The Phonemes of English - The Bases Produced Home Page
语言学简明教程Chapter 3
1
3.1 Introduction
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns(systems) of language. It is concerned with the linguistic patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. It is also called phonemics.
Chapter 3 Phonology: Sound Patterns (音位/音系学): 3.1 Introduction
3. 2 The Distinctive Sounds of Language
3.3 Minimal pair (最小对立体) 3.4 Some rules of phonology
For example, the words “pan” and “ban” differ only in the initial sound: „pan‟ beg with /b/. Therefore, /p/and /b/ are phonemes in English. The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English 6 is often considered to have 44 phonemes.
Chapter 12语言学
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics12.0 Introduction – Ferdinand de SaussureThe Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857~1913) is ―father of modern linguistics‖ and ―a master of a discipline which he made modern.‖His important ideas about linguistics were collected in Course in General Linguistics (1916), which was published by his students C. Bally and A. Sechehaye.Saussure argues that the linguistic unit is a sign. The linguistic sign unites, not a sign and a name, but a concept and a sound image. He called the concept signified and the sound image signifier. The linguistics sign has two characteristics. First, the relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary. Secondly, the linguistic sign is characterized by the linear nature of the signifier.Saussure makes a distinction between langue and parole. He suggests that the task of a linguist is to study langue, since it is a coherent and analyzable object. It is this distinction that leads to the distinction of phonetics and phonology.Distinction between diachronic and synchronic studies is another great contribution Saussure makes to general linguistics.[Warning (especially to ): This note is first posted by icywarmtea on . Any unauthorized post to other websites such as is strictly not allowed. –icywarmtea][Advice: The so-called website is far from being good. There are some materials stolen from this website () there. Except for those, we can hardly find any useful materials there. Please don’t go to that website, which can only waste your time. – icywarmtea] 12.1 The Prague School12.1.1 IntroductionThe Prague School has three points of special importance:(1) It stresses that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it candraw on complete and controllable material for investigation.(2) It emphasizes the systemic character of language, arguing that no element ofany language can be satisfactory analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation.In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition.(3) It looks on language as a tool performing a number of essential functions ortasks for the community using it.12.1.2 Phonology and phonological oppositionsThe Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology, and its most importantcontribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function. FollowingSaussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phoneticsbelonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developedthe notion of ―phoneme‖as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from thesounds actually produced. In classifying distinction features, he proposed three criteria‖(1) their relation to the whole contrastive system(2) relations between the opposing elements(3) their power of discriminationThese oppositions can be summarized as:(1) bilateral opposition(2) multilateral opposition(3) proportional opposition(4) isolated opposition(5) privative opposition(6) gradual opposition(7) equipollent opposition(8) neutralisable opposition(9) constant opposition12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)1. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP): It is a theory of linguistic analysiswhich refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the informationthey contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluatedfor its semantic contribution to the whole.2. Theme: The point of departure of a sentence is equally present to the speakerand to the hearer – it is their rallying point, the ground on which they meet.This is called the theme.3. Rheme: The goal of discourse of a sentence presents the very information thatis to be imparted to the hearer. This is called the rheme.12.2 The London SchoolThe London School has a tradition of laying stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have made this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. It is an important and admirable part of the London School tradition to believe that different types of linguistic description may be appropriate for different purposes.12.2.1 Malinowski’s theories1. The meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the wordscomprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which theutterance occurs. His assertion is based on two kinds of observations.(1) In primitive communities there is no writing, and language has only onetype of use.(2) In all societies, children learn their languages in this way.2. The meaning of spoken utterances could always be determined by the contextof situation. Malinowski distinguished three types of context of situation.(1) situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity(2) narrative situations(3) situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum –phaticcommunion12.2.2 Firth’s theories1. The meaning of any sentence consists of the following five parts:(1) the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context(2) the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence(3) the morphological relations of each word(4) the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example(5) the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation2. In analyzing typical context of situation, one has to carry out the analysis onthe following four levels.(1) The internal relations of the texta. the syntagmatic relations between the elements in the structureb. the paradigmatic relations between units in the system and find theirvalues(2) The internal relations of the context of situationa. the relations between text and non-linguistic elements, and theirgeneral effectsb. the analytical relations between ―bits‖and ―pieces‖of the text(words, parts of words, phrases) and the special elements within thesituation (items, objects, persons, personalities, events).12.2.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar[Taken from /tifle2002/halliday.html - icywarmtea]1. M.A.K. Halliday has sought to create an approach to linguistics thattreats language as foundational for the building of human experience. Hisinsights and publications form an approach called systemic-functionallinguistics. A student of JR Firth (a British linguists who himself wasinfluenced by Malinowsky), Halliday's work stresses that languagecannot be dissassociated from meaning. Systemic-functional linguistics(SFL), as it's name suggests, considers function and semantics as thebasis of human language and communicative activity. Unlike structuralapproaches that privilege syntax, SFL-oriented linguists begin ananalysis with social context and then look at how language acts upon,and is constrained and influenced by, this social context. A key conceptin Halliday's approach is the "context of situation" which obtains"through a systematic relationship between the social environment on theone hand, and the functional organization of language on the other"(Halliday, 1985:11).2. Description and terms for analyzing spoken and written language(1) Tokens: the number of individual items/words(2) Types: the different kinds of words used, e.g., lexical (content)items and grammatical (function) items(3) Lexical Density: The ratio of lexical and grammatical items in anutterance or text; a "measure of information density within a text"(Y ates, 1996:37).(4) Take-home message: Written language is lexically dense, while orallanguage is syntactically more complex.3. Systemic semantics(1) Textual function: type/token ratios, vocabulary use, register(2) Interpersonal function: speech-function, exchange structure,involvement and detachment, personal reference, use of pronouns,"interactive items" showing the position of the speaker (just,whatever, basically, slightly), discourse markers (words thatmoderate/monitor the interaction, e.g., well, might, good, so,anyway)A spoken corpus is primarily an "I", "Y ou" text; the world as seenby you and me. Illustrates INVOLVEMENTA written corpus often takes 3rd person and objective reportingstyles (it, he, she, and passive voice).Illustrates DETACHMENT(3) Ideational function: propositional content; modality through (inEnglish) modal auxiliaries, e.g., (in Y ates, 1996:42)modals of obligation (must, need, should)modals of ability and possibility (can, could)modals of epistemic possibility (may, might)modals of volition and prediction (will, shall)hypothetical modals: (would, should)4. The analysis of contextField: what is happening, the nature of the social interaction taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which language figures as an essential component?Tenor: who is taking part; the social roles and relationships of participant, the status and roles of the participantsMode: the symbolic organization of the text, rhetorical modes (persuasive, expository, didactic, etc); the channel of communication, such as spoken/written, monologic / dialogic, + / - visual contact,computer-mediated communication/telephone/F2F, etc.12.3 American S tructuralismAmerican Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that developed in a very different style from that of Europe. While linguistics in Europe started more than two thousand years ago, linguistics in America started at the end of the 19th century. While traditional grammar plays a dominating role in Europe, it has little influence in America. While many European languages have their own historical traditions and cultures, English is the dominating language in America, where there is no such a tradition as in Europe. In addition, the pioneer scholars in America were faced with the urgent task of recording the rapidly perishing Native American Indian languages because there was no written record of them. However, these languages were characterized by features of vast diversity and differences which are rarely found in other parts of the world. To record and describe these exotic languages, it is probably better not to have any presuppositions about the nature of language in general. This explains why there was not much development in linguistic theory during this period but a lot of discussion on descriptive procedures.Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be described without reference to the alleged universality of such categories as tense, mood and parts of speech.Firstly, structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does.Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars.Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognizing and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning.Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use.12.3.1 Early period: Boas and Sapir1. Boas(1) There was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages wereendlessly diverse.(2) In the Introduction to his Handbook, Boas discussed the framework ofdescriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of threeparts: the sound of languages, the semantic categories of linguisticexpression, and the process of grammatical combination in semanticexpression.2. Sapir(1) He started from an anthropological viewpoint to describe the nature oflanguage, with his main focus on typology. He defines language as ―apurely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily producedsymbols.‖(2) He also compares speech with walking, saying that walking is ―aninherent, biological function of men,‖ and it is ―a general human activitythat varies only in circumscribed limits as we pass from individual toindividual,‖ and its variability is ―involuntary and purposeless.‖(3) In discussing between speech and meaning, Sapir holds that theassociation of speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but need notbe, present.(4) In discussing the relation between language and thought, Sapir holds thatalthough they are intimately related, they are not to be considered thesame. Language is the means, and thought is the end product. Withoutlanguage, thought is impossible.(5) He says that all human races and tribes, no matter how barbaric orunderdeveloped, have their own languages. Language is the oldesthuman legacy, and no other aspects of any culture can be earlier than itslanguage. Without language, there is no culture.12.3.2 Bloomfield’s theoryStructuralism, also called in different cases ―structuralist linguistics school,‖―structural linguistics,‖and ―structural grammar,‖in its broad meaning, refers to the study of any language that regards language itself as an independent, phonological, grammatical and lexical system. In its narrow sense, it refers to the linguistic approach of Prague School, American Structuralism, or any other similar school, which supposes that any individual linguistic element must be associated for an analysis with other elements wherewith it occurs.L. Bloomfield is regarded as one of the founders and representative figures of American Structuralism at the beginning of the 20th century. He laid much emphasis on the objectivity and systematicity of observable data in his study of language. He was more interested in the ways items were arranged than in meaning. To him meaning was simply the relationship between a stimulus and a verbal response, which could hardly be explained by any rigorous analytical method. It was claimed that by following some of the ―discovering procedures‖that he and his followers were able to arrive at an appropriate phonological and grammatical description of language under investigation.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic branch of psychology known as behaviorism. Behaviorism is a Principal scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything theyhave not experienced. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn languagethrough a chain of ―stimulus-response reinforcement,‖ and the adult’s use of language isalso a process of ―stimulus-response.‖When the behaviorist methodology enteredlinguistics via Bloomfield’s writing, the popular practice in linguistic studies was toaccept what a native speaker says in his language and to discard what he says about it.This is because of the belief that a linguistic description was reliable when based onobservation of unstudied utterances by speakers; it was unreliable if the analyst hadresorted to asking speakers questions such as ―Can you say … in your language?‖12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian linguisticsInfluenced by Bloomfield’s Language, American linguists such as Z. Harris (1909 –), C. Hockett (1916 – 2000), G. Trager, H. L. Smithm, A. Hill, and R. Hall furtherdeveloped structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism.Harris’s Methods in Structural Linguistics (1951) is generally taken as marking the maturity of American descriptive linguistics.Hockett was both a linguist and anthropologist, remaining firmly within the structuralist paradigm and hailed as a star of post-Bloomfieldian linguistics.The most significant figure in continuing the structuralist tradition may be K. Pike (1912 –2000), who and his followers have a special name for their technique oflinguistic analysis — tagmemics.12.4 Transformational-Generative (TG) grammar1. Language Acquisition Device (LAD)Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of language. According to this view, children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. The relations and categories exist in all human languages and all human infants are born with knowledge of them. According to Chomsky, there are aspects of linguistic organization that are basic to the human brain and that make it possible for children to acquire linguistic competence in all its complexity with little instruction from family or friends. He argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.2. Development of TG grammarChomsky’s TG grammar has seen five stages of development.(1) The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science.(2) The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistictheory.(3) The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals anduniversal grammar.(4) The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on governmentand binding.(5) The Minimalist program is a further revision of the previous theory.The development of TG grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative power. Although TG grammar has involved putting forward, revising, and cancelling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models, its aims and purposes have been consistent, i.e. to explore the nature, origin and the uses of human knowledge or language.3. Features of TG grammarThe starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his innateness hypothesis, based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. TG grammar has the following features:(1) Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles.(2) Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammarwhich captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language. Thisconcerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals.(3) Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the nativespeaker’s tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers actually say;they rely on their own intuition.(4) Chomsky’s methodology is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels:a. the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure –a generallinguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languagesb. each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory(5) Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.。
语言学--Chapter-3
Chapter 3: Tables and ExercisesTable 3.2 Some of the features required for classifying English sounds.Feature name ClassificatorypossibilitiesEnglish segmentsV oice [+voice] b, d, g, m, n, v, 3 ,dз , ŋ , ð , z, w, r, l, j (and all vowels) [-voice] p, t, k, f, s, θ, ʃPlace [labial] p, b, m, f, v[denti-alveolar] θ, ð , t, d, n, s, z, l, r[palatal] ʃ, 3, j (and front vowels)[velar] k, g, w ( and back vowels)Stop [stop] p, t, k, b, d, g, m, n[fricative] f, s, v, z, ʃ, 3, θ, ð[Approximant] w, r, l, j (and all vowels)Nasal [+nasal] m, n, ŋ[-nasal] ( all other speech sounds)Lateral [+lateral] l[-lateral] ( all other speech sounds)Sibilant [+sibilant] s, z, ʃ, 3 , tʃ, dз[-sibilant] ( all other speech sounds)Height [maximum] ( all consonants except w, j )[4 height] i: , u:, w, j[3 height] ei, i, əu, u[2 height] e, ɔ[1 height] æ, ɑ:Back [+back] u: , u, ɔ:, ɔ, əu, ɑ:, w, k, g[-back] i, i:, ei, e, æ ( and all other consonants) Syllabic [+syllabic] all vowels and some consonants as m, n, ŋ , l, r [-syllabic] all other consonants, including w, j .(Taken from Ladefoged, P. 1982: 39 with some minute revision)音节◌ɹn̩成音节◌e̯ʊ不成音节除阻◌ʰtʰ送气[a]◌d̚无声除阻◌ʱdʱ◌ⁿdⁿ鼻音除阻◌ˡdˡ边音除阻发音◌n̥d̥浊音清化◌s̬t̬浊化◌b̤a̤漏气音[b]◌b̰a̰吱嘎音发音部位◌t̪d̪齿化◌t̼d̼舌唇化◌t̺d̺舌尖化◌t̻d̻舌叶化◌u̟t̟较前◌i̠t̠较后◌ëä较央◌e̽ɯ中央化◌e̝ɹ较高（抬）(ɹ = 有声齿龈嘶音擦音)◌˔˔◌e̞β̞较低（降）(β̞= 双唇近音)◌˕˕协同发音◌ɔx̹更圆唇◌ɔx̜ʷ更展唇◌ʷtʷ dʷ唇化或唇-软颚化◌ʲtʲ dʲ颚化◌ˠtˠ dˠ软腭化◌ˤtˤ aˤ喉壁化◌ᶣtᶣ dᶣ唇-卷舌化◌̴ɫz̴软腭化或喉壁化◌e̘o̘舌根前移◌e̙o̙舌根后移◌ẽz̃鼻音化◌˞ɚɝ卷舌化( 2 ) V(owel) [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $This rule can be explained in the following way piece by piece:V [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $Vowels become nasalized in the before nasal within aenvironment segments syllable(8)The syllable structure for the words with one syllable:σOnset RhymeNucleus Codas p l i n t s →[splints] (10). The syllable structure for words with more than one syllableσσOnset Rhyme Onset RhymeNucleus Coda Nucleus Codas e n t r əl [sentrəl] central(11) Some examples for the words with one syllable.Front onset onset back onset vowel front coda coda back coda back coda back coda（1）（2）（3）Nucleusonset (peak)codae.g.: eye ai [ai]it i t [it]me m i: [mi:]bit b i t [bit] scrimps s k r i m p s [skrimps] screen s k r i: n [skri:n] twelfths t w e l f θs [twelfθs](12) Different intonations representing different attitudes of the speaker(Radford 2000:48).a. b. c. d. e.me me ? me! me me ?!eat peas eat peas ? eat peas ! eat peas eat peas ?!↓↗￣↘／￣↘↗A simple statement, a question, a strong assertion, a matter of fact assertion, disbeliefEXERCISES(Exercise I, II, III are adapted from the exercises 299-310 in Fromkin,et al.(2007), Exercises IV, V are revised according to those provided in Radford (2000): 101-102. )Exercises IMinimal pairs can be used to find the phonemes of the particular language; find the sets of minimal pairs for each pair of English consonants given below:/k/ ---/g/, /b/---/m/, /l/---/r/, /p/---/f/, /s/---/ʃ/,/tʃ/--- /dз/, /e/---/æ/, /n/---/ŋ/, /θ/--- /ð/, /i/---/i:/,Exercises IIIn some dialects of English, the following words have different vowels, as is shown by the phonetic transcriptions (in American transcription [ai] is transcribed as [aj]):A. B. C.bite [bʌjt] bide [ bajd] die [daj]rice [rʌjs] rise [rajz] by [baj]ripe [rʌjp] bribe [brajb] sigh [saj]wife [wʌjf] wives [wajvz] rye [raj]dike [dʌjk] dime [dajm] guy [gaj]a.How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B becharacterized? that is, what feature specifies all the final segments in Aand all the final segments in B ?b.How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B ?c.Are [ʌj] and [aj] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.d.Give the phonetic representations of the following words as they would bespoken in the dialect described here:Life [ ], lives [ ], lie [ ], file [ ], bike [ ], lice [ ]e.Formulate a rule that will relate the phonemic representations to thephonetic representations of the words given above.Exercises IIIConsider the following English verbs. Those in column A have stress on next-to-last syllable, whereas the verbs in column B and C have their last syllable stressed.A. B. C.astonish collapse amazeexit exist improveimagine resent surprisecancel revolt combineelicit adopt believepractice insist atonea.Transcribe the words under columns A, B, and C phonemically.( Use aschwa for the unstressed vowels.)b.Consider the phonemic structure of the stressed syllables in these verbs.What is the difference between the final syllables of the verbs in columns Aand B? Formulate a rule that predicts where stress occurs in the verbs incolumns A and B.c.In the verbs in column C, stress also occurs on the final syllable. Whatmust you add to the rule to account for this fact ? ( Hint: for the forms incolumns A and B, the final consonants had to be considered; for the formsin column C, consider the vowels.)Exercises IVRecall that the symbol = means an unaspirated consonant and the symbol h means aspiration. Show how the pattern of data below can be explained by the Maximal Onset Principle. Assume that separate words are syllablified separately.1a. stub [st =ʌb] 2a. spare [sp= eə] 3a. scar [sk=ɑ: ]b. this tub [ðis t hʌb] b. this pear [ðis p h ea] b. this car [ðis k h ɑ:]c. disturb [dist=ə:b] c. despair [disp= eə] c. discard [disk=ɑ:d]Exercises VBreak the following words into syllables, and applying the Maximal Onset Principle, identify the onsets, nuclei and codas by providing a diagram such as that in (10).a, comfortable, b, secretary, c, cooperation, d, confessional.Exercises VIIn the discussion of the phonological rules, we have a deletion rule stated as Delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Thus, in the pairs like sign / signature, design / designation, paradigm / paradigmatic,there is not a phonetic [g] in the first word; but in the pairs like gnosis / agnostic, the pronunciation of the first word is also lack a phonetic [g]. Can you give a more general rule describing these data ?Exercises VIISuppose / d / is the basic form of the pronunciation of the past-tense morpheme–ed; given the following data, please form some rules to explain the past-tense formation of regular verbs as those in section 3.Set A: grab [græb], grabbed [græbd], hug [hʌg], hugged [hʌgd]; faze[ feiz], fazed [feizd]; roam [rəum], roamed [rəumd].Set B: reap[ri:p], reaped [ri:pt]; poke [pəuk], poked [pəukt]; kiss [kis], kissed [kist]; patch [pætʃ], patched [pætʃt]Set C. fight [fait], fighted [faitəd], load [ləud], loaded [ləudəd]Exercises VIIIIn the pronunciation of the word speak [sp=i:k], bean [bi:n], the phonemes /p/, /i:/ may be described according to its phonetic features as the following:/p/: [voiceless, labial, stop, unaspirated], /i:/: [voiced, high, front, spread, nasalized]. Among these features, which features may be distinctive, which are nondistinctive features? Give the reasons to support your argument.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
现代语言学自考题-13_真题-无答案
现代语言学自考题-13(总分100,考试时间90分钟)PART ONEⅠ.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can **plete the statement.1. We refer to the limited range of sounds as the phonic medium of language and individual sounds within that range as ______.A. vowels B. consonants C. sounds D. speech sounds2. The study of how people use their speech organs to produce speech sounds is of great interest to those working in the area of ______.A. phonology B. articulatory phonetics C. auditory phonetics D. acoustic phonetics3. ______ phonetics looks at the sounds from the hearer's point of view and studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.A. Articulatory B. Auditory C. Acoustic D. Oral4. In linguistics, ______ is focused on that how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.A. acoustic phonetics B. articulatory phonetics C. auditory phonetics D. none of the above5. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is ______.A. auditory B. acoustic C. articulatory phonetics D. none of the above three6. Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the ______ properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues.A. oral B. mental C. physical D. recorded7. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of ______.A. all consonants B. vowels only C. all consonants and some vowels D. all vowels and some consonants8. If you put a finger in each ear and say "z-z-z-z-z", you can feel the vibrations of the ______.A. glottis B. windpipe C. larynx D. vocal cords9. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ______ sounds.A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal10. The IPA came into being towards the end of the ______ century.A. nineteenth B. eighteenth C. seventeenth D. sixteenth11. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. in terms of ______.A. manner of articulation B. openness of mouth C. place of articulation D. voicing12. The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced ______, respectively.A. stops B. fricatives C. affricates D. plosives13. The phonetic form of the prefix meaning "not" is phonetically variant; it is [in] be fore a vowel or an alveolar consonant, [im] before a labial consonant, and before a ______, for example, inoperable , impossible , and inconceivable .A. velar B. palatal C. fricative D. stop14. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of ______.A. palatal B. alveolar C. bilabial D. dental15. The initial sound in ______ is a velar stop.A. tap B. map C. gap D. hap16. The consonant [f] in English can be correctly described as having the following phonetic features: ______.A. voiceless, bilabial, stop B. voiceless, labiodental, fricative C. voiced, bilabial, stop D. voiced, labiodental, fricative17. The vowel in English has all the following features except ______.A. long B. rounded C. closed D. central18. A ______ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. back B. central C. front D. middle19. All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded-lips, i.e. rounded, except ______.A. B. C. D.20. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are ______ vowels.A. unfounded B. close C. open D. rounded21. ______ are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.A. Vowels B. Consonants C. Diphthongs D. Individual vowels22. ______ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in **munication.A. Linguistics B. Phonetics C. Phonology D. Articulatory phonetics23. A phoneme is an abstract, distinctive and ______ unit.A. phonetic B. phonemic C. phonological D. phonic24. A ______ is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneme B. phone C. sound D. speech25. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ______ of that phoneme.A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones26. In English, a phoneme may be represented by two or more allophones. The choice of the allophone is ______.A. random B. rule-governed C. haphazard D. unpredictable27. If two speech sounds are in contrastive distribution, they ______.A. represent two phonemes B. are allophones of the same phoneme C. have exactly the same phonetic features D. do not appear in the same environment28. In English, /p/ and /ph/ are in ______ distribution.A. contrastive B. complementary C.free D. none of the above29. If similar sounds that occur in the same environments are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form ______.A. phonemic contrast B. phonetic distinction C. complementary distribution D. minimal pair30. If two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are ______ of the same phoneme.A. symbols B. allophones C. phones D. signs31. A minimal pair can be illustrated by ______.A. sip/sheep B. bread/breast C. same/shame D. breath/breathe32. To form the present tense, 3rd person singular of the verb "teach", we have to add "-es", instead of just "-s" to it. This is required by the ______ of English.A. assimilation rule B. sequential rule C. deletion rule D. morphological rule33. Of the following **binations, only ______ is permissible according to the sequential rules in English.A. klib B. bkil C. ilkb D. ilbk34. When a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound which follows it, it is said to be ______.A. nasalized B. assimilated C. aspirated D. voiced35. Stress, tone and intonation are called ______ features.A. segmental B. vocal C. speech D. suprasegmental36. The feature that distinguishes "a greenhouse" and "a green house" is ______.A. tone B. stress C. intonation D. aspiration37. A phonological feature of the English ______ is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.A. compounds B. phrases C. words D. sentences38. A ______ refers to a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black.A. black 'bird B. 'black bird C. black bird D. both B and CPART TWOⅡ.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.39. For linguists, the study of s______ is of greater importance than that of writing.40. Speech sounds can be described in physical or a______ terms. Physically, sounds aretransmitted through the air from one person to another.41. A______ phonetics is concerned with how speech sounds are produced.42. To describe the physical properties, phoneticians record the sound waves on machines called s______.43. If the vocal cords are apart, the airflow is not obstructed at the glottis and it passes freely into the vocal tract above the glottis, the sounds produced in this way are called v______ sounds.。
智慧树语言学概论答案
智慧树语言学概论答案1、问题:A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、问题:Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive,but sometimes descriptive. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】3、问题:Modern linguistics is different fromtraditional grammar. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【对】4、问题:Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、问题:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、问题:In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【对】7、问题:If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _. （）选项：A:descriptiveB:analyticC:linguisticD:prescriptive答案: 【descriptive】8、问题:Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? （ )选项：A:DisplacementB:MeaningfulnessC:ArbitrarinessD:Duality 答案: 【Meaningfulness】9、问题:A historical study of language is a _study of language. ( )选项：A:ComparativeB:prescriptiveC:diachronicD:synchronic答案: 【diachronic】10、问题:The details of any language system are passed on from one generation to the next through _, rather than by instinct. ( )选项：A:learningB:teachingC:booksD:both A and B答案: 【both A and B】第二章单元测试1、问题:According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【错】2、问题:Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】3、问题:Not all the back vowels are rounded vowels. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】4、问题:The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】5、问题:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【错】6、问题:Of all the speech organs, the _is/are the most flexible. （）选项：A:lipsB:mouthC:vocal cordsD:tongue答案: 【tongue】7、问题:The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. ( )选项：A:voicelessB:voicedC:consonantalD:vowel答案: 【voiceless】8、问题:__ is a voiced alveolar stop. ( )选项：A:/b/B:/z/C:/d/D:/k/答案: 【/d/】9、问题:Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be _____. ( )选项：A:in phonemic contrastB:in plementary distributionC:the allophonesD:minimal pair答案: 【in phonemic contrast】10、问题:A(n) _____ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. ( )选项：A:allophoneB:phoneC:phonemeD:sound答案: 【phoneme】第三章单元测试1、问题:Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、问题:Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【对】3、问题:There are three morphemes in the word “reactivate”. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【错】4、问题:Few words can be added to closed class words. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】5、问题:Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、问题:The word ______ is not a pound. ( )选项：A:moonwalkB:raincoatC:sunflowerD:friendship答案: 【friendship】7、问题:___ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists. ( )选项：A:PhonemesB:SentencesC:MorphemesD:Words答案: 【Morphemes】8、问题:___ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. ( )选项：A:GrammarB:SyntaxC:MorphemeD:Morphology答案: 【Morphology】9、问题:“-s” in the word “books” is_. ( )选项：A:a derivative affixB:a rootC:an inflectional affixD:a stem答案: 【an inflectional affix】10、问题:_are those that can be used independently and they are words by themselves. ( )选项：A:Bound morphemesB:Bound wordsC:WordsD:Free morphemes答案: 【Free morphemes】第四章单元测试1、问题:A verb phrase must contain a verb, but other elements are optional. （）选项：A:错B:对答案:【对】2、问题:Wh- movement regulates the movement of a wh- phrase to C under CP. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】3、问题:Modifiers always follow the head. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】4、问题:Three criteria are usually employed to determine a word’s categor y. They are meaning, derivation and distribution.（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、问题:Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【错】6、问题:The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number. ( )选项：A:finiteB:infiniteC:smallD:large答案: 【finite】7、问题:Which of the following lexical categories does not belong to the major lexical categories? ( )选项：A:NounB:AdjectiveC:PrepositionD:Adverb答案: 【Adverb】8、问题:Which of the following properties does not belong to coordination? ( )选项：A:A category at any level can be coordinated.B:There is no limit on the number of coordinate categories that can appear prior tothe conjunction.C:Coordinated categories must be of the same type.D:The category type of the coordinate phrase is determined by the head.答案: 【The category type of the coordinate phrase is determined by the head.】9、问题:The head of the phrase “very strict with students” is__. ( )选项：A:veryB:withC:strictD:students答案: 【strict】10、问题:The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.”is a__sentence. ( )选项：A:coordinateB:plexC:poundD:simple答案: 【simple】第五章单元测试1、问题:Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】2、问题:Contextualism is based on the presumptionthat one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】3、问题:“It is raining.” is a one-place predication because it contains one argument. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【错】4、问题:Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. （）选项：A:错B:对答案: 【对】5、问题:The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its ponents. （）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】6、问题:The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _. ( )选项：A:grammatical rulesB:semanticrulesC:selectional restrictionsD:semantic features答案: 【grammatical rules】7、问题:7 Words that are opposite in meaning are called __. ( )选项：A:hyponymsB:polysemyC:homonymsD:antonyms答案: 【antonyms】8、问题:“I lost my wallet”_“I have a wallet.” ( )选项：A:is synonymous withB:is inconsistentwithC:presupposesD:entails答案: 【presupposes】9、问题:Which of the following is not true? ( )选项：A:Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.B:Sense is not the meaning plied in dictionary.C:Sense is abstract anddecontextualized.D:Sense is concerned with theinherent meaning of the linguistic form.答案: 【Sense is not the meaning plied in dictionary.】10、问题:“Alive” and “dead” are__. ( )选项：A:plementary antonymsB:gradable antonymsC:relational oppositesD:None of the above答案: 【plementary antonyms】下方是付费阅读内容：本平台商品均为虚拟商品，无法用作二次销售，不支持退换货，请在购买前确认您需要购买的资料准确无误后再购买，望知悉！完整答案需点击上方按钮支付5元购买,所有答案均为章节测试答案，无期末答案。
unit 5 Consonants of the English Language
English consonants and their description
/ʃ/- voiceless post-alveolar fricative /ʒ/- voiced post-alveolar fricative /h/- voiceless glottal fricative /tʃ/- voiceless post-alveolar affricate /dʒ/- voiced post-alveolar affricate /m/- voiced bilabial nasal /n/- voiced alveolar nasal /n/- voiced velar nasal /l/- voiced alveolar lateral /w/- voiced bilabial approximant /r/- voiced post-alveolar approபைடு நூலகம்imant /j/- voiced palatal approximant
• 1. Stops/Plosives - English has six bursts or explosive sounds produced by complete closure of the vocal tract followed by a rapid release of the closure - 'p', 't', 'k', 'b', 'd', 'g'. • 2. Fricatives - English has nine fricatives - weak or strong friction noises produced when the articulators are close enough together to cause turbulence in the airflow. • 3. Affricates - English has two affricates - plosives released with frication - "church" and "judge". • 4. Nasals - English has three nasals in which the airflow is blocked completely at some point in the oral tract, but in which the lowering of the velum allows a weak flow of energy to pass through the nose. • 5. Approximants - English has four approximants - the 'w' in "won", the 'l' in "like", the 'r' in "red", and the 'y' in "yes." In these phonemes, there is more constriction in the vocal tract than for the vowels, but less than the other consonant categories below.
2005年东北师范大学英语专业基础考研试题
2005年东北师范大学英语专业基础年东北师范大学英语专业基础考研考研考研试题试题学科专业学科专业：：英语语言文学英语语言文学、、外国语言学及应用语言学考试科目考试科目：：英语专业基础考试时间考试时间：：2005年1月23日下午Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: 50 pointsI. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false on the answer sheet. (10 points)1. The representational approach in the study of meaning is that from the perspective of reference.2. In language use, speaker meaning is what is said, rather than what is intended.3. The ostensive-inferential model expresses the view that communication involves inferring, rather than coding. And this is a crucial point which distinguishes it from the code of communication.4. Many Chinese learners of English may utter sentences like “Because he was ill, so he didn’t go to work.” This is a case of negative transfer in foreign language learning.5. According to linguistic determinism, the ways people from different cultures think through language are different, especially in the classification of the experienced world.6. The syntactic rules permit speakers to produce and understand an unlimited number of sentences never produced or heard before. This refers to the arbitrary nature of language.7. One of the features of modern linguistics is that modern linguists are modern linguists are more interested in the diachronic study of language.8. Application and implication are two major contributions of linguistics to foreign language teaching.9. To put it simply, the distinctive features of sounds are those which distinguish phonemes.10. The component “boy ” is an immediate constituent of the construction “The boy kicked the ball .”II. Short answer questions (20 points)1. S. Pit Corder, a famous applied linguist wrote in his Introducing AppliedLinguistics that “If we teach language, the way we approach our task will beinfluenced, or even determined, by what we believe language to be, by the particular informal theory or theories we have about it which seem to be relevant to theparticular problem we are faced with.” Make a brief comment on it in terms of the relationship between linguistics and foreign language teaching. (5 points)（商务英语方向考生本题不答）2. How do you understand the prototype theory? Explain briefly and exemplify it. (5 points)（商务英语方向考生本题不答）3. Explain the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. (5 points)4. Explain the meanings of ambiguous sentence, then disambiguate it by using tree diagrams. (5 points)I can see an old man with my binoculars.III. Observation and analysis (20 points)1. Look at the sentences below and then analyze metaphor from a cognitive perspective. (10 points)（商务英语方向考生本题不答）She gave him an icy stare.Jack is a tiger.His life is full of stories.2. Read the following conversation and analyze in term of the implicature(s) and the maxim(s) involved in deriving the implicature(s). (10 points)Tim: Are you going to the seminar?Jerry: It’s on T-G Grammar.British and American Literature: 60 pointsI. Fill in the blanks with the correct answers (30 points)1. Hardy wrote prodigiously in his life, 14 novels in all in different category is entitled ______.2. George Owell’s novel Animal Farm is a(n)_______novel which satirized Russian totalitarianism.3. _______ was invented by Robert Browning and taken s/as a modern poetic technique and used in T.S. Eliot’s first important poem.4. Tennyson’s poems can be grouped into two types. One was about his feeling of the recent changes in society and scientific field and the other was derived from ______.5. Keats’ poem, _____ is similar to the tale of White Serpent of Chinese folk legend.6. According to Wordsworth, one of the poetic principle was that all good poems should be the _____ overflow of powerful feeling.7. Elegance is the common goal of almost all writers of that time, but the overflow of emotion and imagination is ____ uniqueness which contain the feature of Romanticism.8. Pamela mainly concerns itself, with morality, virtue, love and ______.9. Dryden has been considered as the representative figure in the literary development of English literature in the Restoration Age. He raised English ______ to a new level.10. _____ was a new type of drama which was developed in the Restoration.11. In his plays, Marlowe is not good at characterization and construction. But he is famous for his “mighty line” ______. It is mighty and plastic.12. The general end of The Faenie Queene is to fashion a ____ in virtuous and gentle discipline.13. The most striking feature of Sir Gawain and Green Knight is _____ employed in this poem which marked its revival in the early 14th century.14. Utopia is the work of a scholar who based his imagination on Plato’s ____ andreading of Plutarch’s account of Spartan life under Lycurgus.15. The fascination of the poetic forms of Ballads born of the simplicity and the ____ intensity has endeared to countless readers since the Middle Ages.16. _____, in the opinion of Hemingway, fathered modern American literature.17. Dreiser’s Sister Carrie is the work in which American ____attained maturity.18. The one feature that characterizes the Puritan style of writing is ____.19. _____, a kind of self-reflexive fiction, refuses to take reality for granted though not denying it either.20. _____ has been linked with the traditions of Theatre of the Absurd.21. In 1931, actors, dramatists and producers formed their own organizationcalled______.22. Jean Toomer wrote only one novel ____ which is fascinating both in theme and in experimental techniques.23. John Dos Passos employed in his fiction devices like “_____”, “Biographies” and “|Camera Eye” which had not been known before.24. One important feature in The Great Gatsby is the choice of Nick Carraway as a ______ narrator.25. In ____ Carl Sandburg came next after Robert Frost.26. From his poems like the Cantos and Hugh Selwyn Mauberley, we can see that Pound owes heavily to ______.27. Poe believes that the very first sentence should help to bring out the ___of the story.28. _____ are considered precursors of Imagist Movement.29. Moby Dick is first of all a _____ of man fighting against a hostile universe.30. Cooper found _____ an effective medium by which he could reaffirm and transmit his values.II. Explain the term or answer the question in your own words (20 points)（商务英语方向考生本题不答英语方向考生本题不答））1. Georgeian Poets2. Make a brief comparison between Neo-classicism and Romanticism.3. Confessional poetry4. According to Vickery, Faulkner’s novel can be grouped into several different categories. What are they?III. Read the following passage and answer the questions. ( 5 points )（商务英语方向考生本题不答方向考生本题不答））It will not be wondered at, that a creature, who had so strict a regard to decency in her own person, should be shocked at the least deviation from it in another. She therefore no sooner opened the door, and saw her master standing by the he bedside in his shirt , with a candle in his hand, then she started back in a most terrible fright, and mightperhaps have swooned away, had he not now recollected his being undrest, and put an end to her terrors, by desiring her to stay without the door, till he had thrown some cloaths over his back , and was become incapable of shocking the pure eyes of Mrs.Deborah Wilkins, who, tho’ in the 52d year of her age, vowed she had never beheld a man without his coat. Sneerers and prophane wits may perhaps laugh at her first fright; yet my graver reader, when he considers the time of night, the summons from her bed, and the situation in which she found her master, will highly justify and applaud her conduct; unless the prudence, which must be supposed to attend maidens at that period of life at which Mrs. Deborah and arrived, should a little lessen his admiration.1. What writing technique is used in this paragraph and what is the effect created by it?2. Paraphrase the underlined sentence.IV. Read the following passage and explain the numbered parts in your own商务英语方向考生本题不答））words. (5 points)（商务英语方向考生本题不答’hat was the order I wanted , and that was the one I played for. 1 I wanted to be left free to work my plans.“So clear out” 2 he says; “And you can tell Mr. Foster whatever you want to Maybe you can get him to believe that Jim is your nigger – some idiots don’t require documents – leastways I’ve heard there’s such down south here. And when you tell him the handbill and the reward’s bogus, 3 maybe he’ll believe you when you explain to him what the idea was for getting ’em out. 4 Go ’long, now, and tell him anything you want to; but mind you don’t work you jaw any between here and there.” 5 Survey of UK & USA: 15 points1. Correct the erroneous sentences below and write your corrected parts in your answer sheet (6 points)(1) American anthem is a song, hymn, march or other musical composition that has been officially adopted by the government and has accepted as the country’s anthem by popular usage.(2) The first arrivals to England from the continent were the Germanic tribes: Angels, Saxons and Jutes.(3) The Danes built a wall called Hadrian’s Wall from the Solway to the Tyne in order to keep back the Welsh in about 122 A.D.(4) The Stars and Stripes is also called Old Union , or Stripe-Spangled Banner, which is the national flag of the United States of America.(5) Newsweeks is a comprehensive biweekly magazine established in 1933.(6) Among the Great Lakes, Lake Superior is the second largest salt lake of its sort in the world.2. Compare the features of the British economy with those of the American economy and write down your comparison in your answer sheet. (3 points)3. Analyze the consequences of Attlee’s nationalization and those of Roosevelt’s “New Deal” and write your analysis in your answer sheet. (3 points)4. State the reasons why the northern army could defeat the southern army in the American Civil War and write your reasons in your answer sheet.English-Chinese Translation: 15 pointsOne situation on this earth seems strange. Every one of us appears here, involuntarilyand uninvited, for a short stay, without knowing the whys and the wherefores. In our daily lives we only feel that man is here for the sake of others, for those whom we love and for many other beings whose fate is connected with our own. I am often worried at the thought that my life is based to such a large extent on the work of my fellow human beings, and I an awareness of my great indebtedness to them.The most beautiful and deepest experience a man can have is the sense of the mysterious. It is the underlying principle of religion as well as all serious endeavor in art and science. He who never had this experience seems to me, if not dead, then at least blind. To sense that behind anything that our mind cannot grasp and whose beauty and sublimity reaches us only indirectly and as a feeble relfection: this is religiousness. In this sense I am religious. To me it suffices to wonder at these secrets and to attempt humbly to grasp with my mind a mere image of the lofty structure ofall there is.Chinese-English Translation: 10 points书籍具有不朽的精神，他们是迄今为止人类所创造持续最久的产品。
新编简明英语语言学 课件 chapter 2 音系学
双元音
Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:
▪ Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
单元音
▪ Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音 [ai], [ei], [iə], [eə], [uə], [au], [əu], [ɔi].
Chapter 2 Phonology
▪ phonetics
--- What is ponetics? 什么是语音学
--- organs of speech 发音器官
--- Orthographic representation of speech sounds 语音的正字标音法
--- Classification of English speech sound 英语语音的分类
e.g. pit & spit
送气音和非送气音
Nasality -- nasal & non-nasal 鼻音和非鼻音
e.g. bank & back
Orthographic representation of speech sounds
---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)（国际音标） .The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.
chapter 4 phonology
4.3.2 Complementary distribution
Sounds in complementary distribution occur in nonoverlapping environments, that is, never occur in the same environments. Speech sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.
3. Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs:
coast/ghost boast/most ghost/boast most/mist
4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features they all share:
Allophone:
one of a set of non-distinctive realizations of the same phoneme the variant forms of the same phoneme corresponds to something physical produced by a speaker E.g., [th] is an allophone of /t/. an allophone of a phoneme is a predictable phonetic realization of that phoneme
dentalized alveolars: when /l, n, t, d/ are followed by dentals, they become dental
Chapter 2 Phonology
Chapter 2 Phonology1.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study ofspeech sounds?1、Articulatory phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.2、Auditory phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view, and reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.3、Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hear.2.Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained?In the three cavities: pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity, and nasal cavity.3.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants.4.What is the function of nasal cavity? How does it perform this function?To nasalize the sounds that are produced. It does this by closing the air passage connecting the oral and nasal cavities so that he air stream can only go through the nasal cavity.5.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity which are involved in the production ofspeech sounds?The various parts of the tongue: the tip, the front, the blade, and the back of the tongue; the uvula; the soft palate; the hard palate, the teeth ridge (alveolar); the upper and lower teeth; the lips. Of all, tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other.6.Explain which examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? Broad transcription– one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription–a way to transcribe speech sounds. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter – symbols together with the diacritics. Diacritics are added to show the finer differences between sounds.7.How are the English consonants classified?Two ways to classify consonants: by place of articulation and by manner of articulation.For example, [p] is stop from the classification according to manner of articulation, and from the classification of place of articulation, [p] is a bilabial sound.8.What criteria are used to classify the English vow els?I.Position of the tongue. ( front vowel, central vowel, back vowel)i.e., a front vowel is a vowel which is produced with the front part of the tongue that isheld highest.II.Openness of the mouth. (close vowels, semi-close vowels)III.Length of the sound. (long vowel [I:] [u:], short vowel [I]IV.Shape of the lips (rounded vowels and unrounded vowels) [a:] are rounded vowels.xity of the glottis.9.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound description:1)V oiced palatal affricate: [d ]2)V oiceless labiodental fricative: [f]3)V oiced alveolar stop: [d]4)Front, close, short: [i]5)Back, semi-open, long: [ ]6)V oiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]: voiced, alveolar, stop2)[l ]: alveolar, liquid, lateral3)[t ]: voiceless, palatal, affricate4)[w]: glide, labial5)[u ]: back, close, short6)[æ ]: front, open10.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you thinkwill be more interested in the difference betw een, say, [l] and [l ], [p] and [p ], a phonetician or phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics: study of the phonic medium of language, it is the description of all speech sounds in the world’s language and their fine differences.Phonology: description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.For example the [t] sounds in the two English words stop an top are pronounced differently. The first one is what we call an unaspirated [t] and the second one an aspirated [th]. Phoneticians have recognized two quite distinct sounds for [t] in English; but if we consider these two sounds from the phonological point of view, we wound say these two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication, in distinguishing between words and meanings.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences because such differences will not cause the differences in meaning.11.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones relatedto a phoneme? (31)Phone – a speech sound we use when speaking a language, it is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme – a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.Allophones –the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. ( actual realizations of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts).E.g. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [t], clear [l], etc, which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.12.What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identifythe minimal set in a language?Minimal pair refers to two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. That is, minimal pairs are word forms that differ from each other only be one sound. pill and till, till and kill, kill and dill, and dill and gill. According, we can conclude that p, b, t, d, k, g are phonemes in English. Then all these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set, they are identical in form except for the initial consonant, this also applies to the vowels. The pronunciations of the following words are identical except for the vowel: beat, bit, bet, bat, ect.By identifying the minimal pairs of the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.13.Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletionrule.Sequential rule– rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.E.g. If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.Assimilation rule–rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the tow phones similar.E.g. impossible is the negative form of possible, as the [n] sound is assimilated to [m].）Deletion rule– rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.14.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?Suprasengmental features –phonological features above the sound segment level, these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word and the sentences. The major suprasegmental features in English are stress (word stress and sentence stress) intonation and tone;1、Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pronounced with greater force than the other or others. The shift of stress changes the meaning or the part of speech of a word and the meaning of a sentence.E.g. from n to v. import to import.2、Intonation: pitch variation is known as intonation. More specific, when pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. The three most frequently used intonations are the fall, the rise and the fall-rise. When spoken in different tone, the same sequence of words may have different meaning, e.g. the falling intonation conveys a straight-forward fact, the rising intonation indicates a question; and the fall-rise intonation always conveys some implication.3、Tone: Tone refers to the pitch variation which is caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. It is an important feature for some languages, such as Chinese, it distinguishes meaning just like phonemes.15.Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration1)Phoneme (05).A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is an abstract notion instead of a concrete sound. A phoneme consists of a collection of features, and can be realized as different speech sounds in different phonetic contexts called allophones. E.g /l/ can be pronounced as clear [l] or darl [l] depending on where it occurs2)Complementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution.” E.g. the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially.16.What is the basic difference between a consonant and a vowel?The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in the pronunciation of a consonant, the air stream from the lungs is obstructed in one way or another.17.How do you set up the allophones of the same phoneme?Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologist is to find out these rules.。