ChapterEightSemantics---WordMeani
英语语义学Semantics
英语语义学SemanticsSemanticsSemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Semantics = Theory of MeaningIts goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.History of Semantics1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 – Its English version came out.1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三⾓Concept（meaning）refers tosymbolizesSymbol Thing（word）（referent）stands forThe Referential Theory 指称论Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression. Concept VS. Referent (Thing)A referent may exist in the physical world.The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.Sense 语义Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.It’s abstract and de-contextualized.Sense RelationsSense relations between wordsWords are in different sense relations with each other.There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:1) synonymy 同义2) antonymy 反义3) hyponymy 上下义4) polysemy ⼀词多义5) homonymy 同⾳同形异义1. SynonymyIt is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.2. AntonymyIt is the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymy (relational opposites)Gradable antonymy 分级反义词good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThe members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.Not good≠badHot ---warm---cool---coldComplementary antonymy 互补反义词alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对⽴反义词)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.ExerciseClassify the following pairs of antonyms:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymymarried-single male-female hot-coldgive-take big-small awake-asleepnorth-south logical-illogical win-losebuy-sell doctor-patient above-below3. Hyponymy上下义关系It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word. HyponymyMusical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba tromboneFish---snapper salmon bass sole troutSalmon---chinook spring coho king sockey4. PolysemyA word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.Wood:family treea geographical area with many trees5. HomonymyWhen two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.3 types of homonyms:perfect homonyms(同⾳同形异义词)homographs（同形异义词）homophones (同⾳异义词).Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.bank (银⾏、河岸)bear (容忍、⽣（孩⼦）)sound (声⾳、完美的)HomographsHomographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning."bow" /b??/ -----"⼸―"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"HomophonesHomophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.tail / taleto / two / toopair / pearsee / seaI / eye piece / peace。
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
写作 Chapter Eight
Section 1 Familiarizing yourself with the real task
Familiarizing yourself with the real task • In academia, academic writing covers a variety of writings devoted to some specific topics or disciplines of studies with well-grounded propositions and the author’s originality in pursuing new discoveries or generating new knowledge or achieving intellectual revelation through critical approaches by abiding certain commonly recognized rules or formats. Gene rally speaking, academic writing may include such writings as research papers, theses, and dissertatiod and context of your research problem. 2. Problem definition and approach. 3. Theoretical background. 4. Procedure. 5. Materials and support. 6. Project task breakdown and schedule. Prepare a task breakdown and schedule of your work.
词义的转移 semantic shifts of word meaning
• 用事物工具名称或者原料来代替事物或使用工具 的人 • an iron 熨斗 字面意义：铁 • a copper 一枚铜币 字面意义：铜 • first violin 第一小提琴手 字面意义：第一小提琴 • 用容器的名称来替代所盛的东西： • He ate another bowl. • He carried away a bag.
• I 'm reading Lu Xun. • He is listening to Beethoven. • He is booked out for the whole season.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Hale Waihona Puke 人体的器官的名称可被用来指其功能： a good eye for distance have a sharp eye to have a keen ear to have an ear for to turn a deaf ear ti to develop a good nose for to have a loose tongue to have a bitter tongue a silver tongue to be off one's head to be weak in the head to have a cool head to have a good head for to have a head like a sieve
一 隐喻 Metaphor
• the teeth of the comb 梳齿 • blood bank 血库 • 由于两个事物的特征上所存在的某一类似 之处，而用指一个事物的词来指另一个事 物，这种词义的演变方式叫做隐喻。 • "Likeness" "association"
Unit_8-semantic_transfer
4. Euphemism（委婉语）:
4.1. Definition:
Euphemism is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation. In short, a euphemism is a false word substituted for the true word in order to soften the shock of reality. It is also important cause of semantic changes.
2.2.4 use the place name to refer to the product produced there
I could do with a cup of canary. Canary is a place where this kind of grape wine is produce. 2.2.5 use prominent features to refer to the person concerned
Metaphor （隐喻）
Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. A metaphor , like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.
新编简明英语语言学教程讲义(6)Chapter_5_Semantics
Chapter 5 SemanticsSemantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.Some views concerning the study of meaningNaming theory (Plato)The conceptualist viewContextualism (Bloomfield)BehaviorismNaming theory (Plato)Words are names or labels for things.Limitations:1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…The conceptualist viewThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Ogden and Richards: semantic triangleOgden and Richards: semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the s peaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________RLexical meaningSense and reference areν both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherentν meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what aνlinguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Note:Linguistic forms having the same sense may haveν different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star, rising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.Major sense relationsSynonymyνAntonymyνPolysemyνHomonymyνHyponymyνSynonymySynonymy refersνto the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;…Synonymy3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,…4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…AntonymyGradableν antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …Complementaryν antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …Relational opposites----exhibits theνreversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …Gradable antonymsGradable antonyms ----there are oftenν intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …Complementary antonymsComplementary antonyms ----theν denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …PolysemyPolysemy----the same one word mayνhave more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:A piece ofν furnitureAll the people seated at a tableνThe food that is put on a tableA thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.……HomonymyHomonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …Note:A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word (the etymology of the word); while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence. HyponymyHyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.HyponymySuperordinate: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …Superordinate: furnitureHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y(2) X is inconsistent with Y(3) X entails Y(4) X presupposes Y(5) X is a contradiction(6) X is semantically anomalousX is synonymous with YX: He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never got married all his life.X: The boy killed the cat.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.X is inconsistent with YX: He is single.Y: He has a wife.X: This is my first visit to Beijing.Y: I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.X entails YX: John married a blond heiress.Y: John married a blond.X: Marry has been to Beijing.Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y. If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes YX: His bike needs repairing.Y: He has a bike.Paul has given up smoking.Paul once smoked.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.X is semantically anomalous*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisComponential analysisComponential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Predication analysis1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exact ly the same.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning,e.g.*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.Predication analysisPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Predication analysisAccording to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,…Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …No-place predication: It is hot.Predication analysisTom smokes. TOM (SMOKE)The tree grows well. TREE (GROW)The kids like apples. KIDS (LIKE) APPLEI sent him a letter. I (SEND) HIM LETTER。
语言学第五章Semantics
Chapter Five SemanticsTeaching Focus▪1. What is semantics?▪2. Meanings of “meaning”▪3. Sense and reference▪4. Sense relations▪5. Componential analysis --- a way to analyze lexical meaning▪6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning1. What is semantics?▪Semantics is the study of meaning in language.▪Or specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.✦Different focus of the study in semantics:▪Logical semantics/philosophical semantics: Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or …propositions‟) within a single language.▪Linguistic semantics: The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. Meanings of “Meaning”▪The word “meaning” has different meanings.▪It has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.✦The naming theory: Plato & Aristotle✦Words are just names or labels for things.✦Can you show the limitations of this theory?▪The semantic triangle: C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923) → The Meaning of Meaning.▪There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. ▪thought/reference (concept)symbolizes refers tosymbol/form referent(word, phrase) stands for(object)▪Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:✦Conceptual meaning✦Connotative meaning✦Social meaning✦Affective meaning associative meaning✦Reflected and meaning✦Collocative meaning✦Thematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaning▪It makes the central part of meaning.✦Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.✦Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaning▪The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.✦A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features. ▪Involving the …real world‟ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.✦Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.▪Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.(3) Social meaning▪What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.✦Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.✦Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.✦Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.✦Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.✦Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.✦Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.▪domicile: very formal, official steed: poetic▪residence: formal horse: general▪abode: poetic nag: slang▪home: general gee-gee: baby language (4) Affective meaning▪Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.✦You‟re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!✦I‟m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. or✦Will you belt up.(5) Reflected meaning▪Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.✦When you hear …click the mouse twice‟, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.▪Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaning▪The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.✦pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.✦handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaning▪What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.✦Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.✦The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.✦They stopped at the end of the corridor.✦At the end of the corridor, they stopped.3. Sense and reference▪Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.✦Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.✦Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.▪Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.✦Grammatical words like but, if ,and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things.▪Therefore it is suggested that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4. Sense relations▪Synonymygradable▪Antonymy complementaryconverse▪Hyponymy▪Polysemy4.1 Synonymy▪Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.▪Complete synonyms are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:▪i. Dialectal synonyms --- used in different regional dialects✦British English American English✦autumn fall✦lift elevator✦flat apartment✦tube underground▪ii. Stylistic synonyms --- differing in style✦kid, child, offspring✦kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease▪iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning✦collaborator, accomplice▪iv. Collocational synonyms✦accuse, charge▪v. Semantically different synonyms✦surprise, amaze, astound4.2 Antonymy▪The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.▪There are three types of antonyms.▪i. Gradable: Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very; Can have comparative forms; Can be asked with how.✦good, bad✦young, old✦hot, cold▪ii. Complementary: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.✦alive, dead✦male, female✦present, absent▪iii. Converse or relational: exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the pair; one presupposes the other.✦husband, wife✦buy, sell✦before, after4.3 Hyponymy▪Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. It is a kind of inclusiveness.▪Superordinate: the more general word▪Hyponyms: the more specific words▪Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate✦flower, rose, lily✦animal, cat, dog✦furniture, bed, desk4.4 Polysemy▪Polysemy refers to the sense relation that the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word.✦table: a piece of furniture; orderly arrangement of facts, figures5. Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaning▪Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.▪The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.▪HUMAN✦man (ADULT, MALE)✦woman (ADULT, FEMALE)✦boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)✦girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)▪father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)✦x is a parent of y, and x is male.▪take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))✦x causes x to have y.▪give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))✦x causes x not to have y.▪Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning▪The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.▪Predication analysis: proposed by the British linguist G. Leech▪The basic unit in this method is called prediction. It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.▪A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.✦An argument is logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.✦A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.▪Tom smokes.▪Tom is smoking.▪Tom has been smoking. TOM (SMOKE)▪Does Tom smoking?▪Tom does not smoke. argument predicate▪Kids like apples. → KID, APPLE (LIKE)▪It is hot. → (BE HOT)Assignments▪How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?▪north/south vacant/occupied▪literate/illiterate above/below▪doctor/patient wide/narrow▪poor/rich father/daughter▪honest/dishonest normal/abnormalExercises▪I. Multiple choice.▪1. The naming theory seems applicable to ___ only.▪A. verbs B. adjectives C. adverbs D. nouns▪2. Hyponyms of the superordinate “flower” do not include “___”.▪A. wardrobe B. tulip C. lily D. rose▪3. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ___ meaning.▪A. phoneme B. word C. phrase D. sentence▪II. Make judgments (true or false)▪1. In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word “symbol” refers to the object in the world of experience.▪2. When the same one word has more than one meaning we call it a polysemic word. ▪3. Complete synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English.。
5 语义1
view: philosophical, pragmatic, logical,
sociological, psychological, linguistic etc.
Semantics: The study of communication
of meaning in language. Simply ,It is „the study of meaning‟.
综合句 矛盾句
MEANING
WORD
thing
1. The Reference Theory, the Referential Theory, Referentialism, the Denotational Theory指称论 Definition: the meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denoted, or stands for). Meaning is reference, since there exists direct correspondence between linguistic forms and the world which they stand for. Lyons (1995:40)
Chapter 5 Semantics (1)
Bloomfield: The statement of meanings is therefore the weak point in languagestudy, and will remain so until human knowledge advances very far beyond its present state.(1933) 人们将语义学称为灰姑娘（Cinderella）久
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Chapter Eight Semantics --- Word Meaning and Sentence Meaning0. Introduction0.1 Definition: Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning: the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.0.2 Sub-branches:i. Lexical semantics: Lexical semantics deals with word meaning.ii. Sentence semantics: Sentence semantics deals with sentence meaning.ii. Two types of meaning:In general, we may say that a linguistic form has two types of meaning: denotation（外延意义）and connotation（内涵意义）.A. The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person, object, abstract notion, event, or state which the word or sentence denotes.B. The connotation of a linguistic form has to do with its overtones of meaning, that is, what the linguistic form suggests. Such overtones may be good or bad, and thus we can speak of a positive connotation褒义内涵and a negative connotation 贬义内涵.b. Some words do not have negative connotations when they are used generally. Nevertheless, in some contexts, they may take on additional meaning.Examples: "boy", "thirteen"c. The connotation of a word is language-specific. For example, an English word and a Chinese equivalent may have the same denotative meaning but different connotations.Examples: "propaganda", "imperialism"2. Lexical semantics词汇语义学Introduction: Lexical semantics is concerned with word meaning. There are two influential theories to describe the meaning of a word: Componential Analysis成分分析and Semantic field语义场.2.1 Componential Analysis2.1.0 What is Componential Analysis?Following the theory of Componential Analysis, we define the meaning of a word as a set of semantic components or semantic features with the values: plus (+) or minus (-).2.1.1 General and specific semantic featuresA. Some semantic components are general, which can occur in a large number of different words, such as "human" and "male".B. Some semantic features are specific because they can only appear in a few words, such as "horseness" and "cowness".2.1.2 Redundant semantic featuresSome features need not be specifically mentioned because they are predictable. Such features are called redundant features.For example,A word that is [+human] is [+animate]. (包容性)A word that is [+animal] is [-human]. (否定性)A word that is [+male] is [-female]. (否定性) 斜体为redundant features。
2.1.3 Semantic class语义系统2.2 Semantic field2.2.0 What is a semantic field?1) Basic assumption:The basic assumption underlying the theory of semantic field is that words do not exist in isolation; rather, they form different semantic fields.2) Definition:Words that belong to the same semantic class are in the same semantic field.For example,3) Definition of meaning by the theory of semantic field:According to the theory of semantic field, the meaning of a word is decided by its relationships with other words in the same semantic field.2.2.1 Sense relationships1) Hyponymy（上下义关系）A. ExamplesB. Definition:The relationship between the term on the higher level and the terms on one level below is said to be hyponymy. In simple words, hyponymy is a kind of relationship between general terms and specific terms (between higher terms and lower terms, between superordinates and subordinates / hyponyms).C. Description of hyponymy:If the meaning of B is included in the meaning of A, then A and B show a hyponymic relation and B can be described as "a kind of" A. In other words, themeaning of a specific term is included in the meaning of its general term and the specific term is an illustration of the general term.For example, blue and colorF. There is variability across languages as to the exact nature of particular hyponymic relationships.For example, dentist and 牙医，beer and 啤酒Chapter Eight Semantics --- Word Meaning and Sentence MeaningⅡ3) Synonymy （同义关系）A. Definition:In English, there are quite a few words that sound different but have the same or nearly the same meaning. They are called synonyms. The relationship between synonyms is called synonymy.B. Why are perfect synonyms very rare? There are three reasons.a. Some synonyms have the same denotative meaning but show differences in connotative meaning. For example, "famous" and "notorious" are synonymous since both of them mean "well-known", that is, they have the same denotative meaning. But "famous" shows positive attitude while "notorious" shows negative attitude. The former has appreciative value while the latter has pejorative value.b. As far as the denotative meaning is concerned, words which appear to be synonyms at first glance are used to refer to slightly different sets of concepts or occur in different situations of use. For example, the nouns salary and wage are synonyms because both refer to the money given for work. Actually, they are used in different situations. Salary usually pertains to money received by white-collar workers or by executives in managerial positions or by professionals. It is paid monthly. By contrast, wage is the amount of money that is regularly paid to someone or to a group of people for a particular type of work, especially manual or unskilled work.c. Some words are the same in meaning but have different collocations. For example, both "accuse" and "charge" mean "bring a charge against sb". But "accuse" is followed by "of" while "charge" is followed by "with".True synonymy is rare. However, the notion of synonym is useful because it helps describe similarity between the meanings of different terms in the lexicon.4) Antonymy（反义关系）A. Definition:When a pair of words are opposite in meaning, they are antonyms. The relation between them is called antonymy.B. Attention:The basic features of an antonymous pair are the same except one semantic feature.C. Three types of antonyms② A complementary pair does not have comparative and superlative forms. Complementary pairs are thus also called nongradable antonyms非等级性反义词.②Different from complementary pairs, gradable pairs of antonyms have comparative and superlative forms.In a gradable pair, the negative of one word is not synonymous with the other. For example, not hot ≠ cold.③In gradable pairs of antonyms, very often one is marked and the other unmarked. The unmarked member is more neutral than the marked one and is thus used in questions of degree.For example: old / young big / small long / short2.3 Lexical ambiguity词汇歧义2.3.0 Introduction:Two types of semantic ambiguity: structural ambiguity and lexical ambiguityA. The semantic ambiguity which is caused by ambiguous structures is structural ambiguity. In this case, the same sentence may have two or more interpretations depending on the hierarchical arrangement of its constituents.B. The semantic ambiguity which is caused by ambiguous words is called lexical ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity is created either by polysemy or homonymy.2.3.1 Polysemy 一词多义A word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.For example: He is very hard. The word "hard" may mean "hard-working" or "hard to deal with". More examples: Let's look at the table. This is a crane.2.3.2 Homonymy（同音同形异义词）When two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.There are three types of homonyms: perfect homonyms, homographs（同形异义词），and homophones (同音异义词).Perfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning. For example, bank (银行、河岸), bear (容忍、生（孩子）)，sound (声音、完美的)Homographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning. For example, "bow" /b u/ means "弓", but "bow" /bau/ means "鞠躬".Homophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning. For example, tail / tale, to / two / too, pair / pear, see / sea, I / eye, piece / peace, …3. Sentence semantics句子语义学Definition: Sentence semantics deals with the meaning of a sentence.Three areas: The following sections will firsti. discuss what should be taken into consideration when we decide the meaning of a sentence;ii. secondly, describe various semantic roles of a word or a phrase in a sentence;iii. thirdly, explain how sentence semantics accounts for semantic anomaly.3.1 What is essential for determining sentence meaning?1) What is the meaning of a word? The meaning of a word is defined as a set of semantic features or a set of sense relations with other words.2) How can we reach the meaning of a sentence?Four aspects:①the meaning of individual words: When we interpret the meaning of a sentence, we must rely on the meaning of individual words that make up a sentence. But is it enough for us to add up the meanings of individual words of a sentence so as to reach the meaning of the sentence? Obviously not. For example, The boy hit the ball. The ball hit the boy.②the word order / linear order: It is clear that the above two sentences contain exactly the same words but they convey quite different meanings. In this case, the difference in meaning is due to the word order, namely, the linear order or words.③the hierarchical order: In addition to the essential function of a linear order of words in determining the meaning of a sentence, the hierarchical order is also important. For example, She gave a bike to her brother in Shanghai.Chapter Eight Semantics --- Word Meaning and Sentence MeaningⅢ3.2 Semantic roles语义功能1) Agent（施事者、施动者）：The agent is the doer of an action.例句：4) Instrument（工具格）：举例：The man was hit with a piece of iron bar.This key can open the door to the garden.5) Cause（动因格）：举例：The man was hit by a piece of iron bar.The wind destroyed some houses.8) Locative（方位格）：A locative indicates the location of an action or state. 举例：Heilongjiang is cold in winter.John planted the garden with flowers.The flowers give a pleasant look to the garden .John is working in the garden .9) Temporal（时间格）：A temporal is the time at which the action or state occurs. 举例Tomorrow is my birthday.It is my birthday tomorrow.The summer of 1990 was exceptionally hot.It was exceptionally hot in the summer of 1990.3.3 Grammatical functions and semantic roles3.4 Semantic anomaly词义反常Exercises1. Write down the underlined part and after it write whether you think it is, in its context, used to show the speaker's approval (a positive connotation) or disapproval (a negative connotation) of neither (neutral).(a) He was a stubborn animal.(b) He was a spirited animal.KEY:(a) stubborn (disapproval-negative connotation)(b) spirited (approval positive connotation)(l) He was a bastard.KEY: (l) bastard (disapproval-negative connotation)3. Each of the following lists of terms form a semantic field. Identify a general term for each semantic field (it man be a word in the list).(a) affable, sociable, well-mannered, amiable, warm, cordialKEY: friendly(b) acquire, get, receive, obtain, gain, buy, steal(c) whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, talk, mutter(d) road, way, street, freeway, avenue, thoroughfare, motorway, turnpikeKEY:(b) get (c) talk (d) road(e) stink, aroma, perfume, fragrance, scent(f) acquaintance, pal, chum, mate, buddy(g) quarrel, row, dispute, feud(h) dwell, reside, stay, lodge, board, inhabit, liveKEY: (e) smell (f) friend (g) quarrel (h) live4. Identify the word that does not belong to the same semantic field as the others in the list:(a) misleading, deceitful, disappointed, deceptive, delusive(b) mixture, blend, combination, association, composite, compound(c) occasional, infrequent, rare, scatter, never, sporadic, uncommonKEY:(a) disappointed (b) association (c) never5. The following pairs of words show various kinds of sense relationships. Indicate whether the relationship between a pair of words is hyponymy, part/whole,synonymy, antonymy, or homonymy. In the case of antonymy, indicate further whether the pair is complementary, gradable or converse.(a) building/house (b) male/female (c) buy/sellKEY: (a) hyponymy (b) antonymy/complementary (c) antonymy/converse6. Provide two interpretations for each of the following sentences which contain lexical ambiguities.Example: He waited by the bank.Meaning one: He waited by the place where people deposit or withdraw their money.Meaning two: He waited by the shore of a river.7. The following sentences consist of a verb, its noun phrase subject, and various objects. Identify the semantic roles (i.e.agent, patient, experiencer, instrument, cause, attribute, recipient, location, or temporal) of the underlined noun phrases.8. Explain why the following sentences are semantically anomalous:(d) The widow went out with her husband.(e) The colorless red book is smiling.Key:(d) Because the widow is a person whose husband died and thus the word widow is contradictory with "went out with her husband".(e) Because colorless and red are in conflict and furthermore, the verb smile needs a human subject.21。