Chaptor 9 Secondary metabolites
大肠杆菌m9基本培养基下的生长曲线
大肠杆菌m9基本培养基下的生长曲线E. coli is a widely studied bacterium and its growth kinetics in different culture media have been extensively researched. One commonly used medium for studying E. coli growth is the M9 minimal medium. In this medium, essential nutrients like glucose, salts, and specific amino acids are provided in limited amounts.大肠杆菌是一种被广泛研究的细菌，其在不同培养基中的生长动力学已经得到了广泛的研究。
其中一个常用于研究大肠杆菌生长的培养基是M9最小培养基。
在这种培养基中，葡萄糖、盐和特定氨基酸等必需营养物质被提供但限量供应。
The growth curve of E. coli in M9 minimal medium typically consists of four distinct phases: lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, and death phase. Each phase represents a different stage of bacterial growth and is characterized by specific changes in cell density over time.在M9最小培养基下，大肠杆菌的生长曲线通常由四个明显的阶段组成：潜伏期、对数生长期、平台期和死亡期。
每个阶段代表着细菌生长的不同阶段，并且以时间为轴细胞密度发生特定变化。
During the lag phase, there is little to no increase in cell density as the bacteria adapt to the new environment. This phase can last anywhere from a few minutes to several hours, depending on the growth conditions and the physiological state of the cells.在潜伏期，细菌适应新环境，细胞密度几乎没有增加。
生物技术与药用植物次生代谢产物_谢静
生物技术与药用植物次生代谢产物谢静(成都医学院药学系,四川成都610083)作者简介:谢静(1979-),女,四川眉山籍,硕士,从事天然药物教学和研究工作。
【关键词】 药用植物;次生代谢产物:生物技术【中图分类号】 R282.71 【文献标识码】 A 【文章编号】 1672-7193(2007)03-0089-02 药用植物在我国传统医学中具有重要地位。
目前我国药用植物有11118种,市售中成药中,从植物中提取的药物或经半合成的药物占商品的20%[1]。
药用植物体内的次生代谢产物是细胞生命活动或植物生长发育非必需的一类小分子化合物,其产生和分布通常有种属、器官、组织以及生长发育时期的特异性。
自然界许多药用植物的有效成分都是其次生代谢产物,萜烯、酚、生物碱三类化合物是植物中最重要的次生代谢产物。
20世纪50年代药用植物次生代谢产物的工业化生产开始利用植物细胞大量培养作为主要手段。
目前药用植物的生物技术研究主要集中在药用植物资源学研究、药用植物栽培学研究、药用植物生态学研究、药用植物化学研究、质量控制和药效评价等领域,近年已经取得了一定的进展[2]。
下面就生物技术应用于药用植物次生代谢产物方面的研究情况进行综述。
1 细胞培养技术和药用活性成分生产我国传统药材中88%为植物药。
植物单个细胞在适宜的环境下可分化发育成植株,并具有整株植物所具有的合成化合物的能力,也即植物细胞具有全能性,这为通过植物组织和细胞培养来获得其药用活性成分提供了有效途径。
目前利用细胞培养技术生产药用植物有效成分主要有三种方法:液体悬浮培养、固定化细胞培养和发酵工程技术[3]。
液体悬浮培养主要用于生产细胞内的有效成分,利用该方法生产植物来源药物最成功的是紫杉醇和紫草宁色素的生产。
紫杉醇是20世纪70年代从短叶红豆杉树皮中提取出来的具有独特抗癌作用的天然产物,被认为是治疗卵巢癌的首选药物,近年不断发现它对其它癌症的治疗作用,是有发展前途的抗癌新药。
《营养学》第十五章 食物中的生物活性成分
植物化学物抗癌作用的另一可能机制是调节细胞生长(增生)， 如莱姆树中的单萜类可减少内源性细胞生长促进物质的形成，从 而阻止对细胞增生的异常调节作用。
(二)抗氧化作用
癌症和心血管疾病的发病机制与反应性氧分子及自由基的存 在有关。人体对这些活性物质的保护系统包括抗氧化酶系统(SOD、 GSH-Px等)、内源性抗氧化物(尿酸、谷胱甘肽、α-硫辛酸、辅酶 Q10等)及具有抗氧化活性的必需营养素(维生素E和维生素C等)。现 已发现植物化学物，如类胡萝卜素、多酚、植物雌激素、蛋白酶 抑制剂和硫化物等也具有明显的抗氧化作用。
⑴Phytochemicals: nonnutrient compounds in plantderived foods that have biological activity in the body(p 8 in Nutrition concepts and conroversies). ⑵Phytochemicals: biologically active, naturally existing substances in plants that act as natural defense systems in plants and show potential for reducing risk for cancer and cardiovascular disease(p 303 in Food, Nutrition, &Diet Therapy).
存在于植物中，可结合到哺乳动物体内雌激素受体上并能发挥 类似于内源性雌激素作用的成分。异黄酮(isoflavones)和木聚素 从化学结构上讲均是多酚类物质，但也属于植物雌激素。虽然植物 雌激素所显示出的作用只占人体雌激素作用的0.1％，但在尿中植 物雌激素的含量可比内源性雌激素高10～1000倍。依照机体内源性 雌激素数量和含量的不同，植物雌激素可发挥雌激素和抗雌激素两 种作用。
植物体的次生代谢
✓据不完全统计高等植物能够产生超过20万种不同的
代谢产物。
✓初生代谢产物为人类提供了食物，如各种单分子或
双分子的糖、有机酸、醇、醛、酮、脂肪、氨基酸、 蛋白质、核苷酸、核酸。
✓次生代谢（产物）为人类提供了纤维、木材、药物、
染料、香料，抗氧化剂，天然色素，同时也提供了毒 药。
植物生理学的四大趋势：
➢类黄酮具有抵抗紫外线
的作用，增强高山植物 的保护
（3）抗氧化作用
目前植物来源的天然功能性 化学成分研究非常活跃。多 酚及衍生物是有效的抗氧化 剂，可清除超氧阴离子和羟 基自由基。
最近报道苯丙素苷（PPGs） 及其类似物、芦丁以及槲皮 素 可 快 速 修 复 dAMP 、 dGMP 损 伤。
菠菜 空心菜 甘蓝 葱
罂粟
罂粟（Papaver somniferum）
罂粟为一年生草本，属罂粟 科罂粟属
幼果产生白色汁液，在空气 中迅速凝结为黑色膏状，即 生鸦片 (烟土)，具安眠止 痛作用
1803年从鸦片中分离出吗啡 (morphine)，海洛因 (heroin) 为吗啡的衍生物， 更易成瘾
罂粟
鸦片(opium)
现在已知21科100种以上的植物产生植物保卫素，豆 科、茄科、锦葵科、菊科和旋花科植物产生的植物保 卫素最多。
90多种植物保卫素的化学结构已被确定，其中多数 为类异黄酮、生物碱和类萜化合物。
（6）提高植物种间竞争能力
植物合成的某些次生代谢物可通过分泌、挥发或淋 溶作用进入环境，对周围其它植物(植株) 产生相生或 相克作用(Allelopathy)，叫植物化感作用。
Secondary Metabolites
Products that are not essential for normal growth and development of plants
海洋天然产物喹啉类生物碱的生物活性研究进展
化学鸟住够3終2021,-------------------------------------------------------综施专论―Chemistry&Bioengineeringdoi：10.3969/j.issn.1672-5425.2021.03.001李林拮，姚彤，毛联岗，等.海洋天然产物喳啡类生物碱的生物活性研究进展[J].化学与生物工程,2021,38(3):1-5,19.LI L Z,YAO T?MAO L G,et al.Research progress in biological activity of marine natural product quinoline alkaloids[J].Chemistry &-Bioengineering,2021,38(3)：1-5,19.海洋天然产物瞳咻类生物碱的生物活性研究进展李林詰1,姚彤3,毛联岗'，顾娜笃季春伟笃张珍明2，",李树安2"(1.江苏海洋大学海洋科学与水产学院，江苏连云港222005；2.江苏海洋大学环境与化学工程学院，江苏连云港222005；3.连云港杰瑞药业有限公司，江苏连云港222006；4.江苏省海洋资源开发研究院，江苏连云港222005)摘要：海洋天然产物摩咻类生物碱是从海洋生物中提取的次级代谢产物，具有新颖的化学结构和广谱的生物活性，是多种新药开发研制的先导化合物。
对海洋天然产物喳咻类生物碱的来源及生物活性进行了综述，并对其发展前景进行了展望。
关键词：海洋天然产物；喳咻类生物碱；生物活性中图分类号：0629.3文献标识码：A文章编号：1672-5425(2021)03-0001-05Research Progress in Biological Activity of Marine Natural Product Quinoline Alkaloids LI Linzhe1,YAO Tong3,MAO Liangang3,GU Na2,JI Chunwei2,ZHANG Zhenming24,LI Shuan24*(1.School of Marine Science and Fisheries^Jiangsu Ocean University^Lianyungang222005,CAzna；2.School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering9Jiangsu Ocean University,Lianyungang222005,C加na；3.J A RI Pharmaceutical Co.，Lul・，Lianyungang2220069China；4.Jiangsu Institute of MarineResources Development9Lianyungang222005^China)Abstract：Marine natural product quinoline alkaloids are secondary metabolites extracted from marine organisms9which are the leading compounds for the development of a variety of new drugs with novel chemical structures and broad-spectrum biological activities.In this paper,we review the sources and biological activities of marine natural product quinoline alkaloids?and put forward a prospect of their development.Keywords:marine natural product；quinoline alkaloids；biological activity嗟咻类化合物具有优良的药理活性，在医药化学、农药等领域应用广泛。
secondary造句
secondary造句1. Secondary education is an important stage in a student's academic journey, as it prepares them for higher education and the workforce.2. The secondary market for stocks and bonds is a crucial component of the financial industry, allowing investors to buy and sell securities after their initial issuance.3. Secondary sources of information, such as books and articles, are valuable resources for researchers looking to build upon existing knowledge in their field.4. Secondary colors, such as purple and green, are created by mixing primary colors together in equal amounts.5. Secondary metabolites produced by plants, such as alkaloids and flavonoids, have a variety of medicinal properties and are used in the development of pharmaceuticals.6. Secondary roads and highways provide important transportation routes for local communities, connecting them to larger cities and towns.7. Secondary fermentation is a process used in winemaking and brewing to enhance the flavor and complexity of the final product.8. Secondary lymphoid organs, such as the spleen and lymph nodes, play a critical role in the immune system by filtering and processing lymphatic fluid.9. Secondary succession is the process by which an ecosystem recovers after a disturbance, such as a wildfire or flood.10. Secondary batteries, such as lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride, are rechargeable and commonly used in portable electronic devices.。
海绵动物次生代谢产物及其生物活性研究进展
统整理总结，见表 2。 表 1 海绵动物化学成分研究
种属
所含化合物
参考文献
Aaptaos Acanthella Acremonium
Agelas Amphimedon Anisodoris
Aplysilla Aplysina Axinella Axinyssa Biemna fortis 蓖麻海绵
生物碱 生物碱 肽类 酰胺类 生物碱 N － 甲基异鸟嘌呤 甾醇 γ － 吡喃酮衍生物 生物碱 甘油醚、胆甾醇 脂肪酸、甾醇、羟基苯甲醛、神经酰胺
第 33 卷 第 1 期 2015 年1 月
中华中医药学刊
CHINESE AＲCHIVES OF TＲADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE
Vol． 33 No． 1 Jan． 2 0 1 5
DOI： 10． 13193 / j． issn． 1673-7717． 2015． 01． 030
核苷、嘧啶
［25，45］
Penares
硫酸盐
［46］
Petrosia
甾醇
［7］
Phacellia sp．
生物碱
［48］
棕扁海绵 Phakellia carteri
环肽类、嘧啶
［49 － 50］
Phaphisia pallida
甾醇、生物碱、十元杂环含氮化合物
［51 － 52］
中
Phyllispongia foliascen 杯叶海绵
［1］ ［2 － 3］
［4］ ［5］ ［6、7］ ［6］ ［8］ ［9］ ［10］ ［11］ ［12］
Callyspongia 美丽海绵
乙酰衍生物、核苷、醇类、多聚 酮化合物、多炔类化合物
KEGG代谢通路中文翻译 20200408
1.0 Global and overview maps 1.0全局和总览图0110001100Metabolic pathways代谢途径0111001110Biosynthesis of secondary metabolites次生代谢产物的生物合成0112001120Microbial metabolism in diverse environments 不同环境中的微生物代谢0120001200Carbon metabolism碳代谢01210012102-Oxocarboxylic acid metabolism 2-氧代羧酸代谢0121201212Fatty acid metabolism脂肪酸代谢0123001230Biosynthesis of amino acids氨基酸的生物合成0122001220Degradation of aromatic compounds芳香化合物的降解1.1 Carbohydrate metabolism 1.1碳水化合物代谢0001000010Glycolysis / Gluconeogenesis糖酵解/糖异生0002000020Citrate cycle (TCA cycle)柠檬酸盐循环（TCA循环）0003000030Pentose phosphate pathway磷酸戊糖途径0004000040Pentose and glucuronate interconversions戊糖和葡萄糖醛酸酯的相互转化0005100051Fructose and mannose metabolism果糖和甘露糖代谢0005200052Galactose metabolism半乳糖代谢0005300053Ascorbate and aldarate metabolism抗坏血酸和藻酸盐代谢0050000500Starch and sucrose metabolism淀粉和蔗糖代谢0052000520Amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism 氨基糖和核苷酸糖代谢0062000620Pyruvate metabolism丙酮酸代谢0063000630Glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism乙醛酸和二羧酸的代谢0064000640Propanoate metabolism丙酸酯代谢0065000650Butanoate metabolism丁酸酯代谢0066000660C5-Branched dibasic acid metabolism C5-二元酸代谢0056200562Inositol phosphate metabolism磷酸肌醇代谢1.2 Energy metabolism 1.2能量代谢0019000190Oxidative phosphorylation氧化磷酸化0019500195Photosynthesis光合作用0019600196Photosynthesis - antenna proteins光合作用-天线蛋白0071000710Carbon fixation in photosynthetic organisms 光合生物中的碳固定0072000720Carbon fixation pathways in prokaryotes原核生物中的碳固定途径0068000680Methane metabolism甲烷代谢0091000910Nitrogen metabolism氮代谢0092000920Sulfur metabolism硫代谢1.3 Lipid metabolism 1.3脂质代谢0006100061Fatty acid biosynthesis脂肪酸生物合成0006200062Fatty acid elongation脂肪酸伸长率0007100071Fatty acid degradation脂肪酸降解0007200072Synthesis and degradation of ketone bodies酮体的合成与降解0007300073Cutin, suberine and wax biosynthesis角质，琥珀和蜡的生物合成0010000100Steroid biosynthesis类固醇生物合成0012000120Primary bile acid biosynthesis一次胆汁酸的生物合成0012100121Secondary bile acid biosynthesis次生胆汁酸的生物合成0014000140Steroid hormone biosynthesis类固醇激素的合成0056100561Glycerolipid metabolism甘油脂代谢0056400564Glycerophospholipid metabolism甘油磷脂代谢0056500565Ether lipid metabolism醚脂质代谢0060000600 Sphingolipid metabolism鞘脂代谢0059000590 Arachidonic acid metabolism花生四烯酸代谢0059100591 Linoleic acid metabolism亚油酸代谢0059200592 alpha-Linolenic acid metabolism α-亚麻酸代谢0104001040 Biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids不饱和脂肪酸的生物合成1.4 Nucleotide metabolism1.4核苷酸代谢0023000230 Purine metabolism嘌呤代谢0024000240 Pyrimidine metabolism嘧啶代谢1.5 Amino acid metabolism1.5氨基酸代谢0025000250 Alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism 丙氨酸，天冬氨酸和谷氨酸代谢0026000260 Glycine, serine and threonine metabolism 甘氨酸，丝氨酸和苏氨酸的代谢0027000270 Cysteine and methionine metabolism 半胱氨酸和蛋氨酸代谢0028000280 Valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation 缬氨酸，亮氨酸和异亮氨酸的降解0029000290 Valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis 缬氨酸，亮氨酸和异亮氨酸的生物合成0030000300 Lysine biosynthesis赖氨酸的生物合成0031000310 Lysine degradation赖氨酸降解0022000220 Arginine biosynthesis精氨酸生物合成0033000330 Arginine and proline metabolism 精氨酸和脯氨酸代谢0034000340 Histidine metabolism组氨酸代谢0035000350 Tyrosine metabolism酪氨酸代谢0036000360 Phenylalanine metabolism苯丙氨酸代谢0038000380 Tryptophan metabolism色氨酸代谢0040000400Phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis苯丙氨酸，酪氨酸和色氨酸的生物合成1.6 Metabolism of other amino acids 1.6其他氨基酸的代谢0041000410beta-Alanine metabolism β-丙氨酸代谢0043000430Taurine and hypotaurine metabolism牛磺酸和牛磺酸代谢0044000440Phosphonate and phosphinate metabolism膦酸酯和次膦酸酯代谢0045000450Selenocompound metabolism硒化合物的代谢0046000460Cyanoamino acid metabolism氰氨基酸代谢0047100471D-Glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism D-谷氨酰胺和D-谷氨酸代谢0047200472D-Arginine and D-ornithine metabolism D-精氨酸和D-鸟氨酸代谢0047300473D-Alanine metabolism D-丙氨酸代谢0048000480Glutathione metabolism谷胱甘肽代谢1.7 Glycan biosynthesis and metabolism 1.7糖的生物合成与代谢0051000510N-Glycan biosynthesis N-聚糖生物合成0051300513Various types of N-glycan biosynthesis各种类型的N-聚糖生物合成0051200512Mucin type O-glycan biosynthesis粘蛋白型O-聚糖的生物合成0051500515Mannose type O-glycan biosynthesis甘露糖型O-聚糖的生物合成0051400514Other types of O-glycan biosynthesis其他类型的O-聚糖生物合成0053200532Glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis -chondroitin sulfate / dermatan sulfate糖胺聚糖的生物合成-硫酸软骨素/硫酸皮肤素0053400534Glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis - heparan sulfate / heparin糖胺聚糖的生物合成-硫酸乙酰肝素/肝素0053300533Glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis - keratansulfate糖胺聚糖的生物合成-硫酸角质素0053100531Glycosaminoglycan degradation糖胺聚糖降解0056300563Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor biosynthesis糖基磷脂酰肌醇（GPI ）-锚定生物合成0060100601 Glycosphingolipid biosynthesis - lacto and neolacto series糖鞘脂的生物合成-乳酸和新乳胶系列0060300603 Glycosphingolipid biosynthesis - globo and isoglobo series糖鞘脂的生物合成-globo 和isoglobo 系列0060400604 Glycosphingolipid biosynthesis - ganglio series 糖鞘脂的生物合成-神经节系列0054000540 Lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis 脂多糖的生物合成0055000550 Peptidoglycan biosynthesis肽聚糖的生物合成0051100511 Other glycan degradation其他聚糖降解0057100571 Lipoarabinomannan (LAM) biosynthesis 脂质阿拉伯甘露聚糖（LAM ）生物合成0057200572 Arabinogalactan biosynthesis -Mycobacterium阿拉伯半乳聚糖的生物合成-分枝杆菌1.8 Metabolism of cofactors and vitamins 1.8辅助因子和维生素的代谢0073000730 Thiamine metabolism硫胺素代谢0074000740 Riboflavin metabolism核黄素代谢0075000750 Vitamin B6 metabolism维生素B6代谢0076000760 Nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism 烟酸酯和烟酰胺代谢0077000770 Pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis 泛酸和CoA 生物合成0078000780 Biotin metabolism生物素代谢0078500785 Lipoic acid metabolism硫辛酸代谢0079000790 Folate biosynthesis叶酸生物合成0067000670 One carbon pool by folate一个叶酸的碳池0083000830 Retinol metabolism视黄醇代谢0086000860 Porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism 卟啉和叶绿素代谢0013000130 Ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis 泛醌和其他萜类醌的生物合成1.9 Metabolism of terpenoids andpolyketides1.9萜类和聚酮化合物的代谢0090000900Terpenoid backbone biosynthesis萜类骨架的生物合成0090200902Monoterpenoid biosynthesis单萜类生物合成0090900909Sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthesis 倍半萜和三萜生物合成0090400904Diterpenoid biosynthesis二萜类生物合成0090600906Carotenoid biosynthesis类胡萝卜素的生物合成0090500905Brassinosteroid biosynthesis油菜素类固醇生物合成0098100981Insect hormone biosynthesis昆虫激素的生物合成0090800908Zeatin biosynthesis玉米素的生物合成0090300903Limonene and pinene degradation柠檬烯和pin烯的降解0028100281Geraniol degradation香叶醇的降解010*******Type I polyketide structures I型聚酮化合物结构0052200522Biosynthesis of 12-, 14- and 16-membered macrolides 12、14和16元大环内酯类化合物的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of ansamycins安沙霉素的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of enediyne antibiotics烯二炔抗生素的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of type II polyketide backbone II型聚酮骨架的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of type II polyketide products II型聚酮化合物产品的生物合成0025300253Tetracycline biosynthesis四环素的生物合成0052300523Polyketide sugar unit biosynthesis聚酮糖单元的生物合成010*******Nonribosomal peptide structures非核糖体肽结构010*******Biosynthesis of siderophore groupnonribosomal peptides铁载体基团非核糖体肽的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of vancomycin groupantibiotics万古霉素类抗生素的生物合成1.10 Biosynthesis of other secondarymetabolites1.10其他次生代谢产物的生物合成0094000940Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis苯丙烷生物合成0094500945Stilbenoid, diarylheptanoid and gingerol biosynthesis Stilbenoid，二芳基庚烷和姜醇的生物合成0094100941Flavonoid biosynthesis类黄酮生物合成0094400944Flavone and flavonol biosynthesis黄酮和黄酮醇的合成0094200942Anthocyanin biosynthesis花青素的生物合成0094300943Isoflavonoid biosynthesis异黄酮的生物合成0090100901Indole alkaloid biosynthesis吲哚生物碱的合成0040300403Indole diterpene alkaloid biosynthesis吲哚二萜生物碱的生物合成0095000950Isoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis异喹啉生物碱的生物合成0096000960Tropane, piperidine and pyridine alkaloid biosynthesis Tropane，哌啶和吡啶生物碱的生物合成010*******Acridone alkaloid biosynthesis rid啶酮生物碱的合成0023200232Caffeine metabolism咖啡因代谢0096500965Betalain biosynthesis Betalain生物合成0096600966Glucosinolate biosynthesis芥子油苷的生物合成0040200402Benzoxazinoid biosynthesis苯并恶嗪类生物合成0031100311Penicillin and cephalosporin biosynthesis青霉素和头孢菌素的生物合成0033200332Carbapenem biosynthesis碳青霉烯生物合成0026100261Monobactam biosynthesis单杆菌素的生物合成0033100331Clavulanic acid biosynthesis棒酸的生物合成0052100521Streptomycin biosynthesis链霉素的生物合成0052400524Neomycin, kanamycin and gentamicin biosynthesis新霉素，卡那霉素和庆大霉素的生物合成0052500525Acarbose and validamycin biosynthesis阿卡波糖和有效霉素的生物合成0040100401Novobiocin biosynthesis新霉素生物合成0040400404Staurosporine biosynthesis星形孢菌素的生物合成0040500405Phenazine biosynthesis吩嗪生物合成0033300333Prodigiosin biosynthesis Prodigiosin生物合成0025400254Aflatoxin biosynthesis黄曲霉毒素的生物合成0099900999Biosynthesis of various secondary metabolites - part 1 Major update!各种次生代谢产物的生物合成-第1部分主要更新！0099800998Biosynthesis of various secondary metabolites - part 2 Major update!各种次级代谢产物的生物合成-第2部分主要更新！0099700997Biosynthesis of various secondary metabolites - part 3 New!各种次级代谢产物的生物合成-第3部分新！1.11 Xenobiotics biodegradation andmetabolism1.11异生物素的生物降解和代谢0036200362Benzoate degradation苯甲酸酯降解0062700627Aminobenzoate degradation氨基苯甲酸酯降解0036400364Fluorobenzoate degradation氟苯甲酸酯降解0062500625Chloroalkane and chloroalkene degradation氯烷和氯烯的降解0036100361Chlorocyclohexane and chlorobenzenedegradation氯环己烷和氯苯的降解0062300623Toluene degradation甲苯降解0062200622Xylene degradation二甲苯降解0063300633Nitrotoluene degradation硝基甲苯降解0064200642Ethylbenzene degradation乙苯降解0064300643Styrene degradation苯乙烯降解0079100791Atrazine degradation阿特拉津降解0093000930Caprolactam degradation己内酰胺降解0036300363Bisphenol degradation双酚降解0062100621Dioxin degradation二恶英降解0062600626Naphthalene degradation萘降解0062400624Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation 多环芳烃降解0036500365Furfural degradation糠醛降解0098400984Steroid degradation类固醇降解0098000980Metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450细胞色素P450对异生物素的代谢0098200982Drug metabolism - cytochrome P450药物代谢-细胞色素P450 0098300983Drug metabolism - other enzymes药物代谢-其他酶1.12 Chemical structure transformationmaps1.12化学结构转化图010*******Overview of biosynthetic pathways生物合成途径概述010*******Biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites植物次生代谢产物的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids苯丙烷的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of terpenoids and steroids萜类化合物和类固醇的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of alkaloids derived fromshikimate pathwaysh草酸途径衍生的生物碱的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of alkaloids derived from ornithine, lysine and nicotinic acid鸟氨酸，赖氨酸和烟酸衍生生物碱的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of alkaloids derived from histidine and purine组氨酸和嘌呤衍生的生物碱的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of alkaloids derived from terpenoid and polyketide萜类和聚酮化合物的生物碱的生物合成010*******Biosynthesis of plant hormones植物激素的生物合成。
关于色谱的英文文献
Automatic authentication and distinction of Epimedium koreanumand Epimedium wushanense with HPLC fingerprint analysis assistedby pattern recognition techniquesLingbo Wang,Xiaobing Wang,Lingyi Kong *China Pharmaceutical University,Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry,24Tong Jia Xiang,Nanjing 210009,PR Chinaa r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received 3May 2011Accepted 8October 2011Available online 10November 2011Keywords:HPLCFingerprintEpimediumPattern recognition a b s t r a c t This study aims to identify and discriminate between two commonlyconfused traditional Chinese medicines,Epimedium wushanense and Epimedium koreanum ,using pattern recognition aided fingerprint analysis of their secondary metabolites.Samples of the two species were collected during different stages of their growth period.The HPLC generated chromatographic data were analyzed using principal components analysis (PCA)and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA).Two major clusters were formed,each consisting of a single species.The entire dataset was then divided into two:a training set and a test set.Supervised pattern recognition techniques,soft independent modeling by class analogy (SIMCA)and back propagation arti ficial neural network (BP-ANN),were performed.SIMCAfailed to predict one sample,whereas BP-ANN precisely predicted the whole test set.Inconclusion,fingerprint analysis assisted by pattern recognition techniques is a potentialstrategy for the authentication and differentiation of species used in herbal medicines.Ó2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionThe leaves of Epimedium wushanense T.S.Ying and Epimedium koreanum Nakai have been of ficially adopted in the 2010Chinese Pharmacopeia under two crude drug names,Wushanyinyanghuo and Yinyanghuo,respectively (National Commission of Chinese Pharmacopoeia,2010).Genus Epimedium was characterized by various prenyl-flavonoids,such as icariin (Ma et al.,2011).Inter-species variation in the content of total flavonoids and icariin has been described for species differentiation (Sheng et al.,2008).But this strategy was not suf ficient to differentiate among species as only one compound was evaluated.Fingerprint analysis,characterized by its entirety and fuzziness,is a powerful tool for quality assessment of herbal medicines (WHO,2000)and differentiation of easily confused herbs (Alaets et al.,2010;Biolley et al.,1992).Selection of several major peaks or a certain region of the fingerprints has been accepted as a routine approach (Xie et al.,2010).As a matter of fact,this approach was not suf ficient due to the complexity of the secondary metabolites contained in the herbs (Cheng et al.,2003).So it is necessary to evaluate the whole HPLC fingerprint pro files of the samples for species authenti-cation.Chemical pattern recognition offered an objective and effective tool for the classi fication of herbal medicines based on their fingerprint pro files (Welsh et al.,1996).In this paper,an unsupervised pattern recognition method (HCA),as well as supervised techniques (SIMCA and BP-ANN),was applied to analyze the fingerprints of Epimedium wushanense and E.koreanum .Satisfactory results were obtained to identify and distinguish these two species,indicating that chromatographic fingerprint aided by pattern recognition was a potential strategy for the authentication and classi fication of herbs.*Corresponding author.Tel./fax:þ862583271405.E-mail address:cpu_lykong@ (L.Kong).Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectBiochemical Systematics and Ecologyjournal homepage:/locate/biochemsyseco0305-1978/$–see front matter Ó2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.bse.2011.10.014Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 40(2012)138–1452.Materials and methods2.1.Crude drugsNine batches of E.koreanum(K1-K9)were collected from Changchun,Jilin Province,China two times a month from May 26,2010to September28,2010.Thirteen batches of E.wushanense(W10-W22)were collected from Leishan,Guizhou Province,China with the same frequency from April25,2010to August25,2010including both triennial and four-year plants. Four batches of E.koreanum(K23–K25)and four batches of E.wushanense(W26–W30)constituting the test set were collected besides the regular collection schedule from their authentic origins.Species identification was conducted by Professor Mian Zhang.The voucher specimens were deposited at the Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry,China Pharmaceutical University.2.2.ChemicalsAcetonitrile(chromatographic grade)was purchased from J&K China Chemical Ltd.,methanol(chromatographic grade), ethanol and phosphoric acid(analytical grade)from Hanbang Chemicals,Jiangsu Province,China,and purified water from Robust Company.2.3.Preparation of sample solutions and standard solutionsAbout0.1g of pulverized leaves(sieved through a280m m sieve)was ultrasonically extracted(KQ-250DE Digital Ultra-sonic Cleaner)in25mL of70%ethanol for1h at50 C andfiltered through a0.45m m membrane.Thefinalfiltrate wasanalyzed as the sample solution.Ten compounds(Fig.1),isolated and purified from E.koreanum(Zheng and Kong,2002;s and structures of ten marker compounds.L.Wang et al./Biochemical Systematics and Ecology40(2012)138–145139Zhou,2010)and Epimedium brevicornum (Liu,2007)by our group,were used as marker compounds.One milligram of each compound was dissolved in 1mL of methanol,further diluted to 120m g/mL and mixed.2.4.HPLC apparatus and conditionsAnalyses were performed on an Agilent Series 1200HPLC system with a diode array detector and Agilent Chemstation software (Agilent,PaloAlto,CA,USA).All the separations were carried out on an Ultimate XB-C18column (250mm Â4.6mm,5m m).The mobile phase consisting of 0.05%phosphoric aqueous acid (A)and acetonitrile (B)in a gradient elution mode was carried out as Table 1.The injection volume was 10m L,flow rate 1.0mL/min and column temperature 25 C,detected at 270nm.2.5.Data analysisData of each chromatogram were exported from the Chemstation to be further putations were performed on a personal computer with Intel Pentium dual core processor containing 1GB RAM running Microsoft Windows XP and Matlab Ô7.1(The Mathworks,Natick,MA).All data processing was performed using m-files written for Matlab Ô7.1.3.Theory3.1.Data preprocessingChromatographic fingerprints could be organized in an n Âp matrix X ,where n objects constitute the rows,and p sampling points of each chromatogram constitute the columns.Alignment plays an important role in data analysis by eliminating the peak shifts caused by variation in mobile phase composition,column aging and instrument instability.In this research,the most popular warping technique (Nielsen et al.,1998),correlation optimized warping (COW),was applied and it aligns two chromatograms by means of piecewise linear stretching and compression of the signals in order to match it with the target signal as well as possible (Tomasi et al.,2004;Van Nederkassel et al.,2006).3.2.Exploratory data analysis:principal components analysis (PCA)One of the goals of PCA is to reduce the number of variables and allow visualizing information included in the multivariate data set (Gemperline,2006).PCA combines the original variables linearly to produce principal components (PCs)in such a way that the largest possible variation in X is preserved.Score plots visualize the similarities of the objects and the clus-tering tendency,while loading plots reveal the contribution of the original variables (Tistaert et al.,2009).And determination of the number of PCs is usually based on leave-one-out cross-validation (LOO-CV)(Brereton,2003).3.3.Unsupervised pattern recognition:hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA)Unsupervised pattern recognition employed a number of methods,primarily cluster analysis,to group different samples (Bratchell,1987;Brereton,2003).Mahalanobis distance (Edwards and Cavalli-Sforza,1965)was applied as the measure of similarity in this study.Then adjacent objects were gradually connected to each other in groups until all objects had joined one large group.3.4.Supervised pattern recognitionSupervised pattern recognition involved modeling of the training set.A mathematical model between the features of the objects and their known groups was built.New samples could be assigned to a certain known group according to the model.3.4.1.Soft independent modeling by class analogy (SIMCA)In SIMCA,a separate PCA is performed on each class in the training set.Classi fication in SIMCA is made by comparing the residual variance of a sample with the average residual variance of the samples that make up the class.F-statistic is used to Table 1Elution gradient program.Time (min)A (%)B (%)Time (min)A (%)B (%)0.0080.020.050.0060.040.015.0074.026.054.0040.060.034.0071.828.254.0110.090.034.0164.036.060.0010.090.0L.Wang et al./Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 40(2012)138–145140provide a quantitative measure of this comparison(Gemperline,2006).As a soft modeling method,SIMCA does not forcibly assign a certain sample to a single group if it is an outlier.If the classes in the data set overlapped,a sample might be assigned to more than one group.3.4.2.Artificial neural network(ANN)ANN wasfirst proposed(McCulloch and Pitts,1943)as a method of data mining using neurons that are organized in layers as centers of data analyzing with the structure of human brain as the template(Hodgkin and Huxley,1952).The most extensively used back propagation neural(McClelland et al.,1987)is a multilayered,feed-forward neural network.4.Results and discussion4.1.HPLCfingerprintsFingerprints of the30samples were developed with optimized HPLC condition as shown in Fig.2.The precision and repeatability of the method were validated by analyzing six injections of the sample solution and six replicates of sample, respectively.The RSD values of the retention time and peak areas of the main peaks were found in the range of0.01%–2.8%. The stability was tested by analyzing the solution after being prepared for0h,4h,8h,16h,24h and48h,respectively.The sample solution was found to be stable within48h.4.2.Data preprocessingThe chromatographic data,each consisting of9000sampling points,were exported from the Chemstation to be further analyzed.Baseline correction and wavelet denoising were performed for each chromatogram,and peak shifts were observed as illustrated in Fig.3,so alignment of the peaks is necessary.Chromatogram of K5,in which all peaks were clearly present, was selected as the target signal.The alignment with COW requires optimization of two input parameters,segment length(N) and slack(t)(Van Nederkassel et al.,2006).These parameters were optimized by varying N from0to50,and t from0to40. With N¼38,t¼24,the whole dataset was aligned as shown in Fig.4.4.3.Exploratory data analysis:principal components analysis(PCA)The30Â9000data matrix X,consisting of13E koreanum and17E wushanense samples,was analyzed by PCA.Three PCs were reserved according to LOO-CV and thefirst two PCs accounted for more than95%of the total variance.When examining the PC1-PC2score plot(Fig.5),samples from two species were densely clustered into two major groups with most of them situated more or less centrally in each group.In Fig.6,the loadings for each variable on thefirst two PCs were displayed. Variables with higher loadings(positive or negative)varied more between species.In Fig.6,loadings corresponding toepimedin A(1),epimedin B(2),epimedin C(3),icariin(4),epimedokoreanoside I(5),sagittatoside B(7)and quercetin(10)Fig.2.Fingerprints of30samples.L.Wang et al./Biochemical Systematics and Ecology40(2012)138–145141were larger than those corresponding to other components.These compounds represented the essential variation of the composition of herbal extracts of different species.PCA could highlight the differences between species with only a few PCs without multi-component quanti fication.4.4.Unsupervised pattern recognition:hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA)In this study,Mahalanobis distance and average linkage were applied.As shown in Fig.7,there were two main clusters corresponding to E.wushanense and E.koreanum respectively in the dendrogram,while the subsets gave more information on the samples collected in different months.4.5.Supervised pattern recognitionTo further discriminate the two species,supervised pattern recognition was performed to build a prediction model.The 30samples were divided into a training set (22samples,including 9E.koreanum and 13E.wushanense )and a test set (remainder).The models were built with the training set,and then validated by the testset.Fig.4.Warped signals and identi fiedpeaks.Fig.3.Fingerprint pro files before warping.L.Wang et al./Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 40(2012)138–145142Fig.5.PC1-PC2scoreplot.Fig.6.Loadings on PC1(____)and PC2(——)as a function of the retention time:based on the 30chromatograms.L.Wang et al./Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 40(2012)138–1451434.5.1.Soft independent modeling by class analogy (SIMCA)PCA was performed on the two classes in the training set separately.Five and six PCs were extracted for E.koreanum and E.wushanense according to LOO-CV,respectively.Retained PCs accounted for more than 90%of the total variance in both class models.A signi ficant level of 5%(95%tolerance interval)was chosen for the critical distance.As to the predictability of SIMCA for the test set,it failed to predict only one sample (W29).It was implied that W29may be an outlier as illustrated in the PC1-PC2score plot (Fig.5).In contrast to the hard modeling methods,a sample would not be forcibly assigned to either group if it was an outlier or from a class not represented in the training set.Thus in order to classify the samples in a more ef ficient way,BP-ANN was applied.It is a versatile and adaptive technique recommended when traditional techniques fail (Marini,2009).4.5.2.Back propagation neural network (BP-ANN)Three PCs could explain more than 95%of the total variance of this data set,so the whole data set could be represented by the PCs and they were used as input to BP-ANN.In order to get the optimum result,the number of neurons and other parameters were optimized by trial and error method according to the predictability.The number of neurons was selected as 6,the learning rate 0.01and the performance goal 0.0001.The performance goal was met after 2000iterations.The precision rate of the final model amounted to 100%,although the development of ANN took a relatively longer time than the chemometric tools described above.The training process of ANN was not easy to control,and great effort should be taken to optimize the parameters.However,once trained it is capable of predicting the category to which the samples belong almost instantaneously,compensating such drawbacks.In this paper,a simple and reliable HPLC method for the fingerprint analysis of E.wushanense and E.koreanum was developed.PCA and HCA were performed to evaluate the variation of the components.Two major clusters were formed,each consisting of a single species.Then two supervised pattern recognition techniques were applied.SIMCA failed to predict one sample,while BP-ANN precisely predicted the whole test set.In conclusion,fingerprint analysis assisted by pattern recog-nition techniques is a potential strategy for the authentication and differentiation of herbal medicines.AcknowledgementThis work was financially supported by the Key Project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.30830116)and a Project Funded by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).ReferencesAlaets,G.,Merino-Arevalo,M.,Dumarey,M.,Dejaeghera,B.,Noppe,N.,Matthijs,N.,Smeyers-Verbeke,J.,Vander Heyden,Y.,2010.Exploratory ananlysis ofchromatographic fingerprints to distinguish Rhizoma Chuanxiong and Rhizoma Ligustici.J.Chromatogr.A 1217(49),7706–7716.Fig.7.Hierarchical clustering dendrogram of the samples.L.Wang et al./Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 40(2012)138–145144L.Wang et al./Biochemical Systematics and Ecology40(2012)138–145145 Biolley,J.P.,Jay,M.,Barbe,J.P.,1992.Chemometric approach(flavonoids)in an automatic recognition of modern rose cultivars.Biochem.Syst.Ecol.20(7), 697–705.Bratchell,N.,1987.Cluster 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生化英文名词解释
名词解释Glossary第一章蛋白质的结构与功能Chapter 1 Structure and Function of Proteinpeptide bond（肽键）：a covalent bond linking the α- amino group of one amino acid and theα-carboxyl group of another in a protein molecule.peptide（肽）：a molecule containing two or more amino acids linked by peptide bond. primary structure of protein（蛋白质的一级结构）：the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.secondary structure of protein（蛋白质的二级结构）：the spatial arrangement of local portions of a polypeptide chain.tertiary structure of protein（蛋白质的三级结构）：the spatial arrangement of all the atoms of a protein or a subunit.quaternary structure of protein（蛋白质的四级结构）：the spatial arrangement of a protein that consists of more than one folded polypeptide chain or subunit.subunit（亚基）：an individual polypeptide chain that associates with one or more separate chains to form a complete protein.motif（模序）：a substructure formed with two or more secondary-structure peptide segments that are drawn close to each other.domain（结构域）：a region within a protein, particularly within a large polypeptide, that functions in a semi-independent manner.positive cooperativity（正协同效应）：an effect that the binding of one ligand to a protein facilitates the subsequent ligand binding.allosteric effect（变构效应）：an effect that a small molecule, called an effector, noncovalently binds to a protein and alters its activity.isoelectric point（pI）of protein （蛋白质的等电点）：the pH at which a protein has an equal number of positive and negative charges and hence bears no net charge. denaturation of protein（蛋白质变性）： the disruption of the natively folded structure of a protein caused by exposure to heat, radiation, or chemicals, or change in pH, that leads to an alteration of chemical, physical and biological properties of the第二章核酸的结构与功能Chapter 2 Structure and Function of Nucleic Aciddenaturation of DNA（DNA的变性）：the disruption of the native conformation of DNA by separation of the DNA double helix into its two component strands, due to heat, chemicals, or change in pH, etc.hyperchromic effect（增色效应）：the increase in ultraviolet absorbance of a DNA while the DNA is denatured.melting temperature（Tm, 融解温度）：the temperature corresponding to half the maximal increase in ultraviolet absorbance of a thermally denatured DNA.annealing（退火）：the process of returning a thermally denatured DNA to its original native structure when it is cooled gradually.第三章酶Chapter 3 Enzymessimple enzyme（单纯酶）：an enzyme that consists of only polypeptide chain(s). conjugated enzyme（结合酶）：an enzyme with its polypeptide portion(apoenzyme) linked to one or more substance other than amino acids, such as metals or small organic molecules.holoenzyme（全酶）：a complete enzyme consisting of the apoenzyme portion plus the cofactor component.essential group（必需基团）： a chemical group on the side chain of amino acid residue of an enzyme that is closely related to the activity of the enzyme.active center / active site（活性中心）：the region of an enzyme molecule that contains the substrate binding site and the catalytic site for converting the substrate(s) into product(s).activation energy（活化能）：the threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction.absolute specificity（绝对特异性）：the extreme selectivity of an enzyme that allows it to catalyze only the reaction with a single substrate in the case of a monomolecular reaction, or the reaction with a single pair of substrates in the case of a bimolecularrelative specificity（相对特异性）：the relative selectivity of an enzyme that allows it to catalyze the reaction with one type of reactants or one type of chemical bond. stereospecificity（立体异构特异性）：the selectivity of an enzyme for a particular stereoisomer.zymogen（酶原）：the inactive precursor of an enzyme.zymogen activation（酶原激活）：the process in which a zymogen is converted to an active enzyme by limited proteolysis and subsequently the active center of the enzyme is formed or exposed.isoenzyme（同工酶）：multiple forms of an enzyme that catalyze the same reaction but differ from one another in one or more of the properties, such as structural, physical, chemical and even immunological properties.第四章糖代谢Chapter 4 Carbohydrate Metabolismglycolysis（糖酵解）： the anaerobic degradation of carbohydrate whereby a molecule of glucose is converted to two molecules of lactic acid.substrate-level phosphorylation（底物水平磷酸化）：the synthesis of ATP from ADP by the phosphorylation of ADP coupled with exergonic breakdown of a high-energy organic substrate molecules.Pastuer effect（巴斯德效应）：the phenomenon that the glycolytic pathway is inhibited under aerobic conditions.glycogen（糖原）： a highly branched polymer of glucose residues primarily in 1,4 linkage but with 1,6 linkage at branchpoints.gluconeogenesis（糖异生）： the synthesis of glucose or glycogen from noncarbohydrate molecules, i.e., lactic acid, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, etc.第五章脂类代谢Chapter 5 Lipid Metabolismessential fatty acids（必需脂肪酸）： the fatty acids, including linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid, which can not be synthesized in the mammalian body and must be obtained from diet.mobilization of fat（脂肪动员）： a process of lipolysis in which the fat stored in adipose tissues is converted to free fatty acids and glycerol, which are consequently released into blood so that they can be used in other tissues.β-oxidation of fatty acid（脂肪酸的β-氧化）： a process in which a fatty acid is degraded through a sequential removal of two-carbon fragments from the carboxyl end and therefore acetyl CoA is formed as the bond between the α- and β-carbon atoms is broken.ketone bodies（酮体）： a group of molecules, i.e., acetone, acetoacetate, and β–hydroxybutyrate, that are synthesized in the liver from acetyl CoA.第六章生物氧化Chapter 6 Biological Oxidationrespiratory chain （呼吸链）/ electron transfer chain（电子传递链）： a series of electron carriers responsible for the transport of reducing equivalent from metabolite to molecular oxygen, with the net results of capturing energy for use in ATP synthesis, and of the reduction of oxygen to water.P/O ratio（P/O比值）： the number of molecules of Pi consumed in ATP formation for each oxygen atom reduced to H2O.oxidative phosphorylation（氧化磷酸化）： the process in which the phosphorylation of ADP to yield ATP is coupled to the electron transport through respiratory chain. uncoupler（解偶联剂）： a molecule, such as dinitrophenol, that uncouples ATP synthesis from electron transport.第七章氨基酸代谢Chapter 7 Amino Acid Metabolismessential amino acids（必需氨基酸）： the amino acids，including valine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, phenylalanine, tryptophan methionine and lysine, that cannot be synthesized by animal body and must therefore be supplied by diet. transdeamination（联合脱氨基作用）： the coupled action of an aminotransferase and a glutamate dehydrogenase involved in deamination of the majority of amino acids. transamination（转氨基作用）： a reaction catalyzed by an aminotransferase, in which an amino group is transferred from an amino acid to a keto acid.ketogenic amino acids（生酮氨基酸）： the amino acids that can be converted to ketone bodies, i.e., leucine and lysine.glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids（生糖兼生酮氨基酸）： the amino acids, i.e., isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine and tryptophan, that can be converted to either ketone bodies or carbohydrates.one carbon units（一碳单位）/ one carbon groups（一碳基团）： organic groups, including methyl(—CH3), methylene(—CH2—), methenyl(—CH＝), formyl(—CHO) and formimino(—CH＝NH) groups, each containing only one carbon atom generated through catabolisms of some amino acids.第八章核苷酸代谢Chapter 8 Nucleotide Metabolismthe de novo pathway of nucleotide synthesis（核苷酸的从头合成途径）： a pathway through which nucleotides are synthesized by using simple molecules, such as ribose 5-phosphate, amino acids, one carbon units and carbon dioxide.the salvage pathway of nucleotide synthesis（核苷酸的补救合成途径）： a pathway through which nucleotides are synthesized by using the existing nitrogenous bases or nucleosides.第九章物质代谢的联系与调节Chapter 9 Integration and Regulation of Metabolismkey enzyme（关键酶）/ pacemaker enzyme（限速酶）/ regulatory enzyme（调节酶）：an enzyme that sets the rate for the entire biochemical pathway, usually catalyzes the slowest and irreversible step, and can be regulated by a number of metabolites and effectors in addition to its substrates.allosteric regulation（变构调节）： a regulatory mechanism through which a specific low-molecular-weight molecule, called an effector or a modulator, noncovalently binds to a regulatory site outside the active center of a regulatory enzyme and alters the conformation and activity of the enzyme.chemical modification（化学修饰调节）： a regulatory mechanism through which enzyme activities are regulated by means of reversible interconversion between the active and inactive forms of the enzyme resulted from enzyme-catalyzed covalent modificationto a specific amino acid residue.第十章 DNA的生物合成（复制）Chapter 10 Biosynthesis of DNA (Replication)replication（复制）：a process in which an exact copy of parental DNA is synthesized by using each polynucleotide strand of the parental DNA as templates. semiconservative replication（半保留复制）： duplication of DNA after which the daughter duplex carries one parental strand and one newly synthesized strand.DNA polymerase（DNA聚合酶）：any of various enzymes, with the full name of DNA dependent DNA polymerase, that catalyzes the formation of polynucleotides of DNA using an existing strand of DNA as a template.point mutation（点突变）：a mutation that causes the replacement of a single base pair with another, including nonsense mutation, missense mutation and silent mutation. frameshift mutation（框移突变）：a mutation of insertion or deletion of a genetic material that leads to a shift in the translation of the reading frame, resulting in a completely different translation.reverse transcriptase（逆转录酶）：any of various enzymes, with the full name of RNA dependent DNA polymerase, that catalyzes the formation of polynucleotides of DNA using an existing strand of RNA as a template.telomeres（端粒）： structures that occur at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes that prevent the unraveling of DNA.第十一章 RNA的生物合成（转录）Chapter 11 Biosynthesis of RNA (Transcription)RNA polymerase（RNA聚合酶）：any of various enzymes, with the full name of DNA dependent RNA polymerase, that catalyzes the formation of polynucleotides of RNA using an existing strand of DNA as a template.promoter（启动子）： a DNA sequence immediately before a gene that is recognized by RNA polymerase and signals the start point of transcription.intron（内含子）： a noncoding intervening sequence in a split or interrupted gene that is missing in the final RNA product.exon（外显子）： the region in a split or interrupted gene that codes for RNA which endup in the final product (e.g., mRNA).ribozyme（核酶）：ribonucleic acid with catalytic ability whose substrate is ribonucleic acid.第十二章蛋白质的生物合成（翻译）Chapter 12 Biosynthesis of Proteins (Translation)reading frame（阅读框）： a group of three nonoverlapping nucleotides that is read asa codon during protein synthesis. The reading frame begins with the initiator codonAUG.molecular chaperon (分子伴侣)：a sort of intracellular conservative protein, which can recognize the unnatural conformation of peptide and assist in the accurate folding of domains or the whole protein.signal peptide（信号肽）： a sequence of amino acid residues located at the N-terminal portion of a nascent secretory protein, which marks the protein for translocation across the rough endoplasmic reticulum.第十三章细胞信息转导Chapter 13 Cell Signalingprimary messenger（第一信使）： an extracellular signaling molecule that is released from the signaling cell and can regulate the physiological activity of the target cell.secondary messenger（第二信使）： a small intracellular molecule, such as Ca2+,cAMP, cGMP, diacylglycerol (DAG), inositol triphosphate (IP3), ceramide, or arachidonic acid (AA), etc., that is formed at the inner surface of the plasma membrane in response to a primary messenger.receptor （受体）： a molecular structure on the surface or interior of the target cell that specifically binds signaling molecule and initiates a response in the cell. ligand（配体）： a biologically active molecule that can bind to its specific receptor.G protein （G蛋白）/ guanylate binding proteins （鸟苷酸结合蛋白）：a trimeric guanylatebinding protein in the cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane that acts as a switch to turn activities on and off by interconversion between its monomeric GTPase andtrimeric GDP binding form.hormone response element （激素反应元件，HRE）：a specific DNA sequence that binds hormone-receptor complex; The binding of a hormone-receptor complex either enhances or diminishes the transcription of a specific gene.第十四章血液的生物化学Chapter 14 Biochemical Aspects of Bloodnon-protein nitrogen（非蛋白氮）：nitrogen contained in urea, creatine, creatinine, uric acid, bilirubin, and ammonia.acute phase protein（急性时相蛋白质）：a protein whose plasma concentration can be altered when acute inflammation or a certain type of tissue damage occurs.2,3-bisphosphoglyerate shunt（2,3-二磷酸甘油支路）：the pathway in erythrocyte glycolysis in which glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate(1,3-BPG) is isomerized to 2,3-bisphosphoglyerate(2,3-BPG) and the latter is consequently hydrolyzed to form 3-phosphoglycerate. The importance of 2,3-BPG in the erythrocyte lies in its ability to alter the extent to which hemoglobin binds with oxygen.第十五章肝的生物化学Chapter 15 Biochemical Aspects of the Liverbiotransformation（生物转化）： a series of enzyme-catalyzed processes through which non-nutritional molecules, which are usually hydrophobic, are converted into more soluble metabolites.jaundice（黄疸）： a clinical manifestation of hepatic disease, featuring yellow discolration of the plasma, skin, and mucous membranes, caused by bilirubin accumulation and staining.。