Chapter One An Introduction to Pragmatics
《语言学》Chapter 6 Pragmatics习题兼答案
语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。
Chapter One全--lesson one
1.1.4 Major Distinctions in Linguistics
①
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
They represent two different types of linguistic study. The former aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, while the latter aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. For modern linguists, their job is to describe and analyze whatever occurs in the language, instead of setting models for language users to follow.
called pragmatics. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations.
1.1.3 Branches of Applied Linguistics
The branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas: sociolinguistics anthropological linguistics psycholinguistics computational linguistics Applied linguistics refers to the study of linguistics and other theories in relation to any language-related problems. It combines psychology, sociology, anthropology etc. with linguistics. The problems it attempts to solve include the study of foreign language learning and teaching, machine translation, national language planning policy as well as various aspects of communication research.
普通语言学_pragmatics
3. Deixis, reference, anaphora
Anaphora
• When we establish a referent (Can I borrow your book?) and subsequently refer to the same object (Yeah, it’s on the table), we have a particular kind of referential relationship between book and it. The second (and any subsequent) referring expression is an example of anaphora and the first mention is called the antecedent. Thus, book is the antecedent and it is the anaphoric expression.
Context
• Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning. ( Yule,1996:3) • Pragmatics can be usefully defined as the study of how utterance have meanings in situations.( Leech,1983:x) • Pragmatics, as a topic in linguistics, is the study of the use of context to make inferences about meaning.( Fasold,1993:119, from Schiffrin) • Pragmatics is the study of the conditions of human language uses as these are determined by the context of society.( Mey,1993:42) • Pragmatics is concerned with the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context.
An introduction to Writing
Chapter Three The First and Second Steps in Essay Writing
This chapter will show you how to start an essay with a point, or thesis support that point, or thesis, with specific evidence
Step 1: Begin with a Point, or Thesis
e.g. General subject: Sports Limited subject: Sports Fans Thesis: Football fans are insane. Thesis statement: Football fans behave insanely, they are insane about the past, and they are insanely loyal.
and ___________________. 2. During my first semester at college, I had to learn how to manage my time, my diet, and ___________________. 3. Anyone who buys an old house planning to fix it up should be prepared to put in a lot of time, hard work, and ________________.
Activity I. Identify the errors that the following statements contain:
Chapter One Introduction
Translation Theory and Practice刘辉I cannot make you into a good translator; I cannot cause you to write well. The best I can do is to suggest to you some general guidelines for translating. … By offering plenty of examples I hope to provide enough practice for you to improve your performance as a translator.(Peter Newmark: A Textbook of Translation. p4)Chapter One IntroductionDefinition of translationNature of translationTypes of translationThe makings of a good translatorI. Definition of translationTo turn from one language to another(从一种语言转换成另一种语言)（The Oxford English Dictionary）To turn into one’s own or another language(转换成本族语或另一种语言)(Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language)⏹把一种语言文字的意义用另一种语言文字表达出来（《辞海》《汉语大词典》）⏹翻译是两种语言之间“转换”活动，转换的内容是“意义”⏹Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of thesource-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.---Eugene A.Nida所谓翻译，是指在译语中用最切近而又自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先在语义上，其次是文体上。
从“老纽约小说”看华顿的法国情结
New York more, and as France is a centre of scholars and a place where Wharton traveled frequently, Wharton idealizes it as her place of safety which could shelter her from her suffocating life and the barren culture in old New York.
EDITH WHARTON’S FRENCH COMPLEX IN “OLD NEW YORK NOVELS”
By
Wang Yu
Under the supervision of Dr. Qi Tao
A thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment Of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts to the School of Foreign Studies
继而本文对华顿纽约情结的成因做了系统的研究，认为有社会和个人两个 因素造成了她对法国的迷恋。首先，美国物质主义和文雅传统的文化分裂，文 化的落后和物质主义的不断崛起让许多美国学者包括华顿感觉到美国包括老纽 约是一个肤浅而虚伪的社会，而欧洲文化的蓬勃发展又让美国学者对欧洲的文 化氛围非常向往；其次，老纽约压抑的生活和不幸的婚姻让华顿更加不喜爱老 纽约，同时法国是华顿经常旅行的地方，也是文化名人汇集之地，华顿便将其 理想化为避难所，使自己远离老纽约社会的压抑生活和文化贫瘠。
Profound thanks and sincere gratitude are also extended to Professor Hong Zengliu, Professor Chen Zhengfa, Professor Chen Bing, Professor Hua Quankun, and to all the other teachers who have given me advice and support in courses and lectures during my study as a postgraduate student in Anhui University.
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One IntroductionWith the development of the global cross-cultural communication, the introduction of film and television works which serve as a type of culture carrier promotes the exchange and collision between two different cultures. In recent years, increasing number of foreign films and television works were introduced into China and people can get access to them through many different ways like theaters, television or just internet which is more convenient. However, because of the language barrier and cultural differences, only with the help of Chinese captions can a great majority of the audience could understand the meaning，even the spirit in it better, and experience an audio-visual feast while getting their inner heart deeply touched. Subtitle is not only recreation of the original language, but also it is a kind of aesthetic activity. With the growing call for the return of aesthetics in the realm of translation recently, there is increasing need to study subtitle translation from the perspective of aesthetics.In China, aesthetics is of special significance to Chinese translation, in which the combination of aesthetics and translation is one of its greatest characteristics. Some scholars believe that aesthetics is the base of Chinese traditional translation. Although western translation theory builds on philosophy, it also has a long history in terms of aesthetics. So it is reasonable to integrate aesthetics and translation together. Beauty is everywhere even in the language itself and it is one of the basic properties of language as well. Preference for beauty is a common nature of human, which is a universal phenomenon. Take the following as examples, in China when people refer to the old, they use probably “双鬓斑白” instead of “满脸皱纹”. Again, “oval” is adopted to describe a girl’s face rather than using the image of the duck egg. Also because of the beautiful rhythm of language, “mathematics, physics, chemistry” is preferred than any other group of combination o f the three subjects. This potential principle applies to English as well. In English, it is not the“work at another job at night” but the “moonlight” suggests that someone takes a second job during night. In addition, there is no exception for translation. Collecting the most classical part of novel, drama, music, arts, dance and photography in it, movie is a kind of comprehensive art. Therefore, how to reappear the beauty of subtitle to audience becomes the focus of filmtranslation.Chapter Two Translation Aesthetics2. 1 Definition of Translation AestheticsAccording to the “A Dictionary of Translation Studies” edited by Fang Mengzhi, translation Aesthetics reveals the aesthetical origin of translation, studies the special significance of aesthetics on translation, discovers the scientific and artistic feature of translation from the aesthetic perspective and put forwards aesthetic standards towards different type of translation texts, in order to analysis, interpret and solve the aesthetic problems in intercultural conversion by using basic aesthetic principles.With full understanding of the basic properties of translation aesthetic subject (the original work) and the aesthetic object (translator), we can analysis the made up of aesthetic object and the dynamic effect of the aesthetic subject, clarify the relationship between aesthetic subject and aesthetic object and provide the reproduction of aesthetic with means and different forms; therefore, it all can be used to instruct translation practice.2.2 The Development of Translation AestheticsIn China, translation has a rather long history dating back to about 1800 years ago in terms of the translation of Buddhist texts. Taking a look at this, it is not difficult to find that almost all the translation theories is inseparable with aesthetics, and this is also the general trend of history and cultural pattern in future. From the theory “Exquisite Diction” by Zhi Qian, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” by Yan Fu, “Spiritual Conformity” by Fu Lei, the “Theory Sublimation” promoted by Qian Zhongshu to the “Three Beauties” by Xu Yuanchong and so on, each provides strong support to the natural birth of translation aesthetics in history. Having absorbed the essence of beauty, all of these theories suggest obvious aesthetic features —emphasis on faithfulness, parataxis and beauty of connotation, which glitters just like gold.In modern period, translation theories mainly focus on the translation standards, translation processes and translation methods before 1970s. While after that, increasing researchers use descriptive methods to study translation theory and therefore has developed a deep understanding towards it. Translation aesthetics enter the systematical researching period in this background. “Practical Translation Aesthetics” by Fu Zhong in 1993 is the first translation aesthetic monograph in our country. It talks about the main categories of translation aesthetic, namely aesthetic subject, aesthetic object, aesthetic activity, standards of translation aesthetics and the method of reappearance of beauty. “Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation”published in 2000 by Xi Yongji is one of representative works studying comparative literary translation. While “Aesthetics Process during Liter ary Translation: the Reconstruction of Gestalt Image”authorized by Jiang Qiuxia in 2002 primarily focuses on the aesthetic process. In 2005 Mao Ronggui published “Translation Aesthetics”which is made up of four parts and expands the research scope of translation theory and practice. However, the most important work in the field may be “An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics” by Liu Miqing. It has fully reflected the author’s thought about Chinese translation aesthetics and posed a rather important position in the connection between western aesthetics and basic Chinese translation theory.Globally, the developing trend of translating field and the “Cultural Turn” have created suitable environment for the birth of translation aesthetics. It is widely acknowledged that aesthetics belong to culture and translation is a kind of communication, so translation is a way to transfer beauty in essence. Therefore, we got to know that the outcome of translation aesthetics can not be resisted.2.3 Achievements of Translation AestheticsThe book Aesthetic Progression inLiterary Translation: Image- G Actualization, written by Jiang Qiuxia in herdoctorial paper in 2002, holds that there is no way to unveil the “black box” existing in human psychology. So it uses descriptive method to explore the psychological mechanism of the reconstruction of gestalt image in literary translation. Besides, it emphasizes how the reader (the translator) can make use of gestalt psychology to recreate the whole image of the original works and present the target readers with the equivalence between original works and target works. This is, from the Angle of aesthetics, development of Nida's functional equivalence theory (2000). Since there is no complete equivalence translation, “functional equivalence” may be the best choice, generally speaking. In general it is best to speak of “functional equivalence” in terms of a range of adequacy, since no translation is ever completely equivalent. A number of different translations can in fact represent varying degrees of equivalence. This means that “equivalence” cannot be understood in its mathematical meaning of identity, but only in terms of proximity, i.e. on the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity. (Nida , 2000 :117)This type of aesthetic has taken advantage of Gestalt psychology. (Lakoff, 1982:20)defined Gestalt in such a way —take the thing as an independent gestalt from the perspective of wholeness on that level. While at a lower level in order to give confirmation, specific details needs to be picked out. Gestalt recreation is the basic principle of translation aesthetics —interdisciplinary subject, which benefits from translation studies, literary studies, aesthetic and cognitive psychology. Gestalt image is a new conception out of the old idea of “image” as literary metaphor or symbol mainly concerned in poetry. When explored in this context as a holistic whole, it is taken as a relatively independent contextual entity rather than a single word or words constitution.) ( 姜秋霞,2002 : 241) Broadly speaking, translation studies，a discipline in the development period, is in constant growth and expansion. “An Introduction of Translation Aesthetics (revision, Peter, 2005)”reprinted by China Translation and Publishing Corporation greatly enriched and developed the theory of translation aesthetics.2.4 Prospect of Translation AestheticsFrom the perspective of prose translation, Wang Hongtao (2006:2006-4) categorizes Western and Chinese Comparative Aesthetic into three levels: Western and Chinese Comparative Translation Aesthetics; prose translation under the Chinese and western Comparative Aesthetics; the meaning of application of Chinese and Western Comparative Aesthetics in prose translation. As can be seen, translation aesthetic has marched no matter in terms of aesthetic subject, aesthetic reception or gestalt aesthetics. This is of great benefit to future translation aesthetic development. However, we should not only strongly opposite the overuse of aesthetics in translating field but also fight against the pseudo translation aesthetics. What we pursuit are the unity of formal beauty, implicational beauty and receiving beauty, and the unity of universal law and special performance of translation aesthetics. Meanwhile, we can not promise translation is filled with aesthetics, but translation can also not be totally separated from aesthetics. There are not only inheritance, experience from others but also merit and recreation in itself. So it is necessary to find out whether “Tr anslation Aesthetics”, created by Chinese scholars, has fully absorbed the widely acknowledged theories — Aesthetics of Reception and Gestalt. This is a blessing as well as a new issue for China’s translation studies.Chapter Three Subtitle Translation3.1 Definition of Subtitle TranslationUp to now, there is not an authorized definition about translating subtitles. Following are some definitions:(1)Subtitling can be defined as the process of providing synchronizedcaptions for film and television dialogue (and more recently for live opera)(2)Subtitling, sometimes referred to as captions, are transcriptions of film orTV dialogue, presented simultaneously on the screen.(3) A subtitle is a printed statement or fragment of dialogue appearing on thescreen between the scenes of a silent motion picture or appearing as a translation at the bottom of the screen during the scenes of a motion picture or television show in a foreign language.(4)··· the words printed or super imposed on a film in a foreign language totranslate what is being said on the sound track ···Although all these definitions explained subtitle in some degree, it is far from enough. The first definition points out that subtitle translation is used as a process to provide synchronization instruction for film and television dialogue. The second definition is similar to the first one, but the category where the subtitle suits is too narrow in those two definitions for the following two reasons: first of all, it is limited to film and television. In fact, if possible, subtitle is applied to any kind of multimedia. Secondly, apart from film and television, subtitle can also be used to give illustration to even the non-dialogue texts. The third definition refers to the caption that is displayed in the silent film or at the bottom of television screen. It serves as interpretation to another language or just illustrative fragments and this definition has fully explained the concept of subtitles. Definition four indicates translating the language being played in the sound track into another and printing it on the film. However, translating subtitle does not refer to the language that is being said at themoment.From the above, we also get to know that subtitle is a kind of text but with a different presenting mode like the common one. And it is this special presenting form that makes subtitle limited in many aspects.3.2 Characteristics of Subtitle TranslationSubtitle provides the audience with a large mount of information about the multimedia works. Following are four of its characteristics:3.2.1 ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness refers that subtitles must appear together with other factors of the film and television programs like sound and picture image at the same time instead of showing alone. The audience are willing to hear the actors as well as the music, background sounds and seeing the picture changes. The audience enjoy the film and television by watching the motion picture, listening to the dialogue and reading the subtitles and so on. So without pictures and sounds, the film and television can not convey the information fully; without captions, the effect of sounds and pictures can not achieve the best level. Generally speaking, in all of the factors mentioned above, pictures and sounds are the most important, while subtitles serve only as an auxiliary factor. Therefore, comprehensiveness offer subtitle some convenience namely subtitles can be omitted where the information can fully express through sounds and pictures. Thus translator should take full advantage of this characteristic and omit as much subtitles as possible.3.2.2 InstantaneityInstantaneity indicates that the subtitle, which is unrepeatable, appear and disappear simultaneously with the corresponding pictures and sounds. Although subtitle exists in the form of language, it is still different from the desk literature, such as poetry, prose and fiction for desk literature all appear in independent text form. Readers can appreciate desk literature over and over again at any time and any place as long as he wants. By contrast, subtitle can not be appreciated repeatedly withoutlimitation because of its instantaneous characteristic. While watching the plots the audience has to give up if he did not catch up with the subtitles because there is only one chance. Instantaneity decides that the audience cannot spend more time to understand the content of the captions; otherwise, it will affect the understanding of follow-up plots.3.2.3 PopularityPopularity means that the film and television subtitle translation must use a popular language or has the characteristic of popular language. Following are three main reasons: In the first place, film and television works aiming at the masses belong to the public. Majority of the audience are common people despite that some are well-educated and have higher artistic accomplishment. Therefore, we should use the most popular language to translate the original language to convey information, considering about the acceptance ability and appreciative level of majority part of the audience. The reason lies in that most audiences will be impeded while understanding too much elegant and abstract language. Secondly, with the characteristic of instantaneity, translation subtitle appears only once at the bottom of the screen. So only by using the popular and colloquial translation texts can the audience grasp the general meaning. Thirdly, the principle of “acceptance first” aims at helping the audience to understand the plot better. If too much euphemistic and expressive language is adopted as subtitle, the audience can not follow the plots closely while spending a long time trying to understanding the language.3.2.4 ConcisenessConciseness means that the language of film and television subtitle is concise and refined. There are two causes contributing to this characteristic.Firstly, the translation of film and television subtitle is limited by time and space, so the translator has to finish tasks in the limitation while keeping the picture and subtitle appear simultaneously. This determines subtitles can not use over-complicated language. The second reason is about the instantaneous acceptance of the audience, which indicates the simpler and easier the language the better while providing themore rich contents to the audience.Chapter Four Application of Translation Aesthetics in SubtitleTranslation4.1 Aesthetic Principles and Aesthetic strategy4.1.1 Aesthetic PrinciplesFirstly, the translation version shall accord the characters’ emotion and personality. So it is rather important for the translator to devote his own aesthetic emotion to the four stages of the whole work —“watching, understanding, analyzing and translating”. Only by understanding and appreciating the original work, integrating the emotions and characteristics of different roles into the translation, thinking from the perspective of different roles, speaking for them can the translator produce vivid, individualized characters, corresponding translational texts with the original dialogues as well as creating an immersive feeling for the audience.Secondly, the translation shall measure up the original work’s style. Film and television work is mainly made up of four different types, namely national style (a stable artistic character which reflects the national life in a particular area), period style (reflecting the life style of different time period), directing style (owing subjective or objective factors, different director prefer different theme, language and acting ways) and aesthetic style (such as drama, documentary, romantic style). So in the translating process (more accurately, that is adding, omitting and changing the original dialogue), the translator should abandon their preferring style, overcoming as many limiting factors as possible to get close to the original style.The third one is alienation, an important method to get to know about an exotic culture. How to help the audience to understand more about foreign history and costumes is a vital task. In order to incarnate the cultural diversity, translators can adopt alienation. For example, in American TV play, Rose said proudly: “I got 1450 on my SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test, which is a kind of academic test in America when students graduating from high school)”. When SATs is translated into “毕业会考”, it will be much easier for people to understand. Also some words, like NBA and FBI have already been popular between Chinese, so there is no need to translate.Next is about domestication. In the practice of translation, the existence of cultural differences between the two languages led to the production of translation variation and sometimes the semantic meaning changed or even lost. Adoption of domestication decreased the exoticism. More importantly, it can avoid ambiguity in order to present the audience with a more natural and easier way to understand the translation version. Liberal translation, substitution and even rewriting all these methods can help to translators to comprehend the original language better. For instance, in the movie “A Beautiful Mind”, the sentence “Shall we say swords, gentlemen? Pistols at dawn?” can be translated into “我们该谈谈剑了，绅士们。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One: Introduction1. Linguistics and English linguistics1) As the name suggests, linguistics is the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history, culture, and so on.2) According to John Lyons（约翰·莱昂斯），linguistics is divided into types: general linguistics（普通语言学）and descriptive linguistics (描述语言学).A. Differences:i. General linguistics deals with language in general, or the whole human language. Descriptive linguistics studies particular languages.ii. General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish models that describe the rules of particular languages like Chinese, German, English, etc.B. Relationship:They explicitly or implic itly depend on each other.i. On the one hand, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described.ii. On the other hand, the descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguists. Thus, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other.3) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics. It deals with a particular language --- English, for the purpose of constructing a model to represent the unconscious linguistic knowledge possessed by a fluent English speaker.Actually the study of any particular language is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2. The nature of language(s)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.1) Language is a system.i. Every language consists of a set of rules, including phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules, semantic rules, grammatical rules, and so on. These rules underlie people's actual speech or writing.ii. In de Saussure's（索绪尔）term, the system of language is called langue（语言体系）and the speaker's speech is called parole (言语).iii. According to Chomsky（乔姆斯基）, competence（语言知识）is "the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language"，while performance（言语行为）is "the actual use of language in concrete situations".iv. Langue or competence is abstract and not directly observed, while parole or performance is concrete and directly observable. It has to take in a definite time and place, and in a particular situation.2) Language is symbolic.i. What is a symbol? How many parts does a symbol consist of?A symbol is essentially made up of two parts: a concrete object or form, and the meaning or the idea that it conveys.ii. There are a few words which cannot be classified as symbols such as the, a, an, etc.3) Language is a system of vocal symbols.i. Two types: visual symbols, auditory symbolsii. Not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes, coughs and so on usually do not have symbolic value.iii. Language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Three reasons: A. Biolog ically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write. B. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life. C. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.4) Language is arbitrary.i. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.ii. By saying language is arbitrary, we mean that we cannot give a reason why a certain linguistic form should represent a certain meaning and why a certain meaning should be represented by a certain form.iii. It does not imply that any individual speaker has the freedom to determine the pronunciation of a word.5) Language is creative.i. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.ii. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.6) Language is double-structured.Two levels: grammatically --- meaningful and sound --- meaningless7) Language is changeable.Language has changes in three systems: sound system, lexical system and grammatical system.3. Scientific method3.0 Definition: Generally speaking, a scientific method is the procedure adopted by scientists in conducting their investigation and establishing their conclusion.3.1 Scientific method in generalFour stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions3.2 Scientific method in linguisticsFour stages: gather data, construct a tentative rule, examine the tentative rule, finalize the ruleAn important principle --- objectivity3.2.1 ObjectivityThree common linguistic biasesA. Some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.B. Only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.C. Change is not natural for living languages and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay.3.2.2 Sources of dataA. Collecting data is the initial work for any linguistic description.B. If the linguist describes a language that he does not know himself, he may find a suitable native speaker of that language as his informant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），who is usually a bilingual.3.2.3 Rules constructionA. The essential task of linguistic description is to construct rules which may account for a native speaker's implicit knowledge about the language.B. How does a linguist construct a rule?Step 1: the linguist starts with collecting data.Step 2: based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.Step 3: then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.Step 4: he keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Attention: very likely, the data gathered are not complete. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.4. The goal of linguistics4.0 Definition: the goal of linguistics is to establish a model of a native speaker's competence.4.1 Modeli. There are two kinds of models:A. a physical or literal model --- it can be used to investigate the function and construction of the real object.B. a conceptual or theoretical model --- it can be used to examine something unobservable such as the nature of economy.Which type does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? --- The latter.ii. Two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness（明确性）and generativeness（生成性）A. By saying a model is explicit, we mean that the rules of the language the model contains are clearly defined.B. By saying a model is generative, we mean that we can use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences.4.2 CompetenceA native speaker has four types of linguistic knowledge: phonological knowledge（音位知识）, morphological knowledge（词法知识）, syntactic knowledge（句法知识）and semantic knowledge（语义知识）i. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.ii. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about how a word is formed.iii. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.iv. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the meaning of language.5. Sub-branches of linguistics1) Phonetics（语音学）is the study of speech sounds of all human languages. It deals with questions like how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, how English sounds are classified and described.2) Phonology （音系学）is the science that deals with the sound system of a language.3) Morphology（词法、形态学）deals with word formation and the internal structure of words.4) Syntax（句法）is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.5) Semantics（语义学）is the study of the meaning of words and sentences6. Saussure: The Father of Modern Linguistics1) When did modern linguistics start? --- At the beginning of the 20th century.2) What are the most influential schools of modern linguistics? --- Structural linguistics（结构语言学）and Transformational-generative Grammar (TG Grammar)（转换生成语法）3) Who is commonly acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics? --- Ferdinand de Saussure4) Why is he regarded as the founder of modern linguistics?Answer:1。
Chapter One Introduction
1.2 The nature of translation
Discussion
Definitions of translation
Definitions given by Chinese scholars
翻译是将一种文字之真义全部移至另一种文字而绝不失其风格 的神韵。（吴献书，1949） 翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整 地重新表达出来的语言活动。（张培基，1980） 翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。（刘宓庆，1990） 翻译的定义应该是：“将一种语言传达的信息用另一种语言传 达出来。”（蔡毅，1995） 翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出 来的文化活动。（王克非，1997） 翻译是语际之间的信息传递和语族之间的文化交流。（萧立明， 2001）
Come, let us go down, and confuse their language there, so that they will not understand one another’s speech.” So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. Therefore it was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth; and from there the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.
Different views on translation
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Understanding Utterances: The Pragmatics of Natural Language and Grundy (1995) in his Doing Pragmatics.
Pragmatics---the study of the relation of signs to interpreters
Then in Signs, Language and Behavior (1946), he remarks that pragmatics is
one part of semiotics, studying the origin of signs, the usage and the function of signs in behaviour.
Anaphora: the referring function in a sentence or discourse context. For instance, ‘The man was walking softly; he carried a big stick.’ ‘He’ anaphorically refers to ‘the man’.
The term “pragmatics” is attributed to the philosopher Charles Morris (1938) who was concerned to outline the general shape of a science of signs or semiotics as Morris
language is the internal representation, grammar is the description of the language mechanism in human mind.
He ignores the use of language and the communicative function of language.
Chapter One Introduction to pragmatics
1.1 The origin and development of pragmatics
1.2 Definitions of pragmatics 1.3 Focus of pragmatics 1.4 Criticisms of pragmatics
The Anglo-American VS Continental tradition of pragmatic study
The Anglo-American tradition of pragmatic study focuses on how language users express and interpret communicative intention.
Syntactics (syntax)---the study of the formal relation of signs to one another
Semantics---the study of the relations of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable
1.1 The origin and development of pragmatics
Although pragmatics is a relatively new branch of linguistics, research on it can be dated back to ancient Greece and Rome where the term pragmaticus’ is found in late Latin and pragmaticos’ in Greek, both meaning being practical’, it was discussed in the research area of Oratory.
By elaborating the sense of pragmatism in his concern of conversational meanings, Grice (1975) enlightened modern treatment of meaning by distinguishing two kinds of meaning, natural and non-natural.
They later develop into school of sociology and functional school. Their study is concerned with micropragmatics, macropragmaitcs and metapragmatics.
Chapter Five Adaptation theory Chapter Six Speech acts Chapter Seven Face and politeness
theory Chapter Eight Conversation analysis
Chapter Nine ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้eixis
Continental pragmatic study strongly emphasizes the social function of language, entertaining the view that language use cannot be separated from the society, culture and context.
Many linguists are against Chomsky’s practice of ignoring the social and contextual factors in language use.
In the early 1960s, Katz and his collaborators began to find out how to corporate meaning into a formal linguistic theory.
So in late 1960s pragmatics was henceforth on the linguistic map.
Early 1960s- late 1960s-2000: Changes from something in the wastebasket to a flourishing area
Grice suggested that pragmatics should centre on the more practical dimension of meaning, namely the conversational meaning which was later formulated in a variety of ways (Levinson, 1983; Leech, 1983).
Research Topics: deixis, speech act, conversational implicatures, presupposition, and conversation structure, all these are directly or indirectly related to the deduction and inference of intention.
The development of pragmatics owes much to the heated dispute over Chomsky’s view of language.
Chomsky believes that people are born to have the LAD.
Chapter Ten Systemic Functional grammar
Chapter Eleven Critical discourse analysis
Chapter Twelve Pragmatic transfer in intercultural communication
Chapter Thirteen Appraisal Theory
Chapter Fourteen Classroom research on interlanguage pragmatics
Chapter Fifteen Data collection in pragmatics research
In 1950, he discovered Syntax. Like the structuralists, he focused his study on language form, still regarded meaning as too messy for serious contemplation.
The development of pragmatics:
Modern use and current practice of pragmatics is credited to the influence of the American philosophical doctrine of pragmatism.
preferred in Foundations of the Theory of Signs by Charles Morris
Morris distinguished three distinct branches of inquiry: Semiotics can be divided into syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics.