Research Methods
Research_Methods_in_Economics
2002.9
Dr. J. Huang
Lingnan (University) College Sun Yat-sen University
Choosing a Topic
若未定题，尝试以下方法：
文献综述
Data Analysis and Issue development
经济学应分为两部分，一部分是规范研 究，即应该是什么。另一部分是实证研 究，即是什么。
– 理论分析(Theoretical/Normative analysis) – 实证分析(Positive analysis / Empirical study) 简单统计分析(Numerical/statistical analysis) 计量模型分析(Econometric analysis) 案例分析(Case study)
何 帆：《如何发表经济学论文》
典型的学术论文结构
论文写作的基本要求
– 结构合理 逻辑联系特别重要 大小标题、分段合适有助于层次区分 – 观点明确 – 表述流畅 – 格式正确、完整 注意使用注释、参考文献
论文写作
一篇论文所代表的研究只能起到承前启后的作用， 除了自己独立创新的那一部分内容外，在论文中不 必也不可能对涉及到的相关问题逐个详细论述，这 时给出有关的参考文献，以说明结论、观点、数据 的来源。读者如想深入了解这个问题就可查阅文 献，这样一来，文献就成了自己论文的补充和完善。 参考文献的选择是严肃的事，它关系到论文的可信 度和作者的声誉，论文的作者对所开列的主要文献 均应认真阅读过，并向读者保证论文中某处引用的 参考文献的确与该处的内容有关，文献发表的刊物、 年代、卷号、标题、页码同样应核实无误。
选择哪些研究方法英语作文
选择哪些研究方法英语作文Title: Selection of Research Methods。
Research methods play a crucial role in the scientific inquiry process, providing a framework for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data to address research questions effectively. In this essay, we will explore various research methods commonly utilized in academic and scientific endeavors.1. Experimental Research: Experimental research involves manipulating variables to observe the effects on other variables under controlled conditions. This method allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships and test hypotheses rigorously. Experimental designs include pre-test/post-test control group design, factorial design, and randomized controlled trials (RCTs). However, experimental research may face challenges in terms of feasibility, ethical considerations, andgeneralizability of findings.2. Survey Research: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires, interviews, or online forms. This method is useful for gathering information about attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and characteristics of a population. Surveys can be conducted through various modes, such as face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, mail surveys, or online surveys. Researchers must ensure the validity andreliability of survey instruments and consider factors like sampling methods, survey design, and response bias.3. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research aims to explore and understand phenomena in-depth by examining subjective experiences, meanings, and perspectives. Common qualitative methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, and content analysis. Qualitative research is valuable for generating rich, context-specific data, uncovering complex social processes, and exploring diverse viewpoints. Researchers must pay attention to issues of reflexivity, researcher bias, and the trustworthiness of qualitative findings.4. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to test hypotheses and identify patterns or relationships. This method employs statistical techniques to analyze large datasets and draw conclusions about the population from which the sample is drawn. Quantitative research designs include descriptive, correlational, and experimental studies. Researchers need to ensure the reliability and validity of measurements, choose appropriate statistical methods, and address potential confounding variables.5. Mixed Methods Research: Mixed methods research combines qualitative and quantitative approaches within a single study to provide a comprehensive understanding of research problems. This method allows researchers to triangulate findings, complementing the strengths of each approach and addressing their limitations. Mixed methods designs can be sequential (qualitative followed by quantitative or vice versa) or concurrent (both qualitative and quantitative data collected simultaneously). Researchers must carefully integrate qualitative andquantitative components, maintain methodological rigor, and consider practical constraints.6. Action Research: Action research involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners to address real-world problems, improve practices, and bring about positive change in organizational or community settings. This method emphasizes participatory anditerative processes, where stakeholders actively engage in problem identification, intervention design, data collection, and reflection. Action research promotes empowerment, learning, and sustainable solutions but may face challenges related to power dynamics, researcher neutrality, and time constraints.7. Case Study Research: Case study research involvesin-depth exploration of a single case or a small number of cases to gain insights into specific phenomena, contexts,or processes. This method utilizes multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, to construct detailed and holistic descriptions. Casestudies are particularly useful for examining rare orunique events, illustrating theoretical concepts, and generating hypotheses for further investigation. Researchers should consider issues of generalizability, validity, and ethical implications when conducting case study research.In conclusion, researchers must carefully consider the nature of their research questions, the characteristics of their study population, and the practical constraints they face when selecting appropriate research methods. By employing a variety of methods and integrating different approaches, researchers can enhance the validity, reliability, and relevance of their findings, contributing to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.。
研究问题选择research-method知识讲解
A good research topic
• good access to existing literature or information or data
• responds to some interesting debates or ideas
• achievable in the time available • within your capabilities, interests and
• research questions more suitable for resources of post-graduate students
• both require rigorous analysis to succeed
Research question tips
• read around the subject • become familiar with some of the literature • identify ideas/debates in the field chosen • think about what the answers might be like • be realistic about what can be proved or not
news • too broad a topic • too many lines of enquiry
The research question
• defined as the line of investigation you want to make for the subject/topic chosen
probability • is capable of being repeated with comparable
research_methods
Attending the computer lab sessions is voluntary and for those who feel they need a hands-on introduction to some of the software mentioned in the lectures. Contact and Office hours: Email: DafingerA@ceu.hu Office hours: Wednesday 1-3pm Zrinyi 14, room 511 The course also maintains a website where you can drop and download papers, ask or answer questions, and find occasional announcements Suggested further Readings Bernard RH. 1994. Research Methods In Anthropology. Qualitative And Quantitative Approaches. Ellen RF. 1984. Ethnographic Research : A Guide to General Conduct. London ; Orlando: Academic Press. Moore GT, Golledge RG. 1976. Environmental knowing : Theories, Research, and Methods. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. Peletz MG. 1995. Kinship Studies in Late Twentieth-Century Anthropology.Annual Review of Anthropology 24:343-72 Pelto PJ, Pelto GH. 1978. Anthropological Research : The Structure of Inquiry. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. Ellen RF. 1984. Ethnographic Research : A Guide to General Conduct. London ; Orlando: Academic Press Kent S. 1984. Analyzing Activity Areas. Albuquerque Moore GT, Golledge RG. 1976. Environmental knowing : Theories, Research, and Methods. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross Peletz MG. 1995. Kinship Studies in Late Twentieth-Century Anthropology.Annual Review of Anthropology 24:343-72 Pelto PJ, Pelto GH. 1978. Anthropological Research : The Structure of Inquiry. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. Bicker A, Sillitoe P, Pottier J, Bicker A. 2004. Investigating Local Knowledge. Jackson A, Commonwealth AoSAot, Jackson A. 1987. Anthropology at Home. Jacoby J, Kibbee J. 2007. Cultural Anthropology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources Second Edition: Libraries Unlimited.
Social Research Methods 科研基本方法
1-2 The Rationale of Research
• 1-2b Deduction and induction
– Deductive: top-down reasoning that works from the more general to the more specific
Theory Hypothesis Observation Confirmation
• Repeated measures: two or more waves of measurement over time. • Time series: many waves of measurement over time.
1-1 The Language of Research
• 1-1d Variables
1-1 The Language of Research
• 1-1c Time in research
– Cross-sectional: a study that takes place at a single point in time. – Longitudinal: a study that takes place over time.
1-2 The Rationale of Research
• 1-2a Structure of research
– Components of a study
• Research problem: general problem. • Research question: the central issue being addressed in the study, which is typically phrased in the language of theory.
研究方法合集
研究方法合集Research methods are crucial in the academic world as they providea systematic way of gathering information, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. The choice of research method can greatly impact the validity and reliability of the findings. From quantitative to qualitative research methods, each approach has its own strengths and limitations. Researchers must carefully consider which method is most suitable for their study, based on the research questions and objectives.研究方法在学术领域中至关重要，因为它们提供了一种系统化的方法来收集信息、分析数据和得出结论。
研究方法的选择可以极大地影响研究结果的有效性和可靠性。
从数量研究到质性研究方法，每种方法都有其优点和局限性。
研究者必须仔细考虑哪种方法最适合他们的研究，基于研究问题和目标。
Quantitative research methods are characterized by their focus on numerical data and statistical analysis. These methods are commonly used in fields such as psychology, sociology, and economics, where data can be easily quantified and measured. Quantitative research allows for the testing of hypotheses and the generalization offindings to a larger population. However, it may lack depth and context, as it often overlooks the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals.数量研究方法以其对数字数据和统计分析的关注而闻名。
nucleic acids research methods
nucleic acids research methods摘要：一、引言二、核酸研究方法的发展历程1.核酸的发现2.核酸结构的解析3.核酸技术的创新与应用三、核酸研究的常用方法1.核酸提取与纯化2.核酸扩增与检测3.核酸测序与分析四、核酸研究方法在生物学领域的应用1.基因克隆与表达2.基因突变与功能研究3.基因组学研究五、核酸研究方法在医学领域的应用1.遗传病的诊断与治疗2.疫苗设计与研发3.肿瘤基因组学与个体化治疗六、核酸研究方法的未来发展趋势与挑战1.高通量测序技术的发展2.基因编辑技术的应用与伦理问题3.跨学科研究与创新正文：一、引言核酸是生物体内携带遗传信息的分子，对生命体系的构建与功能调控起着至关重要的作用。
随着科学技术的进步，核酸研究方法不断发展，为生物学和医学领域带来了许多重大突破。
本文将对核酸研究方法的发展历程、常用技术以及在生物学和医学领域的应用进行综述，并展望未来的发展趋势与挑战。
二、核酸研究方法的发展历程1.核酸的发现核酸的发现可以追溯到19 世纪末，德国生物学家艾布瑞契·科塞尔通过研究细胞核中的物质，推测出存在一种名为“核酸”的生物大分子。
随后，科学家们通过实验手段证实了核酸的存在，并开始研究其结构和功能。
2.核酸结构的解析20 世纪50 年代，科学家们陆续解析出DNA 和RNA 的结构，为核酸研究奠定了基础。
詹姆斯·沃森和弗兰西斯·克里克提出了DNA 双螺旋结构模型，揭示了遗传信息传递的分子机制。
3.核酸技术的创新与应用从20 世纪70 年代开始，分子生物学技术迅速发展，包括DNA 重组技术、聚合酶链反应（PCR）等，这些技术为核酸研究提供了强大的工具，推动了生物学和医学领域的快速发展。
三、核酸研究的常用方法1.核酸提取与纯化核酸提取与纯化是进行核酸分析的基础步骤，主要方法包括酚/氯仿法、硅胶法、磁珠法等。
2.核酸扩增与检测核酸扩增技术是实现核酸检测和定量的重要手段，如PCR 技术、实时荧光定量PCR（qPCR）、等温扩增技术等。
传统研究方法
传统研究方法Traditional research methods have long been the cornerstone of academic inquiry in various fields. These methods involve following a systematic approach to gathering data, analyzing information, and drawing conclusions. However, there are limitations to these traditional research methods that have become increasingly apparent in the digital age.传统研究方法长期以来一直是各个领域学术探究的基石。
这些方法包括遵循系统化方法收集数据、分析信息和得出结论。
然而，在数字时代，这些传统研究方法存在一些限制，这些限制已经越来越明显。
One of the primary limitations of traditional research methods is their reliance on manual data collection and analysis. This can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, often leading to delays in research progress. In contrast, digital research methods offer automation and efficiency, enabling researchers to process large volumes of data quickly and accurately.传统研究方法的一个主要局限性是它们依赖手动数据收集和分析。
研究计划中的研究方法
研究计划中的研究方法Research methods are an essential aspect of any research plan. 研究方法是任何研究计划中必不可少的一部分。
They determine how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. 它们决定了数据将如何被收集、分析和解释。
Choosing the right research methods is crucial to ensure the validity and reliability of the research findings. 选择正确的研究方法对于确保研究结果的有效性和可靠性至关重要。
There are various research methods available, each with its own strengths and limitations. 有各种不同的研究方法可供选择，每种方法都有其优点和局限性。
One commonly used research method is the experimental method. 一个常用的研究方法是实验方法。
This involves conducting controlled experiments to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships. 这涉及进行受控实验以测试假设并建立因果关系。
Experimental methods allow for high levels of control and the ability to establish causation, but they may not always be feasible or ethical. 实验方法允许高度控制和建立因果关系的能力，但它们可能并非总是可行或道德的。
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
“CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION”
The experimental method
The experimental method: A scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and –effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables.(实验法是通 过系统地操纵自变量，控制无关变量以考察因 变量变化的研究方法。任何一项实验都是为了 验证某种假设的真伪并按程序进行的，实验结 果是可以重复验证的）。
Research methods in psychology
Research method in psychology
• • • • • • • • Archival research （档案研究） 档案研究） Case study （个案研究） 个案研究） Survey (调查法） 调查法） 调查法 Psychological test （心理测验） 心理测验） Naturalistic observation （自然观察法） 自然观察法） Laboratory observation （实验室观察法） 实验室观察法） Correlation （相关法） 相关法） Experiment （实验法） 实验法）
Case study
• Case study: a An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people.(通过访谈、问卷和心理 测试对人、家庭、团体等单个 社会单位的详细记实）。 • Advantages: gather in-depth information about an individual or a small group. • Disadvantages: costly , time consuming, inaccurate retrospective information.
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Two kinds of multiple regressions
Orthogonal (IVs are unrelated to each other) Non-orthogonal (IVs are related to each other)
Orthogonal Regression
Assessing quality of prediction
Scatter diagram to display relationship
Bivariate frequency distribution Cartesian Coordinates
Correlations
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Cross-product:
Introduction to Inferential Statistics
Estimate values for whole population
State null hypothesis and research hypothesis Decide at which level of significance (α) to reject the null hypothesis (how likely is it that thy chance)
Standard deviation and empirical rule
+/- 1 SD = 68%
Standard scores (z-scores and T-scores)
Mean = 0; SD = 1; Z = (X – MX) / s
Linear Statistical Models
Research Methods I
Review
Why Statistics – Scientific Method
‘A systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation guided by theory
State problem Hypothesis Test relationships empirically Draw conclusions
Compare two sample means Samples are independent of each other
Two sample t-test for dependent samples
Compare two sample means Samples are paired / dependent
Prediction of X plus prediction of T ry.x2 + rY.T2 = RY.XT2
Like in linear regressions
SStotal = SSregression + SSresidual
Score Model
Ŷ = a + bX + cT
Ŷ = My + b(X – Mx) + c(T – MT) + (Y – Ŷ)
Linear Regressions
A perfect line: y = a + bx Least Squares Method
Residuals: ei = Y – Ŷ (reveal large errors) Σei2 = (Yi – Ŷi)2 should be as small as possible ayx = MY – byxMx - the y-intercept for this method byx = Σ (Xi – Mx) ( Yi – My) / Σ (Xi – Mx)2 A plot of the residuals will not have random scatter around zero if there is no homoscedasticity Residual analysis can show outliers and other problems
Correlation Coefficient
Divide covariance by SDX x SDy
Correlation and Causation (causal, spurious,
reciprocal)
Correlation and z-scores (r = Σ ZX x ZY / N)
Rule of the buldge
Analyze residuals
Coefficient of Determination – R2 (proportion of
variance of one variable explained by variance of the other).
Linear Regressions
Evaluate Quality of Prediction – Score Model
Multiple Regressions
Predict score of dependent variable from two or more independent variables
Regression plane Y = a + bX + cT
Evaluate Quality of Prediction – Relationship between Y and Ŷ
Calculate Ŷ for each X of the sample Calculate the correlation between Y and Ŷ
rŶY = SCPŶY / √SSŶ x SSY
Mean, Median, Mode
Skewness
Median smaller than mean – right skewed Median larger than mean – left skewed
Measures of Dispersion
How far are individuals away from the mean? (Homogeneous versus heterogeneous samples) Range
Interquartile range (middle 50%)
Variance
S2 = Σ (X – Mx) / N
Standard Deviation
Square root of variance, same unit of measurement, greater variability = larger standard deviation
(X – MX) x (Y – MY) Negative cross-product – negative correlation Sum of cross-product (magnitude depends on N)
Covariance:
Divide sum of cross-product by N
Levels of Measurement
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Categorical vs. Continuous
Nominal vs. interval and ratio Ordinal is qualitative but can be used as continuous (Likert scale)
Describe difference between individuals in sample. Frequency distributions (simple and grouped) Graphical Displays
Histogram, Stem and Leaf
Measures of Central Tendency
Validity of Measure
Content (face, sampling-content), criterion, construct
Reliability of Measure
Test-retest, inter-rater, internal-consistency
Descriptive Statistics
Partitioning the Y scores (sum of squares)
Calculate F for the correlation between Y and Ŷ SStotal = SSregression + SSresidual rXY2 = SSregression / SStotal – proportion of total variance that can be accounted for by the independent variable F = MSregression / MSresidual MSregression = SSregression / dfregression
Regression vs. Correlation
Regression – prediction, independent and dependent variable, y = a + bx Correlation – no dependent variable, Pearson correlation coefficient, for non-experimental designs
Less than 5% chance (p < .05) Less than 1% chance (p < .01)
Type I and type II error
T-tests
One sample t-test
When population variance is not known