Welsh and Gaelic speakers by age-group 1971-1981-1991- 2001
国家英语概况
国家英语概况English is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, with an estimated 1.5 billion speakers globally. It serves as the primary language for business, diplomacy, and international communication, and its significance continues to grow as globalization and technological advancements bring people from diverse backgrounds closer together. This essay will explore the national English profiles of several countries, highlighting their unique linguistic landscapes and the role of English within their respective contexts.The United States is a prime example of a country where English is the de facto national language, despite the absence of any official designation. With over 225 million native English speakers, the US boasts one of the largest concentrations of English users in the world. English is the predominant language used in government, education, media, and most aspects of daily life. However, the country's linguistic diversity is also noteworthy, with numerous other languages, such as Spanish, Chinese, and French, spoken by significant portions of the population.In contrast, the United Kingdom, the birthplace of the English language, has a more nuanced linguistic landscape. While English is the primary language across most of the country, the UK is home to several distinct regional varieties, including Scottish English, Welsh English, and Northern Irish English, each with its own unique features and dialects. Additionally, the UK recognizes Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish Gaelic as official regional languages, reflecting the country's commitment to preserving its linguistic heritage.Canada presents an intriguing case, as it is officially a bilingual country, with both English and French recognized as national languages. The distribution of these two languages, however, is not evenly spread across the country. In the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick, French enjoys a more dominant status, while the rest of Canada is predominantly English-speaking. This linguistic duality has shaped Canada's cultural and political landscape, leading to ongoing debates and challenges surrounding language policies and rights.India, with its vast and diverse population, offers a complex picture of English usage. As a legacy of British colonial rule, English is one of the two official languages of the Indian government, along with Hindi. However, the prevalence and proficiency of English vary significantly across different regions and social strata. While it iswidely used in business, education, and urban centers, a large portion of the population, particularly in rural areas, relies primarily on their local languages or dialects.Singapore, a small city-state in Southeast Asia, presents a unique case study in language policy and planning. Although it has a diverse linguistic landscape, with Mandarin Chinese, Malay, and Tamil recognized as official languages, English has been actively promoted as the primary language of administration, education, and commerce. This strategic decision has enabled Singapore to position itself as a global business hub and has contributed to its economic success, as English proficiency has become a valuable asset for its citizens.In contrast, Japan has historically maintained a relatively monolingual profile, with Japanese as the dominant and official language. However, in recent decades, there has been a growing emphasis on English language education and proficiency, driven by the country's desire to enhance its global competitiveness and engagement with the international community. While Japanese remains the primary language in most aspects of life, the importance of English is increasingly recognized, particularly in the fields of business, tourism, and academic exchange.These examples illustrate the diverse and dynamic nature of English usage around the world. Each country's linguistic landscape isshaped by its unique history, cultural heritage, and socioeconomic factors, resulting in varying degrees of English prevalence and proficiency. As the global reach of English continues to expand, it will be interesting to observe how these national English profiles evolve and adapt to the changing demands of an increasingly interconnected world.。
英国翻译成英文
英国翻译成英文The United Kingdom, also known as Britain, is a sovereign country located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. It consists of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The UK is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy, meaning that it has a monarch as the head of state, currently Queen Elizabeth II, and a Prime Minister as the head of government, currently Boris Johnson.The UK has a rich history dating back thousands of years. It was once part of the Roman Empire and later became a major player in the Age of Discovery, with explorers such as Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Francis Drake. The country played a significant role in the Industrial Revolution, which transformed it into the world's leading industrial power by the 19th century.The UK has a diverse and multicultural society, with a population of over 66 million people. London, the capital city, is one of the most visited cities in the world and a global financial hub. Other notable cities include Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and Cardiff, the capital of Wales.English is the official language of the UK and is widely spoken across the country. However, there are also other regional languages such as Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish Gaelic, which are spoken in certain areas.The UK is known for its contributions to literature, science, and music. It is the birthplace of renowned playwright William Shakespeare and famous authors such as Jane Austen, CharlesDickens, and J.K. Rowling. The country has produced notable scientists such as Sir Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin, as well as world-renowned bands and musicians such as The Beatles, Queen, and Adele.The UK has a strong economy, with sectors such as finance, manufacturing, and creative industries playing a significant role. It is a member of the European Union, although it officially left the EU on January 31, 2020, following a referendum in 2016. The country is now in a transition period, negotiating its future relationship with the EU.The UK has a well-established education system with renowned universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. It is also known for its sporting culture, with football (soccer), cricket, rugby, and tennis being popular sports.In recent years, the UK has faced various challenges, including political debates over its relationship with the EU and issues such as immigration and future trade agreements. However, it remains a global power with a strong influence in areas including politics, culture, and business.Overall, the United Kingdom is a diverse and vibrant country with a fascinating history and a bright future ahead. It is a place where tradition meets modernity, and where people from different backgrounds come together to create a unique and dynamic society.。
变化中的英语复习重点总结
变化中的英语复习重点总结1.全世界语言→ 4000-5000种(P7)2.Dead language → no living speakers (P7)3.Historical variation → variation over timeRegional variation → variation in different places (P15)4.RP Standard English Network English:Standard English → Written EnglishRP → Received Pronunciation ( Also Southern Educated British English)Network English → Educated American English (P19)5.V ocabulary change in English (P23-24)6.词汇来源：Borrowing(e.g dim sum), Abbreviations(e.g MTR), Translations(e.g dragonboat)(P28-29)7.英国语言→English, Welsh(Wales地区) Gaelic （Scotland地区）( P36)8.Dialects→ Different ways of speaking the same languageAccent → We are talking only about the sounds of the language in some places (P39)nguage family:English →Indo-European family(印欧语系)Chinese → Sino-Tibetan family(汉藏语系) P6410.英国历史上三次被入侵：1) BC 1st– AD 5th→Latin- speaking Romans 来自Mediterranean2)AD 5th - 8th and 9th→ Scandinavian斯堪的纳维亚人(Angles盎格鲁人, Saxons撒克逊部族, Jutes朱特族人) invaded Britain 来自North West Europe3)AD 11th→French-speaking Normans 来自Normandy(P69-70)11.Standard English:A: Come from → South EastB: Reason →. Its importance is matter of culture and history(P75 )13. A good English dictionary contains about 450,000 separate entries.(P86)14.Receptive(听读) →You recognize a word and know what it means.Productive（说写）→You can say a word or you can write it.NOTE: 每个人的Receptive knowledge of vocabulary要大于Productive knowledge (P89-90)15.Prescriptive teaching(说明性教学) →correct students’ mistakesProductive teaching(输出性教学) → Practice students’ English by speaking and writing.Descriptive teaching(描述性教学) → Tell students how English has changed and come to beas it is now. P100 P10318.美国历史（The New World: the continent of America:)1584, 1585 Sir Walter Releigh’s two expeditions to the New World1620→English Puritan Playmouth Mayflower1775 → American war of Independence started1785 → End of the A set up1790 → First census人口普查held. About 90%of the population of British descent后裔P120-12119. The US A → The melting-potIn New York harbour → You ca n see the Statue of Liberty P122-12321. 印度英语发展历史：The East India Company → Started in 17 century, by 1813, it came toan end.19th century → The English man named Macaulay was called the President of theCommittee of Public Instruction，set up universities ofEnglish language P138-13922. 澳大利亚Australia 形成，Captain Cook lead the first exploration in 1770astronomical observation18th century: penal colony (罪犯流放地) (P140-141)23.Inner Circle, Outer Circle and Expanding Circle →Braj Kachru, from the sub-continent of Indiadeveloped the idea of classifying the internationaluse of English.Inner Circle: native speakers-users mother tongueBritain, North America, Australia New Zealand, South AfricaOuter Circle: taught in schools, international and official businessIndian Hong KongExpanding Circle: not an official language , international use P14724. Esperanto世界语→具有全球扩广的语言特征，且适合全球使用的理想语言What an ideal language for global use 理由P158-159Artificial language → The failed reason (p160-161)Simplify a natural language → Noah Webster made English spelling easier for the children Basic English →designed by C.K.Ogden in 1930, only 850 words P161-16225. Social Variation →speakers use English differently with their social and educational level.Languages are equal, no primitive or underdeveloped language p16626. Dead languages → Latin and Sanskrit(梵语)French, Spanish and Portuguese are descendants of Latin p17027. Pygmalion → He is a craftsmen from Greek empire, made a sculptor named Galatea. And heloves her and she came lived.My Fair Lady → Wrote by George Bernard Shaw, a famous Irish playwright. P182-183 28. False beginners → The students who have forgotten the early stages of learning a languageThe first stage of learning → Learning the rules of the sound system, the grammar, the writing system, and the vocabulary.The second stage of learning → Using English in a variety of ways. P187-18829. The rules of writing English → p202A. Always make sure your sentences are complete.B. Every sentence must hace a subject and a verb.C. Never put a preposition at the end of the sentence.D. Never use slang(俚语) or even informal words.30. T he components of a Trade Deal → p216A. a commodity(商品).B. a currencyC. a sellerD. a buyerE. a marketF. a means of communication.31. Lingua Franca(交际语/通用语) → used for trade deal p224-228Pidgin(混杂语/洋泾浜语) → It means a language,used for purpose of trade.Creoles(克利奥尔语) →是Pidgin进化后的语言p228-237Black English → P230-233Papua New Guinea → Adopted Tok PisinCreole can become a national language. ,but a pidgin can’t P23532. Present day international trade P24333. Faxed English → P249-250-25234. English in science P262 P265-26635. English in international transport P266-277Risks in air travel P271English in air traffic control →A. The language of Internetational Air Traffic Control is English.B. It is used by all ground control staff and flight crew.C. It is used in all parts of the world.D. It is twentieth century English: It is Standard English.E. It is spoken English and speakers know what they say will be recordedF. It is the English of a special area of knowledge.G. It is formal, but not polite or indirect.H. It is brief, clear, and direct. P 275Sea-speak → A special, restricted variety of English is now used internationally in ship-to-shore communication.Jargon行话→I t’s a special name for the selection that peole who have a common interest in machines and techniques use it.Slang俚语→ For the language used by young people to keep out the old.36. English and TV → P279 P28737. English and Information technology →P289English and IT → P296 P29838. ELT → English language teachingNative-speaker English language teacher 和Blingual teacher双语教师各自的优点和缺点→见P302表格Five important ELT terms: p307A.Pattern practice句型练习→Learning by constantly repeating correct Englishsentecnes.nguage laboratory语言实验室→ A classroom equipped with tape recorders and acontrol desk for the teacher.municative approach交际法| 交际教学法| 沟通式教学法| 传意形式的教学法→A view of ELT that puts first understanding and being understood by another person.D.Error analysis →Teaching in the belief that mistakes are necessary to learning and usefulto teachers.E.English for Specific Purposes →Courses designed to match the future work of andneeds of groups of leaners, very often groups with different occupations.39. ESL → English as a Second LanguageEFL → English as a Foreign LanguageL1 → English as a mother tongue见p314 表格40. New Standards → P315-31641. Hong Kong English deviates from Standard English. → P31842. Interlanguage语际语/中间语言/中介语/人工辅助语言→The languages of learners whohave only partial control of a language.Intro-national and International use →The difference between the use of English inside a country and between that country and the rest of the world. P32143. The advantages and disadvantages of Local standard and StandardEnglish:Advantages →A.They are easier and quicker to learn(so more learners will succeed)B.There are useful where there are many languages in use in a country and no commonlanguage.C.Only a minority of people need a language for international use.Disadvantages→A.Local standards change quickly and are not well regarded internationally.B.If they are use intenationally, they don’t do justice to the user or his ideas.C.Local Standards are emerging and changing, so there may not be enough suitableteachers, or teaching materials. P322-32345. Mono-lingual and Multi-lingual Societies → P34646. Opportunity cost →All learning is associated with an opportunity cost. Language learningrepresents a big investment of time and effort by individuals and by thesociety of which they are part.47. Shrinking world → P361-36248. Around the World in Eighty Days → Jules V erne (P362)49. Tower of Babel巴别塔| 通天塔| 巴比塔| 巴贝尔塔→ P365-36650. Cultural Imperialism文化帝国主义→ P38251. Proficient in English →Information about English → P394Support and reinforce each other → P407。
研究生英语阅读教程(基础级)第三版-课后习题(翻译)答案-Lesson-1-2-4-6-8-11-12
Lesson 11. For English is a killer. It is English that has killed off Cumbric, Cornish, Norn and Manx.There are still parts of these islands where sizeable communities speak languages that were there before English. Yet English is everywhere in everyday use and understood by all or virtually all, constituting such a threat to the three remaining Celtic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh...that their long-term future must be considered...very greatly at risk.因为英语是个杀手。
正是英语造成了康瑞克、康尼施、诺恩、曼科斯等语言的消亡。
在其中一部分岛上还有相当多的人使用在英语到来之前就已存在的语言。
然而，英语在日常生活中无处不在。
所有的人或几乎所有的人都懂英语。
英语对现存的凯尔特语——爱尔兰语、苏格兰盖尔语及威尔士语的威胁是如此之大，它们的未来岌岌可危。
2. He also associated such policies with a prejudice which he calls linguicism (a conditionparallel to racism and sexism).As Phillipson sees it, leading institutions and individuals within the predominantly "white" English-speaking world, have (by design or default)encouraged or at least tolerated-and certainly have not opposed-the hegemonic spread of English, a spread which began some three centuries ago as economic and colonial expansion.同时，他认为这些政策和他称之为语言歧视（和种族歧视、性别歧视的情况类似）的偏见密切相关。
英语国家概况1800字
英语国家概况1800字IntroductionEnglish-speaking countries are countries where English is the official language or a prominent language spoken widely in that country. These countries are spread across different continents, and they share many characteristics that are unique to them. In this essay, we will take a look at some of these prominent English-speaking countries and explore their cultural, historical and economic characteristics.United States of AmericaThe United States is the world's most influential and powerful nation. It has a population of over 330 million people and consists of 50 states. English is the country's official language, however, due to its multicultural environment, Spanish and other languages are also widely spoken.The country is known for its cultural and economic diversity, with Hollywood being the home of the world's most famous movie studios. America is also a leader in technology, industrial, and medical development with Silicon Valley being the home of prominent tech companies. In terms of international relations, America has played a vital role in various global issues and remains one of the leading superpowers in the world.United KingdomThe UK is one of the most influential countries in the world, despite being relatively small in size. It is made up of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and has a population of over 66 million people. English is the country's official language with a few regional languages like Welsh and Gaelic also spoken.The UK has a rich cultural heritage with famous landmarks like London's Big Ben, Edinburgh Castle, and Stonehedge. The country is also famed for its contribution to literature, music, and science. It is the birthplace of famous playwrights William Shakespeare, and Charles Dickens, and scientists such as Isaac Newton.CanadaCanada is the second-largest country in the world and has a population of over 37 million people. English is the country's official language and is spoken widely throughout the provinces. French is also an official language and is the primary language spoken in the province of Quebec.The country is known for its stunning natural scenery, with its rugged mountains, vast wilderness, and beautiful lakes. Canada is a highly developed country, with a strong economy, free healthcare, and high living standards. Throughout its history, Canada has been known for its peaceful and diplomatic relations, which have made it a respected global leader.AustraliaAustralia is a country and a continent located in the southern hemisphere. It has a population of around 24 million people, and English is the country's official language.Australia is known for its natural wonders, including the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru. The country is also famous for its sports culture, specifically cricket, rugby, and Australian rules football. Australia is a developed country with a strong economy, and its industries include mining, agriculture, and finance.New ZealandNew Zealand is an English-speaking country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It has a population of around five million people, and English is the official language. The country is known for its beautiful landscapes, including beautiful beaches, mountains, and forests.New Zealand is also famous for its production of wine and its passion for sport, especially rugby union. The country has a strong economy with a focus on tourism, agriculture, and technology.ConclusionIn conclusion, English-speaking countries are diverse and unique, yet they share many cultural, historical, and economic characteristics. These countries play major roles in different fields, such as entertainment, literature, science, and technology, and they have a significant impact on global affairs. Despite their differing lifestyles and customs, they are connected by theircommon language and culture, which serves as a universal connecting factor between them.。
英美国家国情名词解释简答题论述题
英美国家国情名词解释简答题论述题Ⅰ. Term explanation1. The battle of Hastings⿊斯廷斯战役：The battle took place William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England. On October 14, the two armies met near Hasting. After a day’s battle, Harold was killed and his army completely defeated.2. The Great Charter⼤宪章：King John’s reign caused much discontent among the barons. In 1215, he was forced to sign a document, known as Magna Cara, or the Great Charter. It has 63 clauses. Though it has long been regarded as the foundation of English liberties, its spirit was the limitation of the king’s powers, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.3. The Wars of Rose玫瑰战争:I t refers to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485 to claim to the throne. 4．Mayflower Compact五⽉花号公约:the 1st governing document of Plymouth Colony, drafted by the “Pilgrims”who crossed the Atlantic abroad the Mayflower, seeking religious freedom. It was signed on November 11, 1620. In this Compact they agreed to stick together, to abide by majority role, and to have a right to choose their own leader .it was the beginning of the US democracy5. the Bill of Rights, 1791: it was the 1st ten amendments to the Constitution. It guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, peaceful assembly, and the press; the right to bear arms; freedom from unreasonable search; and the right to the protection of certain legal procedures known as the due process of law.6. Domesday Book末⽇审判书：It is a book compiled by a group of clerks under the sponsorship of King William the First in 1086. The book was in fact a property record. It was the result of a general survey of England. It recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and ownership of the land. It was one of the important measures adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it is kept in the Public Records Office in London.7.Alfred the Great亚尔弗雷得⼤帝：He was king of Wessex, one of the seven Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms. It was he who led the Anglo-Saxon to flight against the invading Danes and maintained peace for a long time. Alfred was not only a brave king at wartime, but also a wise king at peacetime. He encouraged education and introduced a legal sys tem. He is known as “the father of the British navy”.8.Privy Council英国枢密院：A consultative body of the British monarch. Its origin can be traced back to the times of the Norman Kings. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, its importance was gradually diminished and replaced by the Cabinet. Today, it is still a consultation body of the British monarch, Its membership is about 400, and includes al Cabinet ministers, the speaker of the House of Commons, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and senior British and Commonwealth statesmen.9. Thanksgiving Day感恩节：In 1620,the puritans in the Mayflower came the Rocky coast of what is now Massachusetts. They suffered the first cold winter. Later with the help and advice of the native Indians, the Pilgrim Fathers planted corn and other crops. They reaped a good harvest the following year, and in October, 1621, to celebrate this good harvest, the Pilgrims held a feast which featured wild turkey. They called this their Thanks-giving Day. It falls on the 4th Thursday of November.10. fire of Lexington来克星敦的枪声：In April of 1775,some British troops were sent to Lexington and Concord to disarm the American militiamen there. It is an incident happened before the war of Independence. The British soldiers were sent to seize the military supplies of the militia. They were stopped by the militia at Lexington.11.Heptarchy七王国：During the Anglo-Saxon's time, Britain was divided into many kingdoms, among which there were seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. They were given the name of Heptarchy.12.British Parliament英国议会：It includes three elements: the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It’s the Supreme law-making authority in Britain. The real center of parliamentary power lies in the House of Commons. Its other functions include: to control and criticize the executive government; to control the raising and the spending of money.13. The Cold War冷战: in the post war period the difference between USSR and the US increased and led to a new kind of war, a war without fighting, which was called the Cold War. It was ended with the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.14. the Gettysburg address盖茨堡演讲：It refers to the short speech president Lincoln made when he dedicated the national cemetery at Gettysb urg. He ended the speech with “the government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”.15. the Great Lakes五⼤湖：The Great Lakes are the most important lakes in the United States. They are Lake Superior, which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michigan ——the only one entirely in the U.S. —— Lake Huron, LakeErie and Lake Ontario. They are all located between Canada and the United States except Lake Michigan.16. The Celts凯尔特⼈：The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. The first wave was the Gales, the second wave was the Brythons and the Belgae came about 150BC. The Celts were practiced farmers. The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic. They religion was Druidism.18. Missouri Compromise密西西⽐组成:In 1820, the North and the South reached a solution, “Missouri Compromise”. Missouri was admitted as a slave state, but the balance of political power maintained by admission of Maine as a free state; in addition, slavery was to be prohibited in the rest of Louisiana Territory north of the line 36°30′parallel of latitude.19. Checks and balances权⼒制衡:The American government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial. Each has part of the powers but not all the power. And each branch of government can check, or block, the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. This is called “checks and balances”.20. Boston Tea Party波⼠顿倾茶事件: on the evening of Dec. 16, 1773, in Boston, when ships of tea reached Boston and the governor was determined to see that tea was legally protected in its distribution, a group of angry colonists, known as the Boston T ea Party, dressed themselves up as Indians and boarded the three company ships. Ripped open 342 chests of tea valued at ￡17000 and dumped all the tea into the harbor.21. Stonehenge巨⽯阵：It is a group of huge monuments of grant rock Slabs on Salisbury plain in Southwest England built as long ago as the New Stone Age. It is generally believed that stonehenge served some sort of religious purposes.22. The Hundred Years’ War百年战争：It refers to the intermittent war between France and England that last from 1337 to 1453. The causes were partly territorial and partly economic. When Edward III claimed the French Crown but the French refused to recognize, the war broke out. At first the English were successful, but in the end, they were defeated and lost almost all their possessions in France. The expelling of the English was a blessing for both countries.23. The Black Death⿊死病：It is a modern name given to the dearly bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread through Europe in the fourteenth century particularly in 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cue. In England, it killed almost half of the total population, causing far reaching economic consequences.25.Blood Mary ⾎腥玛丽：It is the nickname given to Mary I, the English Queen who succeeded to the throne after Henry VIII. She was a devout Catholic and had so many Protestants burnt to death that she is remembered less by her official title Mary I by her nickname Blood Mary.ⅡQuestions.1. What are the main functions of Parliament?The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide the means of carrying on the work of government by voting for taxation; (3) to examine government policy and administration, including proposals for expenditure; (4) to debate the major issues of the day.2. What is a constitutional monarchy? When did it begin in Britain?(1)A constitutional monarchy is a governmental system in which the head of State is a king or a queen who reigns but does not rule. The country is namely reigned by the Sovereign, but virtually by His or Her Majesty’s Government —a body of Ministers who are the leading members of whichever political party the electorate has voted into office, and who are responsible to Parliament.(2)The Constitutional Monarchy in Britain began in 1689, when King William and Queen Mary jointlyaccepted the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed free speech within both the House of Lords and the House of Commons and constitutional monarchy, of a monarchy with power limited by Parliament began.3. Why did so many people move to the New World in the 17th Century?The new world was a great and rich land. In the new world there were all those resources necessary for agricultural and industrial development .The new world was their best place to make their fortunes, and to worship and live according to their beliefs. Some of them might move to America to leave oppressive political institutions, to escape burden some church duties, to acquire large land holdings or merely to change their general pattern of living.4. What is the Monroe Doctrine?The essence of doctrine was America for Americans. This doctrine later became a cornerstone of American foreign policy. Asthe new world developed in the years ahead this doctrine became more meaningful and was strengthened by a broader interpretation to meet the needs of an energetic and ambitious United States.6. What was the significance of the Great Charter?The Great Charter was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, but it has long been regarded as the foundation of English liberties.7. What do you know about the English Renaissance?Renaissance was the revival of classical literature and artistic styles in European history. It began in Italy in the early 14th century and spread to England in the late 15th century. The English Renaissance had 5 characteristics: (1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics; (2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history else where in Europe;(3) Owning to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was vigorous enough and experienced in assimilating foreign influences without being subjected by them; (4) English Renaissance literature is chiefly artistic, rather than philosophical and scholarly; (5) the Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.The English Renaissance was largely literary, and achieved its finest expression in the so-called Elizabethan drama. Its finest exponents were Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson, and William Shakespeare.8. How is the U.S. president’s power limited?In spite of his great power, the President is actually moving within the limits already drawn for him. For example, all appropriations of the government are legislated by Congress. The Supreme Court has the power to declare his policy, even if it has already been approved by Congress, unconstitutional and thus abolish it. Finally, if he abuses his power or commits crimes, he will be impeached by Congress. Impeachment simply means to bring formal charges; it does not mean conviction. In American history there have been two presidents who faced impeachment proceedings, but they were not convicted9. Why did the U.S. join the First World War so late?The United States was lack of military preparedness when the war began. Another factor for the US to join the war was the American financial and industrial commitment to the Allied cause. Finally, the factor that pushed the US into the war was Germany’s submarine campaign against merchant ships. That was to attack every ship that approached the British Isles.10. How did the Restoration take place?When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as King Charles II. It was called the Restoration.11. How did the Labour Party come into being?As the new working class became established in the industrial towns in the late 18th century, they became aware of the power which they could possess if they acted together instead of separately. Sovarious working class organizations were formed which brought about the formation of a political party, the Labour Party.The Labour Party had its origins in the Independent Labour Party, which was formed in January, 1893 and Led by Keir Hardle, a Scottish miner. The foundation of an effective party for labour depended on the trade unions. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of small societies set up the Labour Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to be Labour Party in time for the general election which was called for 1906. The Labour Party remains one of the two major parties in Britain until today.12. Why do many Americans now migrate from cities to suburbs?The widespread use of automobiles and the construction of express highways made it possible for people to live farther away from their jobs. The telephone reduces the need for them to work or live in close proximity to one another. Besides these economic and technological changes, important social factors were involved. Suburban areas offered more living space than cities, lower crime rates, less pollution, and superior schools. It is generally believed that they are a better place for rising children.13. What are the main contents of the Declaration of Independence?(1)On July 4th1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed by the representatives from all the colonies. Its principal author was Thomas Jefferson.(2) Five Parts: ①The Preamble which explains why Declaration was issued;②A statement of principles of government to which American people were committed.③A list of injustices suffered by the colonists.④A summary of efforts the colonies had made to avoid a break with the mother country.⑤The proclamation is that the "Colonies are Free and Independent States".14. What is the role of the Monarchy in the British government?The sovereign is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, he/she is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the crown and the “supreme governor” of the established church of England.15. What is the doctrine of expressed power?"The Monroe Doctrine is a U.S. doctrine which, on December 2, 1823, proclaimed that European powers were no longer to colonize or interfere with the affairs of the newly independent nations of the Americas. The United States planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and their colonies. However, if later on, these types of wars were to occur in the Americas, the United States would view such action as hostile. President James Monroe first stated the doctrine during his seventh annual State of the Union Address to Congress, a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States. Most recently, during the Cold War, the doctrine was invoked as a reason to intervene militarily in Latin America to stop the spread of Soviet Communism. “Source and further information:16. What were the basic causes of the American Civil War?The slave economy in the south was an obstacle to industrial growth and expansion. The economic antagonism led to increase the conflicts between the south and the north.17. What are the functions of the Congress?The Congress has many functions, but the most central is the passage of law. One of the most important non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate. A second important power is to compel testimony from unwilling witness and to cite for contempt of Congress witness who refuse to testify and for perjury those who give false testimony.18. What are the functions of the Prime Minister in Britain?The Prime Minister's chief duty is to "form a Government"—that is to say, to create a Cabinet or Ministry which will sustain the support of the House of Commons—when commissioned by the Sovereign. The Prime Minister also has a wide range of powers of appointment.19. What was the Roman influence over Britain?The Roman occupation lasted for almost 350 years. The resulting growth of its civilization was more obvious in urban areas than among the agricultural peasants and weakest in the resistant zone. In the southeasternpart the Romans influenced life and culture radically. The English upper classes were thoroughly Romanized and transformed into Roman landlords and officials. Yet the Romans came to govern and to trade, not to settle; and they were too few in number to change the language and customs of the people as they did in France and Spain. Some of the native people became slaves of the Romans; true slave society was introduced into England. The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain's natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.20. What do you know about the Glorious Revolution?In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious views. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution. William and his wife Mary wereboth Protestants and becameco-monarchs. They accepted the Bill of Rights. It’s the be ginning of the age of constitutional monarchy.ⅢDiscussion1. The Norman Conquest and its influenceThe Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.3. What do you know ab out the Chartist Movement and the People’s Charter? What’s your comment on them?In 1836 a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People’s Charter); The Cha rtist movement was the first nation wide working class movement and drew attention to serious problem.Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism.4.”British history has been a history of invasion". Please illustrate this point with the examples from the text. How did each of the invasions influence English culture?①(1Roman Britain: Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410.The Romans referred to their province as Britannia.Prior to the Roman invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today.(2.Anglo-Saxon People：The ethnically and linguistically related peoples living in the south and east of the island of Great Britain Time: From around the early 5th century AD to the Norman Conquest of 1066. Language: closely related Germanic dialects. Ethnical groups: Identified as the descendants of three powerful Germanic tribes, the Angles and the Saxons from today’s northern Germany, and the Jutes from today’s Denmark.(3.Viking: Invasion in the late 8th century Britain experienced Viking（北欧海盗）raids from Dane or Scandinavia.(4.Norman Conquest: The Norman conquest of England began in 1066 AD with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy), and his success at the Battle of Hastings resulted in Norman control of England.②The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons:(1. This conquest linked England more closely with continental Europe through the introduction of a Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening Scandinavian influence.(2. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and engendered a sophisticated governmental system.(3. The conquest changed the English language and culture and set the stage for a rivalry with France that would continue intermittently until the 20th century.5. How did the Industrial Revolution exert a great influence on both British society and the world?（1. The Industrial Revolution exerts a great influence on both British society and the world.（2. The Industrial Revolution was not only a technological revolution but also a great social upheaval. （3. The Industrial Revolution promoted the development of production.（4. Britain began to produce large quality of low-priced goods in a more efficient manner. Many new cities came into being; population increased; the home market was enlarged. British goods almost achieved a monopoly position in the world market. The Industrial Revolution laid a good foundation for the “factory of the world”.（5. A factory system was established. Workers were employed and managers became capitalists. Two conflicting classeswere born.6. Describe roughly the powers of the U.S. present.The functions of both the British prime minister and monarch, The White House is his official residence, The Constitution requires:limiting a president to two successive terms only,the presidential election is held every four years, he “winner-take-all” system,Salary $ 200,000,7. Why and how did the English Parliament come into being?(1)The English Parliament originated in the Great Council;(2) The main purpose of the king’s summoning parliament was to get consent for taxation;(3)Henry III extended the membership of parliament;(4)Henry hoped that with Rome’s help he could defeat the lords and their charter;(5) The barons rose up in oppositi on under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, the king’s brother-in-law, they forced him to dismiss his foreign advisers and to accept their own council of advisers instead;(6) In 1264 Montfort defeated the royal army at Lewes and took the king prisoner. In the following year, he called Parliament. The parliament of 1265 which is known as the “All Estates Parliament” is generally considered the “beginning of parliament”.8. What were the causes and consequences of the War of 1812?①The causes leading to the war were the following:(1) A war between Britain and France was going on in Europe. First the American government adopted a policy of not allowing trading with both countries. Later the U.S. government changed its policy by stating that if any of the two countries gave up its blockade against American shipping, the U.S. world lift the prohibition. In 1811, the U.S., on the condition that France would drop its blockade against American shipping, lifted the ban. This angered the British.(2) The Americans resented the British practice of impressing or forcibly removing seamen from American ships on the grounds that they were British subjects.(3) The U.S. wanted to take advantage of the War in Europe, when Britain and France had no time to look after their interests in the New World, to expand into Canada or Spanish Florida. This harmed the interests of the British.②The war had great impact on the development of the Unite States. Firstly, the war made people realize the importance of a strong national government. Secondly, the war strengthened the feeling of national unity and patriotism. Thirdly, for almost 10 years after the war, the Americans turned their attention to the development of the western part of the continent. Fourthly, it made both Britain and the United States realize their disputes should be solving through negotiation. A shaky peace in 1814 turned into lasing peace between the two countries.9. Describe the American Civil War and its significance.The Civil War lasted from 1861 until 1865. During this time, over 600,000 soldiers represented both sides were killed either by battle deaths or disease. Many, many more were wounded with estimates of more than 1/10th of all soldiers being wounded. Both the Northern States and the Southern States experienced major victories and defeats. However, by September 1864 with the taking of Atlanta the North had gained the upper hand and the war would officially end on April 9, 1865.1) The beginning of the Civil War: it was the first stage of the war (1861-1862), which characterized by an indecisive attitude of the Lincoln government. It was the Northern bourgeoisie’s vacillated attitude towards the Southern slave-owners, which reflected its tendency to solve the clash by compromised way without waging a war through the revolutionary way.a. In 1860s, some continent of the Southern States established South Alliance, and then instigated the Civil War.b. At the beginning of the war, the North troops suffered a steadily setback.2) Turning point of the Civil War: The characteristic of this stage (1863-1865) was that the change in its domestic political life and the tactics of the federal.a. Lincoln’s government had issued the “Homestead Act” and the “Emancipation Proclamation” to reverse the situation. (Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation made ending slavery in the South a war goal and dissuaded the British from intervening. Jan 1, 1863 - President Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation freeing all slaves in territories heldby Confederates and emphasized the enlisting of black soldiers in the Union Army. The war to preserve the Union now became a revolutionary struggle for the abolition of slavery.)b. In 1863s, the North troops won the way in the Battle of Gettysburg and grasped the initiative of the war. 3）The Consequences of the Civil WarThe Civil War officially ended with the unconditional surrender of the South at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865. As a result of the war about 360.000 Union troops and civilians and perhaps 260.000 in Confederate states died. Property damage was enormous in the South whereas the Union economically profited from the conflict because of the increasing demand for iron, uniforms and military products. Many southern towns, cities, plantations and railroads lay in ruins and for a long time the South lagged behind the rest of the nation economically. The war also caused deep and long-lasting feelings of bitterness and division between the people of North and South.。
英美概况各章节重点知识点总结整理
Section one：Origin of the English NationThe native Celts●The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh. And the Celtic language is thebasis of Welsh and Gaelic.●Religion: Druidism.●Stonehenge: the circular arrangement of large stones in Wiltshire, near Salisbury, England, was probably builtbetween about 3000 and 1000 B.C by Celts, but its function remains unknown.Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)●Romans got possession of England by driving native Celts into Scotland and Wales. They failed to conquerScotland. They built two great walls: the Hadrian's Wall, the Antonine Wall, along the northern border of England to prevent Picts in Scotland from invading England.●Many towns’ names end with: ster, cester, and shire. e.g., Lancast er, Winchester, Y orkshire, deriving fromcastra (Latin word for camp).●Religion: Christianity.The Anglo-Saxon Conquest (446-871)(mainly occupied the Lowland Zone)●New invader: Jutes (now the county of Kent), became the king of Kent. Soon after their relat ives and othertribes came trooping after them——●It is a collective name for the seven Anglo—Saxon kingdoms from the 7th century to the 9th century. They areKent, Essex, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia and North Umbria. After the 9th century, the seven kingdoms were conquered one after another by the invading Danes.●Saxons and Angles came from northern Germany. After they had taken possession of all the England, theywere divided into 7 principal kingdoms, known as Heptarchy. those tribes were constantly at war with one another, each trying to get the upper hand.(hero: King Arthur)●Religion: Teutonic, practicing multi-goddism. Tiu(the god of war, Tuesday), Woden(heaven, Wednesday),Thor(storms, Thursday),Freya(peace, Friday)●Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine to convert the English to Christianity. With the help of the king of Kent, hebecame the first Archbishop of Canterbury.●The A-S nominated local officials: sheriffs.●Open-field farming system: 3 big fields+commons. This system is the basis of the English agrarian civilizationand subsistence farming.●Witan: the A-S created the Witan (a group of wise man) to advice the king, the Witan was the forerunner of thepresent-day Privy Council.●Alfred the Great: the father of the British Navy & his writings were the beginning of prose literature. Made atreaty with Danes----Dane law.●Viking invasions: in the 8th, 9th, 10th centuries A.D. V ikings from North Europe, brought a new wave ofinvasion and colonization which produced lasting influence on parts of Briton.●Canute: Witan chose the Danish leader, as king of England. he included England part of a Scandinavianempire(inc luded Norway and Denmark)●Edward the Confessor: built Westminster Abbey.The Norman Conquest (1066)●William the Conqueror: the first Anglo-Norman king of England.●Battle of Hastings: ?Influence of the Norman Conquest●Feudalism: the nobles got fief, from the sovereign. But they were obliged to pay certain dues and armed manaccording to their estates to the king. They (known as barons or the king's tenants=in -chief, made up the upper landed class. They give fiefs to sub-vassals (known as lesser nobles, knights, and free man).They should take oaths of loyalty to the king directly as well as to their immediate overlords.●William built the Tower of London as a military fortress. He replaced the Witan with the Great Council thatwas composed of his tenants-in-chief.●Domesday Book: in order to have a reliable record of all lands and discover how much his tenants-in-chiefcould be called upon to pay by way of taxes, William sent his clerks to make investigations. These clerks finally compiled a property record known as Domesday Book in 1085.this book stated the extent, value, population, and ownership of the land.Section two：The Great Charter and Beginning of ParliamentHenry II 'Reforms●William died and left his Normandy to Robert, England to William Rufus, all his money to Henry. William IIwas killed when hunting, Henry I succeeded him.●Henry I had no male heir, his nephew Henry II became the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty金雀花王朝.●The new king strengthened the Great Council. Chancellor is the chief number, in charge of the administrativeand judicial system. The present day Lord Chancellor is his successor.●Administrative reform：Replaced the traditional land tax based on hides with a new tax based on annual rentsand chatells.●Judicial reform: divided the country into 6 circuits. Itinerant judges focused their attention on baron’s propertyand abuse of privileges. Decisions made by a circuit court was regarded as a precedent judgment, becoming the basis of the Common Law习惯法.✓the Common Law is a judge-made or case-made law based on the various of local customs of the A-S, it was common to the whole people as distinct from law governing only a little community;✓Lead to the founding of the jury system, (the juries were chosen from among local freeman to help circuit judges from London. Function: bring accusation against malefactors and swear to the innocence of the accused, the judge gave verdict at first but gradually the jury was empowered to give verdict. Principle: no free man should be punished without a just trial by his peers.✓It replaced the primitive English trials----by ordeals or battles. Abolished the benefit of clergy.●Thomas Becket: the king’s chief secretary. In 1162, Henry made him the Archbishop of Canterbury, hoping hewould assist him in church reforming. But Thomas was against the king, and finally he was killed by the King.After his death, he was put upon the list of English saints as a martyr to the church.●Geoffrey Chaucer wrote “The Canterbury Tales”(24 tales)King John●Many people believed that Robin Hood, a legendary outlaw, was a contemporary of John.●In fear of the Pope suspend public services, John promised to send a yearly tribute to him; John became avassal of the Pope.The great charter 大宪章P93●In 1215, the insurgent nobles met the king at Runnymede, and forced his to sign: the Great Charter (the MagnaCarta), the most important documents in English history.Beginning of Parliament●After John died, his 9 years old boy Henry III was put on the throne.和父亲是一丘之貉●Simon de Montfort, the king’s brother in law, was the defender of the Great Charter. But king refused to acceptthe Provisions of Oxford was finally put into prison. In 1265,.each county sent two knights, and each town tworepresentatives to join the meeting at Westminster,(the earliest English parliament)●Edward I succeeded, conquered Wales, gave his new-born son the title Prince of Wales, a title held by the heirto the throne ever since.Section 3: decline of feudalism of EnglandThe hundred years’ war (1337—1453)●This war refers to the war between France and England, and ended in victory for the French, leading toexpulsion of English from France. The reason of the war: territorial and economic disputes.（direct course:Edward 3 claimed his succession to French throne, but being denied）●Joan of Arc圣女贞德: A national heroine in French history during the hundred year's war. She leaded peasantssuccessfully to drive the English out of France.●The war sped up the decline of feudalism. Gunpowder is a blow to the knights, who are pillars of feudal orderand the “flower of feudalism”.●The Black Death: It is a modern name given to the deadly bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread throughEurope in the fourteenth century particularly in 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cure. In England, it killed almost half of the total population, causing far-reaching economic consequences. (change serfdom农奴身份to paid labour)●The government issued a Statute of Labour, saying it is a crime for peasants to ask more wages. Otherwise,they will be branded with the letter“F” on their forehead.The peasant uprising (1381)●The government imposed a flat rate poll tax to fund the hundred years’ war. Wat Tyler led the rebels. Theuprising dealt a telling blow to villeinage隶农制. A whole new class of yeomen farmers 自耕农emerged, paving the way for the development of capitalism.The wars of the Roses (1455-1485)●The wars of Roses ：After the Hundred Y ear's War, in order to decide who would rule England, a war brokeout between the House of Lancaster （won）and the House of Y ork, which were symbolized by the red and white roses respectively. The war lasted from 1455 to 1485. In nature it was a war between the commercial-minded gentry in the south and the backward landowners in the north and west. It is usually regarded as the end of English Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern world history.Section 4:the Tudor Monarchy and the Rising BourgeoisieThe new monarchy●Henry VII is the founder of the Tudor Monarchy, served as the transitional stage from feudalism to capitalismin English history.●American was discovered.Henry VIII and reform of the church●Henry VIII: the quintessential Renaissance sovereign famous for founding the Church of England.●Martin Luther desired the reform of the church.●The reform of the church coincided with the Renaissance. The immediate course was Henry VIII’s divorcecase.●Henry didn’t want to alter theology in any way. What he did was only to get rid of Papal interferences inEngland’s internal affairs.●Henry VIII was followed by Edward VI, switching to Protestant theology and his drastic reform has beencalled “the Reformation” in English history.●Bloody Mary: Mary was Henry VIII’s daughter and she was a Catholic. After she became Queen, about 300Protestants were burnt as heretics, for they held Protestant views. As a result, people call her "Bloody Mary". Elizabeth 1(1533-1603)●Externally, Elizabeth successfully played off against each other two great Catholic powers, France and Spain.●Establish charter companies, such as East India Company.●The Spanish king Philip finally made war with Armada (the Invincible Fleet).Elizabeth was regarded as thefoundation-layer of the British Empire.●Elizabeth Age refers to the English golden age.Section five: the English civil war(Bourgeois Revolution)Background of Revolution●Enclosures and the peasant uprising created a new working class, proletariat.●James 6 of Scotland was welcomed to the throne as James 1.this marks the major step to the unification of the two kingdoms.James 1(1603-1625) and the parliament●James said:"no bishop, no king", relations between the Puritans and the king deteriorated.●The Catholics were also opposed to the king for his staunch support of the Church of England. The night bonfire festival is celebrated on November 5, with fireworks and bonfire on which Guy Fawkes was burnt in effigy to remember the day Gunpowder Plot of 1605,reminding the English people the danger of Catholic restoration.●Many puritans refused to conform the King James V ersion, so they became "nonconformists", in 1620,201 nonconformists sailed from Plymouth in a ship named Mayflower. They were called Pilgrims.●James 1 believed "Divine Right of Kings", dissolved the parliament for 7 years. He was called the wisest fool. Charles 1●He followed a pro-Catholic ism policy.(In Elizabethan times, puritans were popular)●The puritans were noted for simple dress, high moral standards, demand of equality, and egalitarian [i,ɡæli'tεəriən]attitudes.The civil wars●The puritans made up the most revolutionary section. So the Bourgeois Revolution was also known as the Puritan Revolution.●The left wing of the revolutionary forces found a leader: Oliver Cromwell.●Oliver Cromwell was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658.●"Roundhead" was the nickname given to the supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against King Charles I who claimed absolute power and the divine right of kings.●The civil war is the beginning of modern world history.Restoration●Charles II put an end to the Republic. They took over Manhattan Island from Dutch and named it New Y ork.●His brother James 2 succeeded, reviving Catholicism.●Glorious Revolution of 1688 also called the White Revolution, because it caused no bloodshed. It was the overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians . Finally, William III (Jamea’2 son in law)and Mary ascended the English throne.●W and M childless. Mary’s sister succeeded. Scots accepted the Act of Union, in1707, Great Britain was born.Hanover dynasty.Section six: the industrial revolution and the chartist movementBackground of industrial revolution●The new class managed to accomplish “primitive accumulation of capital” through plunder and exploitation. It plundered America and Africa through colonization and the notorious triangular trade.●James watt made the steam engine practiced for industrial use.●Enclosure movement: to make a profit by selling grain, landowners began to replace the small“open fields” with hedge-divided large fields. (A new system of crop rotation was introduced.) Under enclosure, such land is fenced (enclosed) and deeded or entitled to one or more owners. Tenants were driven off their lands.●Farmer George.Effects of the industrial revolution (1750-1850)●The workshop of the world.●As a result, class contradiction between the capitalists and the proletariat, or capital and labour, became the major problem.●The forests of chimneys turned Birmingham to “Black C ountry”●The transition from an agrarian civilization to industrial civilization was criticized by Luddites.●Theory: social Darwinism (Origin of Species---natural selection) and Malthusianism and Adam Smith (laissez-fair).The chartist movement (1836-1848,3times)●The chartist movement Was a mass movement of working class to fight for equal political and social rights.●Document: the People’s Charter人民宪章，drawn by London Workingmen’s Association.●Two groups: moral force chartists and physical force chartists.Queen Victoria (“the grandmother of Europe”, suffered hemophilia ) “The Polite Society”●The V ictoria Age: a time of industrial, political, and military progress within the United Kingdom. The 63-year reign of Victoria was the longest of any monarch in British history. She was official head of state not only of the United Kingdom but also the British Empire, which included Canada, Australia, India, New Zealand, and large parts of Africa.●In 1840,the Opium War against China.●The trade union act of 1871 legalized the trade unions, ------- set up Labor Representation Committee (LRC) ----------- it changed this name to Labor Party.。
第二章 英国民族起源
Chapter 2The Origins of a Nation （5000 BC – AD 1066）一、本章知识点1.重点：① Arrival and settlement of the Celts② Basis of modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons③ Roman Britain （55 BC – AD 410）④ The Viking and Danish invasions（北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵）⑤ King Alfred and his contributions（啊弗雷德国王和他的贡献）⑥ The Norman Conquest and its consequences（诺曼征服及其影响）2.难点、考点：① the Anglo-Saxons: Heptarchy; foundation of the English state② King Alfred③ Norman Conquest二、课本内容（一）Arrival and settlement of the Celts （p.17）1. began to arrive about 700 BC2. originally have come from eastern and central Europe, now France, Belgium and southern Germany3. three main waves——1st. Gaels, about 600 BC;2nd. Brythons, 400 BC, （Britain）;3rd. Belgae, 150 BC, （Belgium）.Gaelic：盖尔语4. The Celtic tribes are ancestors of Highland Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic.5. religion: DruidismThe Celts’ religion was Druidism. The Druids worshipped and performed their rites in woods by the light of the moon.（二）Roman Britain1. British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion （55 BC – AD 410）.2. Julius Caesar, 55 BC3. under the Roman occupation for nearly 400 years, but never a total occupation4. Boadicea, or Boudicca, queen of the Iceni of East Anglia5. Londinium, capital of the Romans6. Hadr ian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall7. Christianity8. The Roman impact upon the Britons surprisingly limited.（三）Basis of modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons （p.20-23）1. mid-5th century, three Teutonic tribes: Jutes （from southern Denmark）, Saxons, and Angles （both from northern Germany）; Angles were to give their name to the English people.2. Heptarchy——seven principal kingdoms set up by the Anglo-Saxons: Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. （英国版的战国七雄）Monarchy：君主制The Anglo-Saxon tribes were constantly at war with one another, each trying to get the upper hand, so that the kingdoms were often broken up and often pieced together again.3. In 829, Egbert became an overlord of all the English.4. Teutonic religion: Tiu—war, Woden—heaven, Thor—Storms, Freya—Peace5. St. Augustine——the first Archbishop of Canterbury.6. Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state: divide the country into shires （郡）, later counties; the narrow-strip, three-field farming system（三田轮作）; manorial system; Witan（议会）（council or meeting of the wisemen, 贤人会议）, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.（四）The Viking and Danish invasions （p.23-24）1. from the end of 8th century, Norwegian Vikings and Danes from Denmark2. T he Danes gained the “Danelaw”（丹麦法区）, the north and east of England.3. The Witan chose Canute, the Danish Leader, as king in 1016. Canute made England part ofa Scandinavian empire.（五）King Alfred and his contributions1. King of Wessex （871-899）（抗击北欧海盗入侵的国家英雄）2. his contributions: “the father of the British navy”; reorganized the fyrd （the Saxonarmy）; translated into English Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People; established schools and formulated a legal system3. “Alfred the Great”（六）The Norman Conquest and its consequences （p.24-25）1. King Edward, known as “the Confessor”, was far more Nor man than Saxon2. 4 men laid claim to the English throne: the King of Norway, the Duke of Normandy, Tostig and Harold （two brothers of Edward’s Queen）3. Oct. 14, 1066, Hastings, Anglo-Saxon England perished with Harold’s death.4. William was crowned King of England on Christmas Day.5. the best-known event in English history6. William the Conqueror7. the feudal system was completely established.三、总结历史上定居和入侵英国的不同民族：Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Viking/Dales, and Normans。
history of English 英国历史简介
Oldபைடு நூலகம்English (450-1100)
The period from 450 to 1100 is known as the Old English or the Anglo-Saxon period. In the sixth century, the Roman missionaries headed by St. Augustine brought Christianity to the Germanic tribes (mainly the Saxons). The English language adopted many words from Latin, the official language of the church. Latin provided not only religious vocabulary (e.g., abbot, altar, disciple, hymn, nun, mass, pope, and priest) but also a surprising number of what are now everyday words (e.g., candle, cap, school, and spend).
This created an interesting mixture, because Old English was very similar to this close Germanic relative. For example, Old English Norse loan Many words beginning with scshrub scrub /sk- are borrowed from Scandinavian languages, e. g. lend loan score, scorch, skill, skin, skirt, sky. rear raise shirt skirt craft skill
张奎武版英美概况名词解释
英语国家概况名词解释系列（1）Amerigo Vespucc i----Amerigo Vespucc i, a navigat or, provedthat the land was not India,but a new contine nt. Therefo re, the land was named America after.The Puritan s----The Puritan s were wealthy, well-educate d gentlem en. They wantedto purifythe Churchof England and threate ned with religio us persecu tion, the Puritan s leaders saw the New world as the a refugeprovide d by God for those He meant to save.英语国家概况名词解释系列（2）The Bill of Rights----In 1789, James Madison introdu ced in the House of Represe ntativ es a seriesof amendme nts which later were drafted into twelvepropose d amendme nts and sent to the statesfor ratific ation. Ten of them were ratifie d in 1791 and the first ten amendme nts to the constit utionwere calledthe Bills of Rightsbecause they were to insureindivid ual liberti es.The Emancip ationProclam ation----After the Civil war began, Lincoln issuedthe Emancip ationProclam ationto win more support at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slavesin areas still control led by the Confede racy. 英语国家概况名词解释系列（3）Pilgrim s Thanksg ivingDay----The Pilgrim s in 1620, 201 of them sailedto the New World in a ship calledMayflow er. The first winterafter their arrival was very cold and when springcame, half of them were dead. Then the Indians came to their help and taughtthem how to grow corn. They had a good harvest that year. So they invited the Indians and held the first Thanksg ivingcelebra tion in America to give thanksto God.The Chunnel----In 1985 the British governm ent and Frenchgovernm ent decided to build a channel tunnel, which is called“Chunnel”, under the Straits of Dover so that England and Francecould be joinedtogethe r by road. The Chunnel was open to traffic in May 1994.英语国家概况名词解释系列（4）Eistedd fod----Eistedd fodistheWelshwordfor“sitting”Nationa l Eidtedd fod is the most famousfestiva l of music and verse in Wales. It takes place each Augustand lasts for about a week. The highlig ht of the festiva l is competi tion for the best epic poem about Wales written and read in Welsh. The winneris crowned Board, conside red the supreme honourin Wales. In this way the Welsh peoplekeep the Welsh languag e and culture alive. Cockney----A cockney is a Londone r who is born withinthe sound of Bow Bells-the Bells of the churchof St. Mary-LeBow in east London.英语国家概况名词解释系列（5）Stonehe nge----It is a group of huge monumen ts of grant rock Slabs on salisbu ry plain in Southwe st England built as long ago as the New Stone Age. It is general ly believe d that stonehe nge servedsome sort of religio us purpose s. The Celts----The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. The first wave were the Gales, the secondwave were the Brython s and the Belgaecame about 150BC. The Celts were practis ed farmers. The Celtictribesare ancesto rs of the Highlan d Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, And their languag es are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic. They religio n was Druidis m.英语国家概况名词解释系列（6）NormanConques t----The NormanConques t of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the conquer or confisc ated almostall the land and gave it to his Normanfollowe rs. He replace d the weak Saxon rule with a strongNormangovernm ent. So the feudalsystemwas complet ely establi shed in England.Alfredthe Great----He was king of Wessex, one of the seven Anglo-Saxon Kingdom s. It was he who led the Anglo-Saxon to flightagainst the invadin g Danes and maintai ned peace for a long time. Alfredwas not only a brave king at wartime, but also a wise king at peaceti me. He encoura ged educati on and introdu ced a legal system. Heisknownas“thefatherof the British na vy”.英语国家概况名词解释系列（7）St. Augusti ne----In 597,Pope Gregory I sent St. Augusti ne, the Prior of St. Andrew’sMonaste ry in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christi anity. That year, St. Augusti ne becamethe first Archbis hop ofCanterb ury. Augusti ne was remarka bly success ful in convert ing the king and the nobilit y, but the convers ion of the commonpeoplewas largely due to the mission ary activit ies of the monks in the north.Domesda y Book----It is a book compile d by a group of clerksunder the sponsor ship of King William the First in 1086. The book was in fact a propert y record. It was the resultof a general surveyof England. It recorde d the extent,value, state of cultiva tion, and ownersh ip of the land. It was one of the importa nt measure s adopted by William I to establi sh the full feudalsystemin England. Today, it is kept in the PublicRecords Officein London.英语国家概况名词解释系列（8）Geoffre y Chaucer----He was an importa nt English poet in the fourtee nth century. His best known is The Canterb ury Tales, which describ es a group of pilgrim s travell ing to Canterb ury to visit ThomasBecket’stomb. Because he was the first importa nt English poet to write in English. He has been kno wnasthe“Fatherof English Poetry”.The Black Death----It is a modernname given to the dearlybubonic plague, an epidemi c disease spreadthrough Europein the fourtee nth century particu larlyin 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cue. In England, it killedalmosthalf of the total populat ion, causing far-reachin g economi c consequ ences.英语国家概况名词解释系列（9）the HundredY ears’War--------It referre d to the intermi ttentwar between Franceand England that last from 1337 to 1453. The causeswere partlyterrito rial and partlyeconomi c. When EdwardIII claimed the FrenchCrown but the Frenchrefused to recogni ze, the war broke out. At first the English were success ful, but in the end, they were defeate d and lost almostall their possess ions in France. The expelli ng of the English was a blessin g for both countri es.the battleof Hasting s---------In 1066, King Edwarddied with no heir, the Witan chose Haroldas king. William, Duke of Normand y, invaded England. On October14, the two armiesmet near Hasting. Afteraday’sbattle, Haroldwas killedand his army complet ely defeate d. So this battlewas very importa nt on the way of the Roman conques t.The Wars of Roses玫瑰战争----the name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancast er, symboli zed by the read rose, and that of York, symboli zed by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descend ant of Duke of Lancast er won victory at Boswort h Fireldin 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudali sm receive d its death blow. The great medieva l nobilit y was much weakene d.The Gloriou s Revolut ion of 1688光荣革命---- In 1685 Charles II died and was succeed ed by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe,was a Catholi c. He hoped to rule without givingup his persona l religio us vies. But England was no more toleran t of a Catholi c king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politic ians rejecte d James II, and appeale d to a Protest ant king, William of Orange, to invadeand take the English throne.William landedin England in 1688. The takeove r was relativ ely smooth, with no bloodsh ed, nor any executi on of the king. This was known as the Gloriou s Revolut ion.英语国家概况名词解释系列（10）The Gunpowd er Plot of 1605火药阴谋案----The Gunpowd er Plot of 1605 was the most famousof the Catholi c conspir acies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatic al Catholi cs attempt ed to blow King James and his ministe rs up in the House of Parliam ent where Guy Fawkeshad planted barrels of gun-powderin the cellars. The immedia te resultwas the executi on of Fawkesand his fellow-conspir atorsand imposit ion of severeanti-Catholi c laws. The long-term resulthas been an annualcelebra tion on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firewor k display is arrange d.Blood Mary血腥玛丽----It is the nicknam e given to Mary I, the English Queen who succeed ed to the throneafter Henry VIII. She was a devoutCatholi c and had so many Protest ants burnt to death that she is remembe red less by her officia l title Mary I by her nicknam e Blood Mary.英语国家概况名词解释系列（11）Thatche rism撒切尔主义----The electio n of 1979 returne d the Conserv ativeParty to power and Margare t Thatche r becamethe first woman prime ministe r in Britain. Her policie s are popular ly referre d to as state-owned industr ies, the use of monetar ist policie s to control inflati on, the weaking of trade forcesunions, the strengt hening of the role of marketforcesin the economy, and an emphasi s on law and order.The Trade Union Act of 1871工会法----It legaliz ed the trade unionsand give financi al securit y. It meant that in law there was no differe nce between money for benefic purpose s and collect ing it to support strikeaction.英语国家概况名词解释系列（12）Agribus iness农业产业----The new farming has been called“agribus iness”, because it is equippe d and managed like an industr ial busines s with a set of inputsinto the process es which occur on the farm and outputs or product s which leave the farm.British disease英国病----Theterm“British disease”isnowoftenusedtocharact erizeBritain’seconomi c decline. 英语国家概况名词解释系列（13）Constit utiona l monarch y君主立宪制----It is a politic al systemthat has been practis ed in Britain since the Gloriou s revolut ion of 1688. Accordi ng to this system, the Constit utionis superio r to the Monarch. In law, the Monarch has many supreme powers,but in practic e, the real power of monarch y has been greatly reduced and today the Queen acts solelyon the adviceof her ministe rs. She reignsbut does not rule. The real power lies in the Parliam ent, or to be exact, in the House of Commons.Privy Council枢密院----A consult ativebody of the British monarch. Its origincan be tracedback to the times of the NormanKings. After the Gloriou s Revolut ion of 1688, its importa nce was gradual ly diminis hed and replace d by the Cabinet. Today, it is still a consult ationbody of the British monarch, Its members hip is about 400, and include s al Cabinet ministe rs, the speaker of the House of Commons, the Archbis hops of Canterb ury and York, and seniorBritish and Commonw ealthstatesm en.英语国家概况名词解释系列（14）The Nationa l HealthService----It is a very importa nt part of the welfare systemin Britain. It is a nationw ide organiz ationbased on Acts of Parliam ent. It provide s all kinds of free or nearlyfree medical treatme nt both in hospita l and outside. It is finance d mainlyby payment s by the state out of general taxatio n. Peopleare not obliged to use this service. The service is achievi ng its main objecti ves with outstan ding success.Compreh ensive schools----Compreh ensive s schools take pupilswithout referen ce to ability or aptitud e and provide a wide-ranging seconda ry educati on for all or most of the childre n in a distric t.英语国家概况名词解释系列（15）Reuters----It was founded in 1851 by the German, JuliusReuter. It is now a publicl y owned company, employi ng over 11000 staff in 80 countri es. It has more than 1300 staff journal ists and photogr aphers.The Crown Court----A crimina l court that deals with the more serious cases and holds session s in towns through out England and Wales. It is preside d over eitherby a judge from the High Court of Justice or a local full-time judge.英语国家概况名词解释系列（16）The Great lakes----The Great Lakes are the five lakes in the northea st. They are Lake Superio r which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michiga n (the only one entirel y in the U.S.), Lake Huron, Lake Eire and Lake Ontario. They are all located between Canadaand the UnitedStatesexpectLake Michiga n.The Mississ ippi----The Mississ ippi has been called“fatherof waters“or”oldmanriver”. It and Its tributa ries drain one of the richest farm areas in the world. It is the fourthlongest river in the world and the most importa nt river in the UnitedStates.英语国家概况名词解释系列（17）UncleT om’sCabin----It was a sentime ntal but powerfu l antisla very novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. It convert ed many readers to the aboliti onistcause.Gettysb urg----It refer to the short speechPreside nt Lincoln made when he dedicat ed the nationa l cemeter y at Gettybu rg. He ended the speechwith“thegovernm ent of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perishfromtheearth”.英语国家概况名词解释系列（18）The Red Scare----When the WWI was over, there existed a highlyaggress ive and intoler ant nationa lism. Between1919 and 1920, the Red Scare happene d. On Nov.7,1919 and Jan.2,1920, the Justice Departm ent launche d two waves of mass arrests. Over 4000 suspect ed Communi sts and radical were arreste d.The Ne w Deal----In order to deal with the Depress ion, Preside nt Frankli n Rooseve lt put forward the New Deal program. It passeda lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficie nt socialsecurit y systems. The New Deal helpedto save America n democra cy and the develop ment of America n economy.英语国家概况名词解释系列（19）TrumanDoctrin e----On Mar.12, 1949, Preside nt Trumanput forward the TrumanDoctrin e in his speechto the joint session of Congres s. The Doctrin e meant to support any country which said it was fightin g communi sm. Marshal l Plan----It was announc ed by GeorgeMarshal l on June.5, 1947, and was the economi c aid plan for Western Europe. It was also used to prevent the loss of Western Europeinto the Sovietsphere.英语国家概况名词解释系列（20）Londonsmog----In 195, the sulphur dioxide in the four-day Londonsmog, an unhealt hy atmosph ere formedby mixingsmoke and dirt with fog. It left 4000 peopledead or dying. Since then most citiesin Britain have introdu ced“cleanairzones”whereby factori es and househo lds are only allowed to burn smokele ss fuel.FamilyDoctor----In order to obtainthe benefit s of the NHS a personmust normall y be registe red on the list of a general practit ioner,sometim esknownasa“familydoctor”. The familydoctorgives treatme nt or prescri bes medicin e, or, if necessa ry, arrange s for the patient to go to hospita l or to be seen at home by a special ist.英语国家概况名词解释系列（21）Marvell ous Melbour ne----After the gold rush in 1850s and 1860s, there was an importa nt revolut ion in transpo rt, especia lly with the network of tram and railway systems. This changed the pace of urban life and the appeara nce of the city and soon peoplewere calling the city “Marvell ous Melbour ne”. But by the 1890s outside rs were calling thecity“Marvell ous Melbour ne”because of the bad smell of the city.Waitang i Day----In 1840 the first officia l governo r, William Hobson, was sent to negotia te with Maori leaders. In 1840 Hobson, represe ntingQueen Victori a, and some Maori chiefs, signedthe Treatyof Waitang i. ModernNew Zealand was founded. The anniver sary of the signing, Februar y 6, is celebra ted as New Zealand Nationa l Day, Waitang i Day, and is a nationa l holiday.英语国家概况名词解释系列（22）Multicu ltural ism----The term multicu ltural ism was coinedin Canadain the late 1960s. It was in officia l use in Austral ia by 1973. In other words, under multicu ltural ism migrant groupsare able to speak their own languag e and maintai n their own customs. Multicu ltural ism as a policyrecogni zes that socialcohesio n is attaine d by tolerat ing differe nces withinan agreedlegal and constit utiona l framewo rk.Quiet Revolut ion----Ever since 1763, when Francelost its empirein North America to England, FrenchCanadia ns have struggl ed to preserv e their languag e and culture. In the early 1960s FrenchCanadia ns becamemore vocal in their protest s. In particu lar, they complai ned that were kept out of jobs in governm ent and in some large busines ses because they spoke only French.They have been struggl ing more rightscommonwhich was called“Quietrevolut ion”.Joan of Arc--------She was a nationa l heroine of Franceduringthe HundredYears’War. She success fullyled the Frenchto drive the English out of France.the Great Charter--------KingJohn’sreigncausedmuch discont ent among the barons. In 1215, he was forcedto sign a documen t, known as MangnaCara, or the Great Charter. It has 63 clauses. Thoughit has long been regarde d as the foundat ion of English liberit ies, its spiritwas the limitat ionoftheking’spowers, keeping themwithinthe boundsof the feudallaw of the land.Domesda y Book---------Under William, the feudalsystemwas establi shed. William sent officia ls to compile a propert y recordknown as Domesda y Book, which complet ed in 1086. It was the resultof a general surveyof England made in 1085. It statedthe extent, value, the populat ion, state of cultiva tion, and ownersh ip of the land. It seemedto the English like the Book of doom on Judgeme nt Day.the Hardian’sWall--------It was one of the two great walls built by the Romansto keep the Picts out of the area they had conquer ed.William the Conquer or--------William was Duke of Normand y. He landedhis army in Oct, 1066 and defeate d king Harold.Then he was crowned king of England on Christa ms Day the same year. He establi shed a strongNormangovernm ent and the feudalsystemin England.Elizabe th I---------One of the greates t monarch s in British history. She reigned England, Wales and Ireland for 45 years and remaine d single. Her reign was a time of confide nt English nationa lism and of great achieve mentsin literat ure and other arts, in explora tion and in battle.OliverCromwel l--------The leaderduringthe Civil War who led the New Model Army to defeatthe king and condemn ed him to death. Then he declare d England a Commonw ealthand made himself Lord of Protect or. He ruled England till the restora tion of charles II in 1660.the Bill of Rights-------In 1689, William and Mary accepte d the Bill of Rightsto be crowned jointly. The bill exclude d any Roman Catholi c from the success ion, confirm ed the princip le of parliam entary suprema cy and guarant eed free speechwithinboth the two Houses. Thus the age of constit utiona l monarch y began.Whigs and Tories---------It referre d to the two party names which origina ted with the Gloriou s Revolut ion of 1688. The Whigs were those who opposed absolut e monarch y and support ed the right to religio us freedom for Noncomf ormist s. The Torieswere those who support ed heredit ary monarch y and were relucta nt to removekings. The Whigs formeda coaliti on with disside nt Toriesand becamethe Liberal Party. The Torieswere the forerun ners of the Conserv ativeParty.James Watt---------The Scottis h invento r who produce d an efficie nt steam enginewith rotarymotionthat could be applied to textile and other machine ry.Winston Churchi ll---------Prime Ministe r of Britain duringthe SecondWorld War. He took over Chamber lain in 1940 and receive d massive popular support. He led his country to final victory in 1945. He was defeate d in the general electio n of 1945, but returne d to power in 1951.the British Constit ution---------There is no written constit utionin the UnitedKingdom. The British Constit utionis not set out in any singledocumen t, but made up of statute law, commonlaw and convent ions. The Judicia ry determi nes commonlaw and interpr et statues.Queen Elizabe th II-----------The present Soverei gn, born in 1926, came to the thronein 1952 and was crowned in 1953. The Queen is the symbolof the whole nation, the centerof many nationa l ceremon ies and the leaderof society.The Navigat ion Acts------航海法案。
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The ageing of Welsh language-group has decreased: : the proportion of speakers 65+ has steadily fallen: 31.0% 27.4% 22.6% 16.9%
Welsh and Gaelic language-viability 1971-81-91-2001 censuses
65+ years
Welsh speakers 1971-81-91-2001: age-group as % of all speakers
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1971 Census
3-15 years
1981 Census
1991 Census
2001 Census
65 + years
Gaelic speakers by age-group: 1971-81-91-2001 Censuses
30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 1971 1981 1991 2001
3-15 years
16-24 years
25-44 years
45-64 years
Official measures promoting growth of Welsh:1965 Hughes-Parry Report on status of Welsh 1967 First Welsh Language Act (‘equal validity’) 1967 Gittins Report Primary Education in Wales – aim of full national bilinguality 1972 Bowen Report on roadsigns 1973 Council for Welsh Language 1979 Radio Cymru: 126 hours weekly in Welsh 1978 Council Report: Future for Welsh Language 1982 S4C Welsh-medium TV channel: 34 hrs p. wk in Welsh 1988 Welsh Language Advisory Board 1988 Education Act – Welsh in core curriculum 1993 Second Welsh Language Act 1993 Welsh Language Board 1998 Government of Wales Act – language powers devolved
Gaelic
Welsh and Gaelic speakers age profiles: 1971-81-91-2001 Censuses 65s and over as % of all speakers
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1971 Census 1981 Census 1991 Census 2001 Census
Note: at least 33.3 % is basic for language-group reproduction.
Welsh language viability: implications for Gaelic language-planning
The success of Welsh language viability was built upon: Popular movements to secure language for youth Urdd 1922+, in home Undeb Cenedlaethol 1913+, and culture Undeb Cymru Fydd 1939+: much development interwar. A playgroups movement: Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin, from 1971, followed by rapid growth; Welsh-medium units and schools (primary from 1939 and 1947, secondary from 1956) followed by rapid growth; Legislation for status (1967, 1993), and language in education (1944, 1988); Effective presence in the mass-media: Radio Cymru 1978+, S4C 1982+ .
65 + years 45 - 64 years 25 - 44 years 16 - 24 years 3 - 15 years
Welsh and Gaelic speakers 1971-81-91-2001: by % in age-groups
30 20 10 0
1971 1971 WelshGaelic 1981 1981 WelshGaelic 1991 1991 WelshGaelic 2001 2001 WelshGaelic
16-24 years
25-44 years
45-64 years
Gaelic speakers 1971-81-91-2001: as % of total in each age-group
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1971 Census 1981 Census 1991 Census 2001 Census
Welsh and Gaelic speakers youth profiles: 1971-81-91-2001 Censuses – 3-15 years as % of all speakers
Welsh
பைடு நூலகம்
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1971 Census 1981 Census 1991 Census 2001 Census
1991 Census
2001 Census
65+ years
16-24 years
25-44 years
45-64 years
Welsh speakers 1971-81-91-2001: as % total in each age-group
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1971 Census 3-15 years 1981 Census 1991 Census 2001 Census 65 + years
65 + years 45 - 64 years 25 - 44 years 16-24 years 3 - 15 years
Language viability – some conclusions:
Welsh has benefited from legislation, administrative measures and provisions in education and the media, which Gaelic has almost entirely lacked. As a result of this: The Welsh language-group is increasingly youthful and by 1991 regained the potential for effective viability. Gaelic has been very largely without the measures enjoyed by Welsh: language and education acts, a language-planning authority (until now), appropriate scale of educational provision, administrative support, and dedicated broadcast media. Without these measures Gaelic will be unable to build the necessary cultural infrastructure that every language group needs to maintain itself in today’s world. Scotland – like Wales – now has devolved powers on language, and therefore has the same means to provide for language needs as Wales.
Youth profile of speakers: Proportion of Gaelic speakers aged 3-15 years declined: from 1971-91 – but has increased between 1991-2001: 11.8% 11.9% 10.7% 12.7% and similarly numerically: 9,991 9,454 7,092 7,435 Proportion of Welsh speakers aged 3-15 years has steadily and substantially increased: 14.3% 16.5% 26.3% 31.7% and numerically: 77,560 83,900 113,,236 184,407
65 + years 45 - 64 years 25 - 44 years 16 - 24 years 3 - 15 years
Gaelic speakers by age 1921 – 2001