and resource management, modeling and simulation process, improve the operation and efficiency of power grid.The smart grid is an important application of Internet of things, and published in the journal of computer smart grid information system archit ecture research is carried on the detailed discussion on this, and the architecture of the smart grid information system are analyzed.The market shareThe establishment of the smart grid is a huge historical works.At present many complicated smart grid project is underway, but the gap is still great.For the provider of the smart grid technology, promote the development of facing the challenges of the distribution network system i s upgrading, automation and power distribution substation transportation, smart grid network and intelligent instruments.According to the latest report of parker investigators, smart grid technology market will increase from $2012 in 33 billion to $2020 in 73 billion, eight years, the market accumulated up to $494 billion.China smart grid industry market foresight and investment forward-looking strategic planning analysis, points out that in our country will be built during the "twelfth five-year""three vertical and three horizontal and one ring" of uhv ac lines, and 11 back to u hv dc transmission project construction, investment of 300 billion yuan.Although during the period of "much starker choices-and graver consequences-in" investment slowed slightly, the investment is 250 billion yuan.By 2015, a wide range of national power grid, long distance transmission capacity will reach 250 million kilowatts, power transmission of 1.15 trillion KWH per year, to support the new 145 million kilowatts of clean energy generation given and sent out, can satisfy the demand of morethan 1 million electric cars, a grid resource configuration optimization ability, economic efficiency, safety and intelligent levels will be fully promoted.The abroad application of analysisIn terms of power grid development foundation, national electricity dema nd tends to be saturated, the grid after years of rapid development, architecture tends to be stable, mature, have a more abundant supply of electric power transmission and distribution capacity.Germany has "E - Energy plan, a total investment of 140 million euros, from 2009 to 2012, four years, six sites across the country to the smart grid demonstration experiment.At the same time also for wind power and electric car empirical experiments, testing and management of power consumption of the Internet.Big companies such as Germany's Siemens, SAP and Swiss ABB are involved in this plan.To smart grid Siemens 2014 annual market scale will reach 30 billion euros, and plans to take a 20% market share, make sure order for 6 billion euros a year.The advanced nat ureCompared with the existing grid, smart grid, reflects the power flow, information flow and business flow marked characteristics of highly integration, its advancement and advantage mainly displays in:(1) has a strong foundation of grid system and te chnical support system, able to withstand all kinds of external disturbance and attacks, can adapt to large-scale clean energy and renewable energy access, strong sex of grid reinforced and ascend.(2) the information technology, sensor technology, automatic control technology organic combination with power grid infrastructure, a panoramic view of available power grid information, timely detection, foresee the possibility of failure.Fault occurs, the grid can be quickly isolate fault,realize self recovery,to avoid the occurrence of blackouts.(3) flexible ac/dc transmission, mesh factory coordination, intelligent scheduling, power storage, and distribution automation technology widespread application, makes the control of power grid operation more flexibl e,economic, and can adapt to a large number of distributed power supply, power grid and electric vehicle charging and discharging facility access.(4) communication, information, and the integrated use of modern management technology, will greatly improve the efficiency of power equipment, and reduce the loss of electrical power, making the operation of power grid is more economic and efficient.(5) the height of the real-time and non real-time information integration, sharing and utilization, to run the show management comprehensive, complete and fine grid operation state diagram, at the same time can provide decision support, control scheme and the corresponding response plans.(6) to establish a two-way interactive service mode, users can real-time understand the status of the power supply ability, power quality, price and power outage information, reasonable arrangement of electric equipment use;The electric power enterprise can obtain the user's electricity information in detail, to provide more value-added services.developmentaltrend"Twelfth five-year" period, the state grid will invest 500 billion yuan to build the connection of large ene rgy base and center of the "three horizontal three longitudinal" main load of ultra high voltage backbone network frame and 13 back to long branch, engineering, to form the core of the world first-class strong smart grid."Strong smart grid technology standards promulgated by the state grid system planning", has been clear about the strong smart grid technology standards roadmap, is the world's first used to guide the development of smart grid technology guiding standards.SGC planning is to built 2015 basic information, automation, interaction characteristics of strong smart grid, formed in north China, central China, east China, for the end to the northwest and northeast power grid for sending the three synchronous power grid, the grid resource allocati on ability, economic efficiency and safety level, technology level and improve intelligent level.(1) the smart grid is the inevitable developing trend ofpower grid technology.Such as communication, computer, automation technology has extensive applicati on in the power grid, and organic combination with traditional electric power technology, and greatly improve the intelligent level of the power grid.Sensor technology and information technology application in the power grid, the system state analysis and auxiliary decision provides the technical support, make it possible to grid self-healing.Scheduling technology, automation technology and the mature development of flexible transmission technology, for the development and utilization of renewable energy an d distributed power supply provides the basic guarantee.The improvement of the communication network and the popularization and application of user information collection technology, promote the two-way interaction with users of the grid.With the further development of various new technologies, application and highly integrated with the physical power grid, smart grid arises at the historic moment.(2) the development of smart grid is the inevitable choice of social and economic development.In order to ach ieve the development of clean energy, transport and given power grid must increase its flexibility and compatibility.To withstand the increasingly frequent natural disasters and interference, intelligent power grid must rely on means to improve its securit y defense andself-healing ability.In order to reduce operating costs, promote energy conservation and emissions reduction, power grid operation must be more economic and efficient, at the same time must to intelligent control of electric equipment, reduce electricity consumption as much as possible.Distributed generation and energy storage technology and the rapid development of electric cars, has changed the traditional mode of power supply, led power flow, information flow, business flow constantly fusion, in order to satisfy the demands of increasingly diverse users.PlanJapan plans to all the popularity of smart grid in 2030, officer of the people at the same time to promote the construction of overseas integrated smart grid.In the field of battery, Japanese firms' global market share goal is to strive to reach 50%, with about 10 trillion yen in the market.Japan's trade ministry has set up a "about the next generation of energy systems international standardizationresearch institute", the japan-american established in Okinawa and Hawaii for smart grid experimental project [6].Learns in the itu, in 2020 China will be built in high power grid with north China, east China, China as the center, northeast, northwest 750 kv uhv power grid as the sending, connecting each big coal base, large hydropower bases, big base for nuclear power, renewable energy base, the coordinated development of various grid strong smart grid.In north China, east China, China high voltage synchronous ZhuWangJia six "five longitudi nal and transverse" grid formation.The direction ofIn the green energy saving consciousness, driven by the smart grid to become the world's countries to develop a focus areas.The smart grid is the electric power network, is a self-healing, let consum ers to actively participate in, can recover from attacks and natural disasters in time, to accommodate all power generation and energy storage, can accept the new product, service and market, optimize asset utilization and operation efficiency, provide qua lity of power supply for digital economy.Smart grid based on integrated, high-speed bidirectional communication network foundation, aims to use advanced sensor and measuring technology, advanced equipment, technology and advanced control methods, and adv anced technology of decision support system, realize the power grid reliability, security, economic, efficient, environmental friendly, and the use of safe run efficiently.Its development is a gradual progressive evolution, is a radical change, is the product of the coordinated development of new and existing technologies, in ad dition to the network and smart meters also included the wider range.Grid construction in high voltage network backbone network frame, all levels of the coordinated development, informatization, automation, interaction into the characteristics of strong smart grid, improve network security, economy, adaptability and interactivity, strength is the foundation, intelligence is the key.meaningIts significance is embodied in the foll owing aspects:(1) has the strong ability of resources optimization allocation.After the completion of the smart grid in China, will implement the big water and electricity, coal, nuclear power, large-scale renewable energy across regions, long distance, large capacity, low loss, high efficiency, regional power exchange capacity improved significantly.(2) have a higher level of safe and stable operation.Grid stability and power supply reliability will be improved, the safety of the power grid close coord ination between all levels of line, have theability to against sudden events and serious fault, can effectively avoid the happening of a wide range of chain failure, improve power supply reliability, reduce the power loss.(3) to adapt and promote the dev elopment of clean energy.Grid will have wind turbines power prediction and dynamic modeling, low voltage across, and active reactive power control and regular units quickly adjust control mechanism, combined with the application of large capacity storage technology, the operation control of the clean energy interconnection capacity will significantly increased, and make clean energy the more economical, efficient and reliable way of energy supply.(4)implementing highly intelligent power grid scheduling.Co mpleted vertical integration, horizontal well versed in the smart grid scheduling technology support system, realize the grid online intelligent analysis, early warning and decision-making, and all kinds of new transmission technology and equipment of effi cient control and lean control of ac/dc hybrid power grid.(5)can satisfy the demands of electric cars and other new type electric power user services.Would be a perfect electric vehicle charging and discharging supporting infrastructure network, can meet the needs of the development of the electric car industry, to meet the needs of users, realize high interaction of electric vehicles and power grid.(6) realize high utilization and whole grid assets life cycle management.Can realize electric grid system of the whole life cycle management plan.Through smart grid scheduling and demand side management, power grid assets utilization hours, power grid assets efficiency improvedsignificantly.(7) to realize power convenient interaction between the user and the grid.Will form a smart electricity interactive platform, improving the demand side management, to provide users with high-quality electric power service.At the same time, the comprehensive utilization of the grid can be distributed power supply, intelli gent watt-hour meter, time-sharing electricity price policy and the electric vehicle charging and discharging mechanism, effectively balance electric load, reduce the peak valley load difference, reduce the power grid and power construction costs.(8)grid management informatization and the lean.Covering power grid will each link of communication network system, realize the power grid operation maintenance integrated regulation, data management, information grid spatial information services, and production and scheduling application integration, and other functions, to realize all-sided management informatization and the lean.(9) grid infrastructure of value-added service potential into full play.In power at the same time, the national strategy of "triple play" of services, to provide users with community advertising, network television, voice and other integrated services, such as water supply, heating, gas industry informatization, interactive platform support, expand the range of value-added services and improve the grid infrastructure and capacity, vigorously promote the development of smart city.(10)Gridto promote the rapid development of related industries.Electric power industry belongsto the capital-intensive and technology-intensive industry, has the characteristics of huge investment, long industrial chain.Construction of smart grid, which is beneficial to promote equipment manufacturing information and communication industry technology upgrade, for our country to occupy the high ground to lay the foundation in the field of electric power equipment manufacturing.Important significanceLife is convenientThe construction of strong smart grid, will promote the development of intelligent community, smart city, improve people's quality of life.(1) to make life more convenient.Home intelligent power system can not onlyrealize the real-time control of intelligent home appliances such as air conditioning, water heater and remote control;And can provide telecommunication network, Internet, radio and television network access services;Through intelligent watt-hour meter will also be able to achieve au tomatic meter reading and automatic transfer fee, and other functions.(2) to make life more low carbon.Smart grid can access to the small family unit such as wind power and photovoltaic roof, pushing forward the large-scale application of electric cars, so as to raise the proportion of clean energy consumption, reduce the pollution of the city.(3) to make life more economical.The smart grid can promote power user role transformation, both electricity and sell electricity twofold properties;To build a family for the user electricity integrated services platform, to help users choose the way of electricity, save energy, reduce the energy expense.Produce benefitThe development of a strong smart grid, the grid function gradually extended to promote the optim al allocation of energy resources, guarantee the safe and stable operation of power system, providing multiple open power service, promote the development of strategic emerging industries, and many other aspects.As China's important energy delivery and configuration platform, strong and smart grid from the investment construction to the operation of production process will be for the national economic development, energy production and use, environmental protection bring great benefits.(1)in power system.Can save system effective capacity;Reducing the system total power generation fuel cost;Improving the efficiency of grid equipment, reduce construction investment;Ascension grid transmission efficiency, reduce the line loss.(2)in terms of power customers.Can realize the bidirectional interaction, to provide convenient services;Improving terminal energy efficiency, save power consumption;To improve power supply reliability, and improve power quality.(3) in the aspect of energy saving and environment.Can improve the efficiency of energy utilization, energy conservation and emissions reduction benefit.To promote clean energy development, realize the alternative reductionbenefits;Promote the overall utilization of land resources, saving land usage.(4) other aspects.Can promote the economic development, jobs;To ensure the safety of energy supply;Coal for power transmission and improve the efficiency of energy conversion, reducing the transportation pressure.Propulsion system(1) can effectively improve t he security of power system and power supply e of strong smart grid "self-healing" function, can accurately and quickly isolate the fault components, and in the case of less manual intervention make the system quickly returned to normal, so as to improve the security and reliability of power supply system.(2) the power grid to realize the sustainable development.Strong smart grid technology innovation can promote the power grid construction, implementation technology, equipment, operation an d management of all aspects of ascension, to adapt to the electric power market demand, promote the scientific and sustainable development of power grid.(3) reduce the effective ing the power load characteristics in different regions of the ch aracteristics of big differences through the unification of the intelligent dispatching, the peakand peak shaving, such as networking benefit;At the same time through the time-sharing electricity price mechanism, and guide customers low power, reduce the peak load, so as to reduce the effective capacity.(4) to reduce the system power generation fuel costs.Construction of strong smart grid, which can meet the intensive development of coal base, optimization of power distribution in our country, thereby red ucing fuel transportation cost;At the same time, by reducing the peak valley load difference, can improve the efficiency of thermal power unit, reduce the coal consumption, reduce the cost.(5)improve the utilization efficiency of grid equipment.First of all, by improving the power load curve, reduce the peak valley is poor, improve the utilization efficiency of grid equipment;Second, by self diagnosis, extend the life of the grid infrastructure.(6) reduce the line loss.On the important basis of uhv transmission technology of strong smart grid, will greatly reduce the loss rate in the electric power transmission;Intelligent scheduling system, flexible transmission technology and real-time two-way interaction with customers, can optimize the tide distribut ion, reducing line loss;At the same time, the construction and application of distributed power supply, also reduce the network loss of power transmission over a long distance.Allocation of resourcesEnergy resources and energy demand in the reverse distribution in our country, more than 80% of the coal, water power and wind power resource distribution in the west, north, and more than 75% of the energy demand is concentrated in the eastern and central regions.Energy resources and energy demand unbalance d distribution of basic national conditions, demand of energy needs to be implemented nationwide resource optimizing configuration.The construction of strong smart grid, for optimal allocation of energy resources provides a good platform.Strong smart grid is completed, will form a strong structure and sending by the end of the power grid power grid, power capacity significantly strengthened, and the formation of the intensity, stiffness of uhv power transmission network, realize the big water and electricit y, coal, nuclear power, large-scale renewable energy across regions, long distance, large capacity, low loss, high efficiency transport capacity significantly increased power a wide range of energy resources optimization.Energy developmentThe development and utilization of clean energy such as wind power and solar energy to produce electricity is given priority to, in the form of the construction of strong smart grid can significantly improve the grid's ability to access, given and adjust clean energy, vigorously promote the development of clean energy.(1) smart grid, the application of advanced control technology and energy storage technology, perfect the grid-connected clean energy technology standards, improve the clean energy acceptance ability.Clean energy base, (2) the smart grid, rational planning of large-scale space truss structure and sending the power structure, application of uhv, flexible transmission technology, meet the requirements of the large-scale clean energy electricitytransmission.(3) the smart grid for large-scale intermittent clean energy to carry on the reasonable and economic operation, improve the operation performance of clean energy production.(4) intelligent with electric equipment, can achieve acceptance and coordinated cont rol of distributed energy, realize the friendly interaction with the user, the user to enjoy the advantages of new energy power.Energy conservation and emissions reductionStrong smart grid construction to promote energy conservation and emissions reduc tion,development of low carbon economy is of great significance: (1) to support large-scale clean energy unit net, accelerate the development of clean energy, promote our country the optimization of energy structure adjustment;(2) to guide users reasonable arrangement of electricity, reducing peak load, stable thermal power unit output, reduce power generation coal consumption;(3) promote ultra-high voltage, flexible transmission, promotion and application of advanced technology such as economic operation, reduce the transmission loss, improve power grid operation efficiency;(4) to realize the power grid to interact with users effectively, promote intelligent power technology, improve the efficiency of electricity;(5) to promote the electric car of large-scale application, promote the development of low-carbon economy, achieve emission reduction benefits.There are three milestones of the concept of smart grid development:The first is 2006, the United States "smart grid" put forward by the IBM solution.IBM smart grid is mainly to solve, improve reliability and safety of power grid from its release in China, the construction of the smart grid operations management innovation - the new train of thought on the development of China's power "the white paper can be seen that the scheme provides a larger framework, through to the electric power production, transmission, the optimization of all aspects of retail management, for the relevant enterprises to improve operation efficiency and reliability, reduce cost dep icts a blueprint.IBM is a marketing strategy.The second is the energy plan put forward by the Obama took office, in addition to the published plan, the United States will also focus on cost $120 billion a year circuit。

外文翻译中英文对照

外文翻译中英文对照

Strengths优势All these private sector banks hold strong position on CRM part, they have professional, dedicated and well-trained employees.所以这些私人银行在客户管理部分都持支持态度,他们拥有专业的、细致的、训练有素的员工。

Private sector banks offer a wide range of banking and financial products and financial services to corporate and retail customers through a variety of delivery channels such as ATMs, Internet-banking, mobile-banking, etc. 私有银行通过许多传递通道(如自动取款机、网上银行、手机银行等)提供大范围的银行和金融产品、金融服务进行合作并向客户零售。

The area could be Investment management banking, life and non-life insurance, venture capital and asset management, retail loans such as home loans, personal loans, educational loans, car loans, consumer durable loans, credit cards, etc. 涉及的领域包括投资管理银行、生命和非生命保险、风险投资与资产管理、零售贷款(如家庭贷款、个人贷款、教育贷款、汽车贷款、耐用消费品贷款、信用卡等)。

Private sector banks focus on customization of products that are designed to meet the specific needs of customers. 私人银行主要致力于为一些特殊需求的客户进行设计和产品定制。

毕业论文外文翻译格式【范本模板】

毕业论文外文翻译格式【范本模板】

因为学校对毕业论文中的外文翻译并无规定,为统一起见,特做以下要求:1、每篇字数为1500字左右,共两篇;2、每篇由两部分组成:译文+原文.3 附件中是一篇范本,具体字号、字体已标注。

外文翻译(包含原文)(宋体四号加粗)外文翻译一(宋体四号加粗)作者:(宋体小四号加粗)Kim Mee Hyun Director, Policy Research & Development Team,Korean Film Council(小四号)出处:(宋体小四号加粗)Korean Cinema from Origins to Renaissance(P358~P340) 韩国电影的发展及前景(标题:宋体四号加粗)1996~现在数量上的增长(正文:宋体小四)在过去的十年间,韩国电影经历了难以置信的增长。

上个世纪60年代,韩国电影迅速崛起,然而很快便陷入停滞状态,直到90年代以后,韩国电影又重新进入繁盛时期。

在这个时期,韩国电影在数量上并没有大幅的增长,但多部电影的观影人数达到了上千万人次。

1996年,韩国本土电影的市场占有量只有23.1%。

但是到了1998年,市场占有量增长到35。

8%,到2001年更是达到了50%。

虽然从1996年开始,韩国电影一直处在不断上升的过程中,但是直到1999年姜帝圭导演的《生死谍变》的成功才诞生了韩国电影的又一个高峰。

虽然《生死谍变》创造了韩国电影史上的最高电影票房纪录,但是1999年以后最高票房纪录几乎每年都会被刷新。

当人们都在津津乐道所谓的“韩国大片”时,2000年朴赞郁导演的《共同警备区JSA》和2001年郭暻泽导演的《朋友》均成功刷新了韩国电影最高票房纪录.2003年康佑硕导演的《实尾岛》和2004年姜帝圭导演的又一部力作《太极旗飘扬》开创了观影人数上千万人次的时代。

姜帝圭和康佑硕导演在韩国电影票房史上扮演了十分重要的角色。

从1993年的《特警冤家》到2003年的《实尾岛》,康佑硕导演了多部成功的电影。

外文翻译原文

外文翻译原文

DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-679X.2010.00367.xJournal of Accounting ResearchVol. 48 No. 2 May 2010Printed in U.S.A.Discussion ofChief Executive Officer EquityIncentives and AccountingIrregularitiesJOHN E. CORE∗1. IntroductionIn an interesting and important paper, Armstrong, Jagolinzer, and Lar-cker (AJL) re-examine the question of whether CEO equity incentives cause accounting irregularities. As the authors note, this question is already much studied in the literature with a variety of methods and samples. Broadly speaking, the prior literature hypothesizes that equity incentives cause man-agers to manipulate accounting information, and generally finds a positive relation or no relation between equity incentives and proxies for manipula-tion. AJL add to this literature a larger sample that includes smaller firms (a beginning sample of roughly 4,000 firms a year versus roughly 1,500 firmsa year used in ExecuComp). In addition, they introduce a novel method (propensity score matching) that is robust to misspecification of functional form (―overt bias‖) and that provides an assessment of correlated omitted variables bias (―hidden bias‖).In contrast to prior research that generally examines pre–Sarbanes-Oxley data (2001 and before), AJL’s sample runs from 2001 to 2005.∗ The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. This discussion has benefited from, andreflects the comments of, participants at the 2009 Journal of Accounting Research conference. I gratefully acknowledge helpful comments from Wayne Guay and Greg Miller, and the financial support of the Wharton School. Any errors are the sole responsibility of the author.273Copyright C, University of Chicago on behalf of the Accounting Research Center, 2010274J. E. COREUsing this later sample, AJL find no evidence of a positive relation between CEO equity incentives and their proxies for accounting irregular-ities. As proxies for accounting irregularities, they use restatements, share-holder lawsuits, and U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Account-ing and Auditing Enforcement Releases (AAERs). Using ―partial match‖logistic regressions similar to those used by some prior researchers, AJLfind no relation between incentives and accounting manipulation. Us-ing propensity score matching, the authors generally find no relation be-tween incentives and accounting manipulation, although there is some ev-idence of a negative relation between incentives and lawsuits. However,the negative relation with lawsuits does not appear to be robust to po-tential correlated omitted variables bias. The authors note that their re-sults are similar if they examine their later accounting irregularities us-ing the sample of ExecuComp firms generally used by prior research. Finally, the authors also show results using the earlier sample used by Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006]. In a ―partial match‖ conditional lo-gistic regression, AJL find a positive relation between incentives and fraud that is consistent with Johnson, Ryan, and Tian [2009] and in contrastto Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006]. However, in the better speci-fied, full-sample propensity-score model, AJL find no relation between in-centives and accounting manipulation, consistent with the full-sample lo-gistic regression in Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006]. In summary, the propensity score method shows no relation between incentives and ac-counting irregularities in the late sample, and no relation between incen-tives and accounting irregularities in the early sample. Overall, AJL’s result s suggest no relation between incentives and accounting irregularities. These results are important in that they add to a growing body of evidence that shows that, when empirical tests are correctly specified, there is no evidence of a relation between incentives and accounting irregularities.The remainder of this discussion is as follows. In section 2, I briefly out-line the hypotheses and method of the prior literature and those of AJL. In section 3, I discuss AJL’s results. Much of the discussion in the conference was on understanding propensity-score methods and whether and to what extent these methods should be used in accounting research, and I address these issues in section 4. In the final section, I conclude.2. Summary of Prior Literature—Hypotheses and Method2.1HYPOTHESESAs noted in AJL’s introduction, the basic hypothesis in prior literature is that equity incentives motivate executives to manipulate accounting infor-mation for personal gain. For this to be the case, executives need to believe that they can increase the stock price by manipulating earnings. In addi-tion, as discussed by participants and tested by, for example, Bergstresser and Philippon [2006] and Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006], if executives are rational when they manipulate earnings in an attempt toCHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER EQUITY INCENTIVES275 increase the value of their holdings, they will do so when they expect tobe able to benefit by selling equity. Thus, one expects vested options andstock holdings to predict rational manipulation; it would be irrational foran executive to manipulate if all his or her options and stock holdings were unvested.Participants noted that the underlying ―more equity is worse‖ story in this literature is similar to the story in an earlier and ongoing literature that―more equity is better‖ (e.g., Morck, Shleifer, and Vishny [1988]). In boththese literatures, how results are interpreted depend crucially on whetherequity incentives are assumed to be exogenous or endogenous (Demsetzand Lehn [1985]). Equity holdings in theory are chosen by boards to max-imize firm value and by managers to maximize private value, but for the―more equity is worse‖ and ―more equity is better‖ stories to go through,these choices need to have a substantial random (exogenous) component.The ―more equity is worse‖ story is causal if there is a substantial randomcomponent to the way that boards grant and require equity ownership, andif equity ownership has gotten to be too large on average. If boards do not understand equity compensation, but continue to grant it, it is conceivablethat equity incentives are random and too large.On the other hand, there are other explanations that involve maximiz-ing, nonrandom behavior. AJL give the example of risk-aversion: CEOs withlow risk aversion may hold more incentives and may be more likely to com-mit fraud. Another is monitoring difficulty. Firms with greater monitoringdifficulty may use more incentives, but their greater monitoring difficultyallows more accounting manipulation. Another possible link is CEO power.Suppose that powerful CEOs overpay themselves using equity, and have tohold this equity to camouflage their excess pay. Then if powerful CEOs aremore likely to commit fraud, there may appear to be a link between equityincentives and fraud.Whether there are perverse effects of equity incentives is a very important question. As discussed earlier and as demonstrated by Hribar and Nichols[2007], tests using equity incentives as an independent variable appear tobe readily confounded by endogeneity and correlated omitted variablesproblems.1 Thus, techniques that readily assess the sensitivity of results tocorrelated omitted variables seem not only worthwhile but also necessary.2.2METHODPrior work tests the hypothesis that incentives cause accounting irregu-larities using versions of the following regression model:Accounting Irregularity = β X + γ Equity Incentives + ε.(1) In this model, the ―treatment‖ or variable of interest is Equity Incentives, andthe dependent variable is some type of accounting irregularity or earnings1Note that endogeneity is fundamentally a correlated omitted variables problem. If onecould observe the part of an endogenous regressor that was correlated with the error term,one could include this omitted variable, and the regression would be correctly specified.276J. E. COREmanagement, and X are controls for determinants of Accounting Irregularity and/or Equity Incentives.As illustrated in AJL’s table 1, the prior literature uses a variety of prox-ies for incentives and accounting irregularities. Dependent variables exam-ined by the prior literature include: (1) AAERs (e.g., Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006]); (2) restatements (e.g., Burns and Kedia [2006]); and (3) accruals (e.g., Begstresser and Philippon [2006]). Perhaps reflecting the uncertainty discussed earlier about how to measure incentives to manage earnings, the prior literature has used a variety of proxies for equity incen-tives including: (1) total portfolio equity incentives (e.g., Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006]); (2) vested incentives (e.g., Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006] and Burns and Kedia [2006]); and (3) option compensa-tion as a percentage of total compensation (e.g., Burns and Kedia [2006]). In addition, studies differ as to whose incentives are measured: Most stud-ies use (1) CEO incentives, but some studies (e.g., Erickson, Hanlon, and Maydew [2006], Johnson, Ryan, and Tian [2009]) use (2) incentives for the top five executives.。

(完整版)外文翻译

(完整版)外文翻译

外文文献原稿和译文原稿logistics distribution center location factors:(1) the goods distribution and quantity. This is the distribution center and distribution of the object, such as goods source and the future of distribution, history and current and future forecast and development, etc. Distribution center should as far as possible and producer form in the area and distribution short optimization. The quantity of goods is along with the growth of the size distribution and constant growth. Goods higher growth rate, the more demand distribution center location is reasonable and reducing conveying process unnecessary waste.(2) transportation conditions. The location of logistics distribution center should be close to the transportation hub, and to form the logistics distribution center in the process of a proper nodes. In the conditional, distribution center should be as close to the railway station, port and highway.(3) land conditions. Logistics distribution center covers an area of land in increasingly expensive problem today is more and more important. Is the use of the existing land or land again? Land price? Whether to conform to the requirements of the plan for the government, and so on, in the construction distribution center have considered.(4) commodities flow. Enterprise production of consumer goods as the population shift and change, should according to enterprise's better distribution system positioning. Meanwhile, industrial products market will transfer change, in order to determine the raw materials and semi-finished products of commodities such as change of flow in the location of logistics distribution center should be considered when the flow of the specific conditions of the relevant goods.(5) other factors. Such as labor, transportation and service convenience degree, investment restrictions, etc.How to reduce logistics cost,enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center.At present,most of the research on logistics cost concentrates off theoretical analysis of direct factors of logistics cost, and solves the problem of over-high logistics Cost mainly by direct channel solution.This research stresses on the view of how to loeate distribution center, analyzes the influence of locating distribution center on logistics cost.and finds one kind of simple and easy location method by carrying on the location analysis of distribution center through computer modeling and the application of Exeel.So the location of agricultural product logistics distribution center can be achieved scientifically and reasonably, which will attain the goal of reducing logistics cost, and have a decision.making support function to the logisties facilities and planning of agricultural product.The agricultural product logistics distribution center deals with dozens and even hundreds of clients every day, and transactions are made in high-frequency. If the distribution center is far away from other distribution points,the moving and transporting of materials and the collecting of operational data is inconvenient and costly. costly.The modernization of agricultural product logistics s distribution center is a complex engineering system,not only involves logistics technology, information technology, but also logistics management ideas and its methods,in particular the specifying of strategic location and business model is essential for the constructing of distribution center. How to reduce logistics cost,enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center. The so—called logistics costs refers to the expenditure summation of manpower, material and financial resources in the moving process of the goods.such as loading and unloading,conveying,transport,storage,circulating,processing, information processing and other segments. In a word。

外文翻译及中文译文

外文翻译及中文译文

车床用于车外圆、端面和镗孔等加工的机床称作车床。

车削很少在其他种类的机床上进行,因为其他机床都不能像车床那样方便地进行车削加工。

由于车床除了用于车外圆还能用于镗孔、车端面、钻孔和铰孔,车床的多功能性可以使工件在一次定位安装中完成多种加工。

这就是在生产中普遍使用各种车床比其他种类的机床都要多的原因。

两千多年前就已经有了车床。

现代车床可以追溯到大约1797年,那时亨利•莫德斯利发明了一种具有把主轴和丝杆的车床。

这种车床可以控制工具的机械进给。

这位聪明的英国人还发明了一种把主轴和丝杆相连接的变速装置,这样就可以切削螺纹。

车床的主要部件:床身、主轴箱组件、尾架组件、拖板组、变速齿轮箱、丝杆和光杆。

床身是车床的基础件。

它通常是由经过充分正火或时效处理的灰铸铁或者球墨铸铁制成,它是一个坚固的刚性框架,所有其他主要部件都安装在床身上。

通常在球墨铸铁制成,它是一个坚固的刚性框架,所有其他主要部件都安装在床身上。

通常在床身上面有内外两组平行的导轨。

一些制造厂生产的四个导轨都采用倒“V”,而另一些制造厂则将倒“V”形导轨和平面导轨结合。

由于其他的部件要安装在导轨上并(或)在导轨上移动,导轨要经过精密加工,以保证其装配精度。

同样地,在操作中应该小心,以避免损伤导轨。

导轨上的任何误差,常常会使整个机床的精度遭到破坏。

大多数现代车床的导轨要进行表面淬火处理。

以减少磨损和擦伤,具有更大的耐磨性。

主轴箱安装在床身一端内导轨的固定位置上。

它提供动力。

使工件在各种速度下旋转。

它基本上由一个安装在精密轴承中的空心轴和一系列变速齿轮---类似于卡车变速箱所组成,通过变速齿轮,主轴可以在许多中转速的旋转。

大多数车床有8~18中转速,一般按等比级数排列。

在现代车床上只需扳动2~4个手柄,就能得到全部挡位的转速。

目前发展的趋势是通过电气的或机械的装置进行无级变速。

由于车床的精度在很大程度上取决于主轴,因此主轴的结构尺寸较大,通常安装在紧密配合的重型圆锤滚子轴承或球轴承中。

外文翻译原文

外文翻译原文

IntroductionLatvian legislation for forest protection belts Latvian legislation demands that forest protection belts are established around all cities and towns. The concept of protection belts originates from the Soviet Era and is maintained in Latvian legislation despite the radical changes to the political system after regaining indepen-dence in 1991. The legal background for the establish-ment of protection belts is as follows:•Law on Protection Belts (1997, 2002)•Forest Law (2000)•Law on Planning of Territorial Development (1998).Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga, LatviaJanis DonisLatvian State Forestry Research Institute ‘Silava’, Salaspils, LatviaAbstract: Latvian legislation demands that forest protection belts are established around all cities and towns. The main goal of a protection belt is to provide suitable opportuni-ties for recreation to urban dwellers and to minimise any negative impacts caused by urban areas on the surrounding environment. Legislation states the main principles to be adopted, which include the maximum area of protection belts, their integration in terri-torial development plans and restrictions placed on forest management activities. The largest part of the forest area around Riga is owned by the municipality of Riga, which, as a result, has two competing interests: to satisfy the recreational needs of the inhabitants of Riga, and to maximise the income from its property. In order to compile sufficient background information to solve this problem, the Board of Forests of Riga Municipality initiated the preparation of a proposal for the designation of a new protection belt.The proposal was based on the development and application of a theoretical framework developed during the 1980s. The analysis of the recreational value of the forest (5 class-es of attractiveness) was carried out based on categories of forest type, dominant tree species, dominant age, stand density, distance from urban areas and the presence of at-tractive objects. Information was derived from forest inventory databases, digital forest maps and topographic maps. Additional information was digitised and processed using ArcView GIS 3.2. Local foresters were asked about the recreation factors unique to differ-ent locations, such as the number of visitors and the main recreation activities. From a recreational point of view and taking into account legal restrictions and development plans for the Riga region, it was proposed to create three types of zones in the forest: a protection belt, visually sensitive areas and non-restricted areas.Key words:greenbelt forest, recreational value, GIS, zoningThe Law on Protection Belts states that protection belts around cities (with forests as part of a green zone)have to be established (a) to provide suitable conditions for recreation and the improvement of the health of urban dwellers, and (b) to minimise the negative im-pact of urban areas on the surrounding environment.Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003):031–0391618-8667/03/02/01-031 $ 15.00/0Address for correspondence:Latvian State Forestry Re-search Institute ‘Silava’, Rı¯gas iela 111, Salaspils, LV-2169,Latvia. E-mail: donis@silava.lv© Urban & Fischer Verlaghttp://www.urbanfischer.de/journals/ufugRegulation nr 263 (19.06.2001) on the ‘Methodology for the establishment of forest protection belts around towns’issued by the Cabinet of Ministers (CM) states: (a) The area of a protection belt depends on the numberof inhabitants in the town: towns with up to 10,000 inhabitants should have a maximum of 100 ha of protection belt, those with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants a maximum of 1,500 ha, and towns with more than 100,000 inhabitants a maxi-mum of 15,000 ha;(b) the borders of protection belts have to be able to beidentifiable on the ground, using features such as roads, ditches, power lines, and so forth;(c) protection belts have to be recorded in the territorialplans of regions adjacent to the town or city; and (d) establishment of protection belts has to be agreedupon by local municipalities.According to law, protection belts should be man-aged using adapted silvicultural measures. Clear-cut-ting, for example, is prohibited in a protection belt to mitigate any negative impacts of the city on the sur-rounding environment. The Forest Law of 2000 and subsequent regulations including the Regulation on Cutting of Trees, and the Regulation on Nature Conser-vation in Forestry define clear-cuts as felled areas larg-er than 0.1 ha where the basal area is reduced below a critical level in one year. These regulations also state the permitted intensity and periodicity of selective cut-ting (30–50%, at least 5 years between entries).The third element of the legal framework relevant for protection belts in Latvia is the Law on Planning of Territorial Development (1998). It defines:(a) Principles and responsibilities of the different or-ganisations involved;(b) the contents of territorial plans;(c) the procedures for public hearing; and(d) the procedures for the acceptance of plans.The law also states that protection belts around towns have to be designated in territorial plans. Thus, the legislation gives very detailed descriptions of the restrictions to maximum area, activities and guidelines for delineation and so forth, while there are no ‘rules’for the choice of what areas are to be included in pro-tection belts. It is up to territorial planners to propose what areas to include and for negotiation among mu-nicipalities to approve the selection.Protection belt for the city of RigaRiga and the Riga region are situated in the Coastal Lowland of Latvia within the Gulf of Riga. The main landform types are the Baltic Ice Lake plain, the Litto-rina Sea plain and the Limnoglacial plain and bog plain. The total area of the administrative area of the City of Riga covers 307.2 km2, and that of the Riga re-gion 3,059 km2. In 2000 the city of Riga had 815,000 inhabitants, while an additional 145,000 people resided in the greater Riga region. During the last decade the number of inhabitants in Riga decreased by 10.5%and in Riga region by 5.3%. In the mid-1990s the main types of industry in Riga were food processing, timber and wood processing, metal fabricating and engineer-ing, while in the region agriculture and forestry, wood processing, pharmaceuticals, and the power industry were the main activities. Due to reduced industrial ac-tivities today, the main sources of pollution in Riga re-gion are road transport and households.The greater part of the Riga region is covered by for-est, i.e. 1,642 km2or 53%. About 26% of the land is used for agriculture, 4% is covered by bogs, and 4% by water. The Riga region also has a coastal dune zone of some 30 km along the Gulf of Riga. The main tree species to be found in the Riga region are Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.),birch (Betula spp.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karsten) (see Table 1). In the administrative area of the city of Riga, 57 km2 or about 19% of the land area is forest. Scots pine is the domi-nant species, covering approx. 46.9 km2(i.e. 88% of the total forest area).According to the legislation described before, a pro-tection belt around Riga city, with a maximum size of 15,000 ha, could be designated. Moreover, any propos-al has to be agreed upon among 24 local municipalities. The Riga region is divided into 24 administrative units: 7 towns and 17 pagasts or ‘parishes’.Riga municipality currently owns more than 55,600 ha of forests. Most are situated in the vicinity of Riga. Four forest administrative districts lie completely with-in Riga region and close to Riga city (see Fig. 1). The total area of these districts is 44,158 ha out of which forest stands cover 36,064 ha (82%). Thus the Riga municipality forests of those 4 districts cover only 17% of the total forest area of the Region. The dominant tree species in the municipally owned forests are Scots32J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,LatviaUrban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Table 1.Tree species composition in the Riga region Dominant tree Area covered, ha Average age, years species––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Total Municipa-Total Municipa-lity*lity* Scots pine95,27627,3718581 Norway spruce20,8493,0175139Birch30,5585,1246056 Other10,438552––Total157,12136,0647369*Data only for the 4 forest districts of the Riga city munici-pality that are entirely situated within the Riga region.pine, birch and Norway spruce. These cover 76%, re-spectively 14% and 8% of the forest area. Other species cover less than 2% of the area.Until the re-establishment of Latvian independence almost all forestland was owned by the state but since then many areas have been returned to their former owners and are now privately owned. Current regula-tions state that until the designation of new boundaries for protection belts has been agreed upon, all forests of the previously existing and protected green zone have to remain protected whatever their functional role or ownership status. Consequently almost all forests of the Riga municipality located in the Riga region have management restrictions placed on them, and the same can be said for forests of other owners within the previ-ously existing green zone. Currently, therefore, on the one hand significant recreation opportunities for urban dwellers are provided, while on the other hand forest owners’rights to obtain income from timber harvest in the suburban areas continue to be restricted. Suburban municipalities also lose income because of reduced land taxes from land with management restrictions.The board of Forests of the Municipality of Riga there-fore initiated the preparation of a proposal to designate a new protection belt.Study to support protection belt designation The main objective of the study presented here has been to obtain background information in preparation for further discussions with local municipalities. Stud-ies in Latvia as well as elsewhere have revealed that recreational values of forests depend mainly on forest characteristics, location and level of pollution (Emsis et al. 1979; Emsis 1989; Holgen et al. 2000; Lindhagen & Hörnsten 2000; Rieps ˇas 1994; Su ¯na 1973, 1979). A very important aspect is the distance to the forest from places where people live (e.g. Rieps ˇas 1994). The abil-ity of a forest stand to purify the air by filtering or ab-sorbing dust, micro-organisms, and noxious gases de-pends on tree and shrub species composition, age, tree size and stand density (Emsis 1989). Stands purify the air most effectively at the time of maximum current an-nual volume increment, usually between 30 to 60 years of age in Latvian conditions, depending on species.Recreational value, on the other hand, increases with age (and tree size) and reaches its maximum consider-ably later. Taking into account the peculiarities of the dispersal of pollution as described by Laivin ‚s ˇ et al.(1993) and Za ¯lı¯tis (1993), selective cutting is prefer-able in the vicinity of a pollution source, especially ifJ.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia 33Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Fig. 1.Location ofthe Riga municipali-ty forests in the Riga region.the forest consists of a narrow strip between the pollu-tion source and housing. If the distance between a pol-lution source and housing exceeds several kilometres, a patch clear-cut system with stands of different ages is sufficient to provide a reduction in the negative impact of urban areas. Taking into account the fact that closer to residential areas it is more important to consider the visual qualities of the forest (e.g. Tyrväinen et al. 2003), this purification ability can generally be ignored when planning protection belts.MethodsThis study to support the designating of the Riga pro-tection belt used the following data sources for analysis (see Fig. 2): forest inventory databases, digital forest maps of the Riga municipal forests which are situated outside the administrative borders of the city (55,600 ha of which 44,158 ha located in the Riga region) (see Fig. 1), and corresponding topographic maps.The study and its developed proposal are based on an application of a theoretical approach developed during the 1980s by the Latvian State Forestry Research Insti-tute ‘Silava’(Emsis 1989) and the Lithuanian Forestry Research Institute (Riepsˇas 1994). According to the methodology developed by Emsis (1989), the first step in the process is to evaluate the recreational potential of the forest stands. This is carried out by analysing the following factors:• The tolerance of the forest ecosystem to different lev-els of anthropogenic (recreation) loading;• the status of forest ecosystems in terms of the damage or degradation as a result of recreational use;•the suitability of the landscape for non-utilitarian recreation (recreational value); and• the existing and potential levels of recreational loads.The second step involves evaluating the existing andexpected functional roles of the forest.The tolerance of the forest ecosystem to different levels of anthropogenic impact or loading is evaluated using a framework based on a combination of forest type, dominant tree species, dominant age group, soil type and relief, according to the stability of ecosystem. All stands are classified into one of five tolerance classes. The highest score is given to mature deciduous forests on mesotrophic and mesic soils on flat topogra-phy, while the lowest score is given to young pine stands on oligotrophic soils on steep slopes (forests on dunes).In this study ecosystem tolerance could not be evalu-ated, as it was primarily a desk using existing databas-es, and topographic relief maps were not available in digital form. The status of the forest ecosystem in rela-tion to damage or degradation was evaluated in terms of the degree of change in vegetation cover, under-growth, tree root exposure of the and level of littering, classified into three classes.Assessment of the recreational value of the forest stands was calculated using a formula developed by Riepsˇas (1994):Recreational value VR= (VS*kW*kS+VA)*kPWhere VSis stand suitability based on key internal at-tributes of the stand, such as species, age, stand densityand forest type. VSvalues range from 0 for young, high-density grey alder (Alnus incana L.) on wet peat soils, to 100 for average density mature pine stands ondry mineral soils. kwis a coefficient depending on the distance of the stand from watercourses, ranging from0.1 for stands further than 2 km from watercourses to1.0 for stands up to 500 m from watercourses. kSis a coefficient depending on the distance of the stand from urban areas, ranging from 0.1 for stands further than34J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,LatviaUrban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Fig. 2.Structure of data sources used in data ana-lysis.80 km from Riga to 1.0 for stands within 30 km ofRiga. VA is an additional value depending on the pres-ence of attractive features, for example, 25 for forest stands up to 500 m from settlements, including summer cottages, or for areas intensively used for recreation ac-cording to information of local foresters. kP is a coeffi-cient depending on the level of environmental pollu-tion. Its value is 0 if the actual pollution level exceeds limit values, 0.5 if the level of environment pollution is between 50% and 100% of limit values, and 1 if the level of actual pollution is less than 50% of the limit values. In this study a coefficient of 1.0 was used, be-cause SO2and O3concentrations measured by Rigabackground measuring stations did not exceed 50% of the limit values (Fammler et al. 2000).The division of stands into classes of stand suitabili-ty is based on studies of visitors’preferences. Coeffi-cients kw, ksand VAare based on visitors’spatial distri-bution and show the ratio of the number of visitors in different zones. The evaluation of existing and expect-ed recreational loads was carried out by local foresters. They marked existing and potential recreation places on forest maps, including:•Small areas or sites for activities such as swimming, barbecuing, and so forth.•Recreation territories, defined as areas of 20 ha or more where people stay longer periods for walking, jogging, skiing or other forms of both active and pas-sive recreation.•Traditionally popular places for the collection of berries and mushrooms.•Recreational routes, including routes from public transport stops to recreation sites or recreation terri-tories, and between recreation sites and territories. For each recreation site and recreation territory data on the main seasons of use, the periods of use (week-days, weekends), and the average number of people in ‘rush-hours’during good weather conditions was col-lected or estimated.Data processing was carried out using ArcView GIS3.2a, Visual Fox pro and Microsoft Excel. VS values foreach stand were calculated from information in the for-est database using Visual Fox pro. Information collect-ed at a later stage from local foresters was digitised using separate themes (layers) in ArcView GIS 3.2a. Buffer zones along watercourses and water bodies, as well as residential areas, recreation sites and territoriesand recreation routes were created to get kW ,kSand VAvalues for each stand. Then VR values were calculatedfor each stand.A selection of recreation sites and territories was vis-ited by members of the project team in order to evalu-ate the state of the ecosystem with respect to wear and tear arising from different levels of recreational use. An evaluation of the existing functional role of each forest stand was carried out using the existing categories offorest protection. The anticipated future functional role was evaluated by annalysing the recreational value of stands, known expectations in terms of territorial de-velopment, and existing legal restrictions in order to find a compromise between recreation possibilities and other services of the forest. Next, a first draft of the protection belt was drawn according to experts’judge-ment. This draft included forests with high recreational value adjacent to residential areas and summer cot-tages, and larger tracts intensively used for recreation with medium to high recreational value.ResultsAccording to the original forest classification 65% of the total forest land area was designated as a commer-cial greenbelt forest, for which the main management goals are timber production and environmental consid-erations. The remaining 35% were designated as pro-tected (see Table 2). With regards to protected areas in Latvia: the main management goals of nature parks are nature conservation and recreation, including some ed-ucation. The goal for nature reserves is nature conser-vation, while that of the protected greenbelt forests is recreation.While interviewing local foresters it was revealed that they find it difficult to evaluate dispersed recreation loads (for example collection of berries, mushrooms). The assessments of foresters varied greatly and were considered to be unreliable. It was therefore decided to map only the places important for recreation, but not to use the inaccurate estimates of visitor numbers.In Latvia, special investigations have to be carried out in order to develop management objectives and principles for protected forests as part of the preparation of management plans. Pilot studies and visits to some of the recreation areas have revealed that the evaluation of the state of the forest ecosystem is useful only when de-veloping the detailed management plan. Even then, this is only the case for places identified by local foresters as recreation sites or territories, because otherwise it is too time consuming to carry out fieldwork which provides little useful additional information.Calculated VSvalues show that on average the forests studied have a medium suitability value for recreation (average score 47) (see Table 2). There are considerable differences between districts, with aver-age value ranging from 32 points in Olaine to 66 points in the Garkalne district. This indicates that the average stands in the Garkalne district are more suitable for recreation than those in other districts. If other aspects are taken into account, such as distance from wherepeople live, and VRvalues are calculated it can be seenJ.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia35Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)that the districts are still ranked as follows: Garkalne,Jugla, Tireli and Olaine.Only 10% of the forest owned by Riga municipality within the Riga region were evaluated as having a high or very high recreational value. 12% had medium recreational value, while large areas used for the col-lection of berries and mushrooms were evaluated as having low or very low recreational value (60% of the total forest area) (see Table 3).More than 16% of the area is covered by bogs, for which according to the used methodology, recreational value was not evaluated at all. Some areas were recorded by the local foresters as important places for the collec-tion of berries. However, more valuable from a recre-ational point of view were those forests situated east and north-east of the city (Garkalne and Jugla districts),while the forests to the south (Olaine and Tireli districts)were found to have a lower recreational value (V R ).36J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,LatviaUrban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Table 2.Distribution of forest by forest categories according to the original functional role Forest districtDataFormer forest category Total–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Commercial Nature Nature Protected greenbelt forests parks reserves greenbelt forestsGarkalneArea, ha521.27,698.78,219.9Average of V S *61.966.566.2Average of V R **59.350.751.4JuglaArea, ha 8,376.74,098.812,475.4Average of V S 45.656.949.1Average of V R 22.034.025.7OlaineArea, ha 11,765.4707.512,473.0Average of V S 31.941.032.6Average of V R 8.527.410.0TireliArea, ha 8,689.5257.91,025.01,016.910,989.3Average of V S 40.666.710.059.342.3Average of V R 17.055.3 1.044.920.6TotalArea, ha 28,831.6779.11,025.013,522.044,157.6Average of V S 39.863.510.061.647.1Average of V R16.357.91.043.725.9* V S Suitability value – based on stand parameters (0–100 points).** V R Recreation value (0–125 points) based on stand parameters, distance to the residential areas, water and other attractive objects.Table 3.Distribution of forest areas by classes of attractiveness and by designated functional role Designated zoneDataClass of attractiveness Total –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––n.a.Very low Low Medium High Very high 0<2525,1–5051–7575–100100<Protection belt Area, ha76.7560.12,266.42,222.7850.5743.66719.9Average of V R *0.012.036.063.390.0125.053.4Visually sensitive Area, ha 447.64,150.54,157.7853.4847.1179.810636.1Average of V R 0.07.837.460.996.7125.028.5Non-restricted Area, ha 6,664.715,389.12,548.61,090.5874.8234.026801.7Average of V R 0.0 5.234.761.197.2125.015.8TotalArea, ha 7,189.020,099.88,972.74,166.52,572.31,157.344157.6Average of V R0.06.236.362.294.6125.025.9*V R Recreation value (0–125 points) based on stand parameters, distance to the residential areas, water and other attractive objects.Areas along main roads and railways are known to be visually sensitive, because of the large number of peo-ple who can see them during travel. The same is true for forest in the vicinity of small villages. Taking into ac-count the fact that legislation prohibits clear-cuts in pro-tection belts – which is not always necessary in order to maintain the visual quality of the landscape – it was proposed, as part of the zoning strategy, to create so called visually sensitive areas. In these areas the forest owner (Riga municipality) is recommended to use more detailed landscape-planning techniques and to pay more attention to visual aspects during management.As a result of the study, seen from a recreational point of view and taking into account legal restrictions and so forth, it has been proposed to create three zoning categories: (1) protection belts, (2) visually-sensitive areas, and (3) non-restricted areas (see Fig. 3). The protection belt should include:• Forest with high recreational value adjacent to residen-tial areas and summer cottages, to form a 200–500 m wide belt.• Larger tracts of forestland intensively used for recre-ation.The zone of visually-sensitive areas should include:• Forests within the administrative borders of Riga mu-nicipality and in the vicinity of villages (up to 200–500 m distance).• Forests along roads of national and regional impor-tance, railways, watercourses and streams as a protec-tion belt of 100–300 m wide.• Places used for mushroom and berry collection in the original restricted protection belt.• Places that could become important for recreation in the near future.J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia 37Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Table 4.Proposed distribution of forest categories in designated zones (in hectares)Designated zoneFormer forest category Grand Total––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Commercial Nature Nature Protected greenbelt forests parks reserves greenbelt forests Protection belt355.2779.15,585.76,719.9Visually sensitive areas 3,503.97,132.110,636.1Non-restricted areas 24,972.51,025.0*804.226,801.7Total 28,831.6779.11,025.013,522.044,157.6*Forests within nature reserves are not intended for recreation; their primary management goal is nature conservation.Fig. 3.Proposal for zon-ing of the Riga municipalforests in Riga region.The remaining areas should consequently be classi-fied as non-restricted areas.A revision of the first draft plan was made taking into account the known prospective development plans of Riga and Riga region. As a result, for forests owned by Riga municipality and located in Riga region the pro-posal is to include 6,720 ha in the protection belt (see Table 3). Moreover, it has been suggested to designate 10,636 ha as visually-sensitive areas, but to omit the re-maining 26,802 ha from zoning, as these do not need special management from a recreation point of view. Average recreational values of stands in this area range from 53 (medium), through 28 (low) to 15 points (very low) respectively.As a result, the major part of the forest remains in the same functional category as in the original allocation (see Table 4). As was mentioned above, the classifica-tion described here is only based on recreational as-pects, thus forests in nature reserves are misleadingly shown as non-restricted forests. Only 5,586 ha out of the 13,500 thousand ha of the originally protected greenbelt forests are proposed to be included in the protection belt, while 355 ha of the previous commer-cial greenbelt forests are proposed to be placed under stronger protection.DiscussionForests owned by Riga municipality within the Riga re-gion are divided over 13 rural municipalities. Accord-ing to legislation, revised draft proposals for zoning Riga city forests have to be accepted by Riga munici-pality, while the final decision is up to Riga and the sur-rounding municipalities. The study presented here has provided a tentative estimate of the recreational value and suitability of the forests for recreation and can be used as a starting point for political discussions. At the very beginning the intention was to divide the forests in two categories: the protection belt and the remainder of the forest. During the study it was concluded, however, that a third category would be needed, that of visually sensitive areas. Within this category more attention would have to be paid to the amenity of the landscape, but there would be no need to drastically restrict com-mercial forest management. As nature parks are also designated for recreation, it has been proposed to in-clude all forests of nature parks in the protection belt. It has to be noted that all the forests within the adminis-trative borders of cities, and as such not included in this study, are designated as protected. As a consequence, the forest area available for recreation to the inhabi-tants of Riga would increase to 12,500 ha.Unlike many other European cities, where timber ex-traction is of small importance (Konijnendijk 1999),Riga municipal forests have a considerable economic role. It is estimated that the allowable annual cut in suburban forests amounts to 169,800 m3or 81% of the annual increment (Dubrovskis et al. 2002). It should be kept in mind that income from logging is used for for-est regeneration and tending, forest fire protection and maintenance of recreation facilities.The objective of this study was not to evaluate the precision of the method nor possible errors occurring when applying it. This study revealed, however, the in-completeness of the methodology used. Bogs, which are very sensitive to recreation loads, are ascribed quite a high level of attractiveness from a recreation point of view (for the collection of wild berries), but according to the methodology they are not evaluated at all. All watercourses were assumed to be attractive sites, while the preliminary evaluation of recreation loads showed this not to be true. The use of watercourses is very vari-able and obviously depends on water quality and vege-tation structure of the edges or banks. Another aspect which was not taken into account was that amenity of a forest is not simply the sum of the amenity values of forest stands (Pukkala et al. 1995).It seems that the evaluation based on dominant species is appropriate for screening areas, but for more detailed management plans, species mixture, the number of forest layers, and principles of landscape architecture also have to be taken into account (Bell 1999; Bell & Nikodemus 2000). Various studies have shown that people prefer uneven-aged forests (e.g. Melluma et al. 1982) and uneven-aged stands (e.g. Riepsˇas 1994). The impacts of the screening effect show that there are, even in the visually-sensitive and commercial zones, considerable areas with high and very high recreational value. This is mainly because delineation of zonal boundaries is carried out using easily distinguishable natural lines, and often it is not worth including single stands of high recreational value in the protection belt if, as a consequence, re-strictions on management would be placed over whole compartments of 50 ha.For the preparation of specific management guide-lines detailed field inventories have to be carried out. This has not been done in this study, where more re-liance was placed on the experience of local foresters and existing databases. Detailed economical calcula-tions have yet to be carried out in order to evaluate the direct and indirect value of the forest. These will also assist in obtaining more background information to be used as part of a holistic approach and for development of a decision support system to resolve contradictions between different interest groups.After acceptance of the draft plan by the municipali-ty of Riga, the process of negotiation between Riga and its surrounding municipalities is currently ongoing.38J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)。

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有机碳和从一系列实验室合成的生物炭和生物炭与土壤混合物的养分释放Atanu Mukherjee , Andrew R. ZimmermanDepartment of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, 241 Williamson Hall, P.O. Box 112120, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA摘要生物炭作为土壤改良剂,会增加土壤的吸收能力和生产能力,但其对溶解有机碳(DOC),氮(N),磷(P)的循环和亏损的影响还不是很清楚。

在这里,纯净土壤与土壤混合物被做成批量处理加入各种新鲜的和熟化的生物炭进行提取和淋洗检验其营养释放。

在生物炭的连续批量提取中,累计亏损大约分别为总C,N 和P初始量的0.1-2 ,0.5-8 和0.5-100%。

在较低温度和草制成生物炭却有更大的释放。

氨通常是渗滤液中的最丰富的氮素形态,但是硝酸盐同样在生物炭中也很丰富。

而有机氮和磷的损失分别占总N和P的高达61%和93%。

释放的有机碳,氮和磷的量是与生物炭挥发物含量和酸性官能团密度呈现正相关的。

然而,通过含有矿物质的P样品显示,通过Mehlich-1提取的磷的释放是与灰分含量有更加密切相关的。

一系列的土壤和生物炭的混合物显示,土壤吸收生物炭的营养还是生物炭吸收土壤的营养是取决于生物炭和土壤类型的。

这项研究表明,生物炭包含有不同释放速率的养分形态,生物炭的释放速率是受土壤肥力和作物类型和时间的影响的。

1、引言生物炭是在有限的生物质或没有氧气(裂解)的条件下通过热处理得到的碳产物。

生物炭最近由于其潜力而获得关注,作为土壤改良剂使用时,会改良退化土壤的肥力和通过植物去储存大气中的碳。

最近有很多工作研究生物炭的化学特性和作用于植物与微生物的生长。

但是这些伴随生物炭改变的影响的主要机制和对环境可能造成的后果,例如有机污染物或养分释放,目前还不清楚。

生物炭对土壤生态系统的积极影响包括对植物和微生物,已经提出了无论是直接从内部生物炭本身的营养物质或间接地从它的从膨润土吸附和保留营养成分的能力。

然而,养分流失可能会有负面的环境的后果,如引起地面或地下水域的水体富营养化。

最近的研究表明生物炭的养分含量范围广泛并且同时受物质类型和燃烧条件控制。

但是,更多有关植物和微生物生长,是其生物利用的营养物质含量。

最近研究发现,桉树木生物炭中钙的15-20%,磷的10-60%和大约2%的氮是可以用蒸馏水浸出的,量的变化是同时受炭化温度和一部分植物样本的影响的。

当加入到土壤中,生物炭所提供的植物可利用的养分也将随灼烧和土壤类型而变化,速效养分随着生物炭的修改而增大和减少也可以被观察到。

例如,相对于对照土壤无生物炭,一个诺福克群岛壤质土的柱渗滤液经加入在700℃温度下制成的山核桃壳生物炭后含有较大量的钾,钠,但少于P(约35%)的Ca,Mn和Zn。

因此,生物炭被假设为去交换表面吸附单价阳离子的的多价阳离子。

另外一个柱浸试验是经过70天,利用竹炭在600℃下添加到各种砂质粉土的土壤,显示NH4中的N累计损失15%。

用家禽垃圾和花园垃圾产生的生物炭在550℃下没有土壤也表明NO 3,NH 4和P浸出在减少,但是这些浸出由于水表面的张力和水的粘着力无法保持水的20孔隙体积(816MM)的增加。

与此相反,从绿色废料如鸡粪中提取的生物炭可以大大提高萃取(即浸出)在处理土壤中的营养水平。

美国中西部的一个0.4-0.7孔隙体积的0.001摩尔氯化钙每周浸出一次持续500天的关于农业土壤的一个45周的土柱淋溶研究显示,当用20g每千克的生物炭修订时,全N和全P的浸出略有增加。

但是,相对于没有生物炭的控制,当粪便也被加入时,N和P的沥滤分别降低11%和69%。

土中氮同化数量也显示与热解时间段有很大差异,磷随Ph的变化而释放也有着很大的差异。

生物炭最终是会通过提供营养物质使植物收益还是会通过螯合作用抑制植物的生长仍然是一个悬而未决的问题。

一些加入生物炭而使植物生长受抑制的实验已经把原因归结为可利用铵的不足。

一些用在400到800°C之间提取的生物炭渣的土柱实验表明,较高的温度下的蔗渣生物炭可以吸附大量的NO3,从而可能导致土壤中速效养分的流失和植物的氮缺失。

然而,N主要存在于植物吸收前被硝化(NO3-)最终被氨化(NH4 +)的土壤中有机综合体中。

一直没先例的研究同时比较这些不同形式的吸附。

一些生物炭的物理性质,如高的表面积,孔隙率和离子交换能力,也可能与其吸收,也可能是缓慢释放OM或营养素的能力有联系。

但是通过对从几乎没有到70cmol每千克的测定阳离子交换容量得出,后者被发现更低的温度。

大量的阴离子交换容量(AEC)只有被认定为熟化的生物炭。

因此,新鲜的生物炭应该是只保留NH4+,并释放任何可交换的NO3- 和PO43- 。

营养物质可能会丢失或保留在他们的有机形式的程度我们是知之甚少的。

最近的一项研究发现新鲜草的生物炭会浸出大量的DOC,但也有很大程度是由它的表面形态,生物物种和炭化温度影响的有机复合物质吸附在它上面。

实地通过对哥伦比亚大草原和英格兰东北部的土壤渗滤液的实验表明,生物炭对土壤的修正可以大大提高DOC的浓度。

生物炭中铵和有机氮吸附或释放被发现至少部分是可以生物利用的。

但是,没有研究是关于探究DOC, N and P的释放形态,或者研究生物炭保留或者研究随生物炭种类和时间推移的一个范围。

显然,更好地理解生物炭的营养保留或释放性是必须的,因为最佳的生物炭是可以被应用到任何特定的土壤类型的,既可以最大限度地提高土壤生产力并还可以减少对环境的有害影响。

如果当这样一个系统被制定,额外的需要是可以通过C损失淋溶预测的,因此C螯合可能被分配到那些实现生物炭另外的系统。

在这里,无论使用多种类型的生物炭和土壤/生物炭的混合物进行了批次萃取,柱浸出实验。

本研究的具体目的是:1)从一系列包括那些新鲜的和熟化的生物炭类型评估DOC,N,P的,淋失/保留变化,2)探索生物碳与C,N,P和土壤渗滤液之间的相互作用,3)通过生物炭和生物炭/土壤混合物检查其中氮和磷的失去/获得形式4)利用养分流失模式预测较长期的养分流失率。

2、材料与方法2.1、材料生物炭是通过葛根栎(柞桂冠),火炬松(火炬松)和瓜地马拉草(伽马草)250℃时在开放的烘箱中燃烧3小时,然后在400和650℃时不断通入99%的纯气态氮气热解(以下简称奥克-250,草650,等)。

更多的关于生物炭的制备及特性和分析方法的详情在别处被提出,但都归纳于补充表S1中。

用在这些实验中的生物炭只有粗(0.25-2毫米)大小的部分,才用筛子分离然后简单的用蒸馏水冲洗两次除去灰分备用。

此外,每种类型的生物炭通过放置在容器中熟化,用细网过筛上面和下面的,以使它都被空气和沉淀风化,而不是发生被阳光风化。

从2009年12月1日至2010年9月28日在盖恩斯维尔,佛罗里达州老化过程中的九个月期间有109厘米的降雨,几乎等于这个位置每年平均降雨量123厘米。

除了一夸脱的沙子控制,两种土壤被用做这些实验:从盖恩斯维尔,佛罗里达(BY)附近的森林采集的佛罗里达细沙新成土和从碧玉与乔治亚州(GA)附近收集的老成粘壤土。

这两种土壤样品收集0-10厘米深的视野并在空气中干燥并过筛(B2毫米)以除去根和植被。

沙,BY和GA土壤的孔隙率分别为30.6%,35.8%和50.2%。

进一步土壤详情于表S1和S2中补充提供。

2.2、批量提取实验初步实验表明生物炭中营养物质的浸出不是有时间限制的现象,而使随着萃取剂的体积变化的(即一个平衡,而不是一个动力学上的从动现象)。

然而,我们发现,均衡在早期提取后仅仅几个小时就达成,但是在后面的提取需要几天后达成。

由于本研究的目的是估计生物炭在自然环境中可能会释放的营养素的最大量,我们进行了生物炭样品在水中的连续批量提取,每次移除和更换上清液并允许足够的时间来达到平衡。

约0.5g的各个生物炭样品加入40毫升的蒸馏去离子(DI)水然后加入到50ml塑料离心管中,水平放置的机械平台上摇床(150转)在黑暗中摇匀。

在第1,2,4,10和20天的时候,管称重并离心(4500转)然后上清液通过吸管小心取出。

剩余的样品称重来确定夹带液的量然后下一轮批次提取之前加入40毫升去离子水。

因为我们希望模拟养分在自然条件下释放,因此Ph不是保持恒定不变的。

然而,连续的水渗沥液的pH值并没有因为任何特定的生物炭型而显著改变。

取出后,上层清液过滤(40滤纸),并保存在冰箱中可以用于不超过1周的化学分析。

浸出的各成分的量的计算为溶液体积和它的浓度的乘积(假设密度1克每厘米)。

只有比较少的量是在浸出一开始就出来的(该产品夹带量和浓度,这是之前在上清液中的)。

为了进行比较,生物炭还使用标准Mehlich-1(M1)解决方案进行超过24小时的提取。

2.3、柱浸试验柱浸试验,在纯净的聚乙烯醇管(30.5厘米长×7.5厘米直径的)中进行,是一个细网聚丙烯筛子和一个底部配有可以插入能控制滤液收集的橡胶阀然后连接到管中组成的。

这些柱是500g土被提取为出5g的生物炭制成的。

这代表了另外的生物炭中的碳相当于约20%的原生土壤中的有机碳和15厘米高度的土柱。

实验的对照是由500g的生物炭用石英砂燃烧(450℃,3小时),然后清洗干净从中提取的5g的生物炭匀浆或者500克没有生物炭的土。

蒸馏水是轻轻地用一个小喷水系统加入,以均匀分散在整个土壤表面上。

在每个管开始的时候,土柱被填充水到达其上面的顶部和表面都饱和,然后立即排出。

实现砂,BY和GA土壤的田间持水率的水平分别保持在10%,35%和44%。

此后,每一列每天用100ml 的DI水溶出的砂,BY和GA土柱分别占土壤总孔隙体积的0.45,0.65,0.56。

在3-4天试验期中共有1-1.4升的水加入到该土柱中。

渗滤液在实验进行的两周之内进行冷藏。

2.4、分析方法元素碳和氮是用一个卡尔埃尔巴碳氢氮硫分析仪分析。

所有的批量提取和柱浸样本都用1MHCl酸化至pH 2-3然后鼓泡2分钟,使用无碳气以除去无机C后用总有机碳分析仪(日本岛津TOC-5000A)进行DOC的分析。

凯氏氮(TKN:有机N +NH4+-N),NH4+-N和NO 3的- N的测定是分别采用EPA方法351.2,350.1和353.2连续自动流分析仪进行分析的。

总P和无机P的测定是分别采用EPA方法200.7和365.1分光光度计仙乐斯CCD电感耦合等离子体光谱仪进行分析的。

所有的氮和磷的分析是在佛罗里达州大学析研究实验室进行的。

利用这些数据,有机氮被计算为TKN减NH4+-N,而有机磷计算为总P减无机P。

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