毕业论文 外文文献翻译
北斗定位-毕业论文外文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Beidou positioningPrefaceNavigation satellite systems can provide all time, all weather and high accuracy positioning, navigation and timing services to users on the earth surface or in the near-earth space. It is an important space inf rastructure, which extends people’s range of activities and promotes social development. Satellite navigation is bringing up revolutionary changes to the world politics, economy, military, technology and culture.With a long history and a splendid culture, China is one of the important cradles of early human civilization. In ancient times, Chinese people used the Big Dipper (Beidou) for identifying directions, and invented the world’s first navigation device, the ancient compass (Sinan), which was a great contribution to the development of world civilization. In modern society, the Chinese-built BeiDou（COMPASS） system will become another contribution to the mankind.In early 1980s, China began to actively study the navigation satellite systems in line with C hina’s conditions. In 2000, BeiDou Navigation Demonstration System is basically established, which made China the third nation in possession of an independent navigation satellite system following the United States and Russia. At present, China is steadily accelerating the construction of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, and has already successfully launched 10 satellites so far.The BeiDou system will meet the demands of China’s national security, economic development, technological advances and social progress, safeguard national interests and enhance the comprehensive national strength. The BeiDou system will commit to providing stable, reliable and quality satellite navigation services for global users. Along with other GNSS providers, the BeiDou system will jointly promote the development of satellitenavigation industry, make contributions to human civilization and social development, serve the world and benefit the mankind.I. System DescriptionThe BeiDou system is comprised of three major components: space constellation, ground control segment and user terminals. The space constellation consists of five GEO satellites and 30 non-GEO satellites. The GEO satellites are positioned at 58.75°E, 80°E, 110.5°E, 140°E and 160°E respectively. The non-GEO satellites include 27 MEO satellites and three IGSO satellites. The MEO satellites are operating in an orbit with an altitudeof 21,500 km and an inclination of 55°, which are evenly distributed in three orbital planes. The IGSO satellites are operating in an orbit with an altitude of 36,000 km and an inclination of 55°, which are evenly distributed in three inclined geo-synchronous orbital planes. The subsatellite track for the three IGSO satellites are coincided while the longitude of the intersection point is at 118°E, with a phase difference of 120°.Ground control segment consists of several Master Control Stations (MCS), Upload Stations (US) and a network of globally distributed Monitor Stations (MS). The main tasks of MCS are to collect observing data from each MS, to process data, to generate satellite navigation messages, wide area differential data and integrity information, to perform mission planning and scheduling, and to conduct system operation and control. The main tasks of Upload Stations include completing the upload of satellite navigation messages, wide area differential data and integrity information, controlling and managing the payload. The tasks of Monitor Stations include continuous tracking and monitoring of navigation satellites, receiving navigation signals, sending observational data to the Master Control Station for the satellites orbit determination and time synchronization.The user terminals include various BeiDou user terminals, and terminals compatible with other navigation satellite systems, to meet different application requirements from different fields and industries.The time reference for the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System uses BeiDou Time (BDT). BDT’s length of second is a SI second. BDT was zero at 0:00:00 on Janu ary 1, 2006 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). BDT is a continuous system, traceable to the UTC time maintained by the National Time Service Center (NTSC) of ChineseAcademy ofSciences, which is referred to as UTC (NTSC). The leap seconds with UTC information is broadcasted in the navigation messages. The difference between BDT and UTC maintains within 100ns.The coordinate framework of BeiDou system adopts China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000 (CGCS2000).Upon the full system completion, the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System can provide positioning, navigation and timing services to worldwide users. It can also provide wide area differential services with the accuracy of 1m and short messages services with the capacity of 120 Chinese characters each time.·Main functions: positioning, velocity measurement, one-way and two-way timing, short messages·Service area: global·Positioning accuracy: better than 10m·Velocity accuracy: better than 0.2m/s·Timing accuracy: 20nsII. System DevelopmentThe BeiDou system has followed the development concept of starting with regional services first and expanding to global services later. A three-step development strategy has been taken, with specifics as follows:Phase I: BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System. In 1994, Chinastarted the construction of BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System. In 2000, two BeiDou navigation experiment satellites were launched, and the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System was basically established. In 2003, the third BeiDou navigation experiment satellite was launched, further enhancing the performance of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System.BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System consists of three major components: space constellation, ground control segment and user terminals. The space constellation includes three geostationary orbit (GEO) satellites, positioned at longitude of 80 degrees East, 110.5 degrees East and 140 degrees East respectively above the equator. Ground control segment consists of the ground control center and a number of calibrationstations. The ground control center is to complete satellite orbit determination, ionospheric correction, user location determination and user short message information exchange and processing. The calibration ground control stations are mainly to provide the distance measurement and correction parameters to the ground control center.The user terminals include the hand-held type, vehicle type, command type and other types of terminals, capable of position service application, location coordinates information receiving and other functions.The main functions and performance specifications of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System are as follows:·Main functions: positioning, one-way and two-way timing, short message communications;·Service Area: China and the surrounding areas;·Positioning Accuracy: better than 20 meters;·Timing Accuracy: 100 ns one-way, two-way 20 ns;·Short message communications: 120 Chinese characters per time.Phase II: BeiDou Navigation Satellite (regional) System. In 2004, Chinastarted construction of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System. In 2007, the first satellite, a round medium earth orbit satellite (COMPASS-M1) was launched. By 2012, the BeiDou system will consist of 14 satellites, including five GEO satellites, five IGSO satellites (two in-orbit spares), and four MEO satellites.The functions and performance parameters of BeiDou Navigation Satellite (regional) System are as follows:·Main functions: positioning, velocity measurement, one-way and two-way timing, short message communications;·Service Area: China and part of Asia- Pacific region ;·Positioning Accuracy: better than 10 meters;·Velocity Accuracy: better than 0.2 m/s;·Timing Accuracy: 50 ns;·Short message communications: 120 Chinese characters per message.Phase III: BeiDou Navigation Satellite System will completely be established by 2020.III. System ApplicationsSince it was officially brought into service in 2003, the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System has been widely used in transportation, marine fisheries, hydrological monitoring, weather forecasting, forest fire prevention, timing for communication systems, power distribution, disaster mitigation, national security, and many other fields, which has been resulting in significant social and economic benefits. Particularly, the system has played an important role in the South China frozen disaster, earthquake relief in Wenchuan, SichuanProvince and Yushu, Qinghai Province, the Beijing Olympic Games, and the Shanghai World Expo.—In the field of transportation, built on the Beidou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System, applications such as Xinjiang Satellite Navigation Monitoring System of Public Transport, the Highway Infrastructure Safety Monitoring System, and the Port Scheduling High-precision Real-time Position Monitoring System, have promoted the BeiDou system and achieved a good demonstration effect.—In marine fisheries, built on the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System, the marine fisheries integrated information service platform has provided vessel position monitoring, emergency rescue, information distribution, fishing boats in and out of port management and other services to the fishery administration departments.—The hydrological monitoring system, based on the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System, has realized the real-time transmission of hydrological forecast information in mountainous regions, which has improved the accuracy o f the disaster forecasting and has helped the planning and scheduling programs for the flood and drought control.—In the field of weather forecasting, a series of BeiDou terminal equipment have been developed for weather forecast, and various practical and feasible system solutions have been worked out to address the automatic data transmission issues for the China Meteorological Administration and a number of local weather centers and stations.—In the field of forest fire prevention, the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System has been successfully used in forest fire prevention system. Its positioning and short message communication services have achieved good results.—In the field of time synchronization for communication systems, the successful implementation of BeiDou two-way timing demonstration program has achieved breakthroughs in some key technical areas such as long distant fiber technology, and an integrated satellite-based timing system has been developed.—In the field of power distribution, built on the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System, the successful implementation of power system time synchronization demonstration program has created basis for the high precision applications such as the electric accident analysis, the electricity early warning and protection systems.—In the field of disaster mitigation, the navigation, positioning, short message communications and position reporting capabilities of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System have provided services for the nationwide real-time disaster relief commanding and dispatching, emergency communications, rapid reporting and sharing of disaster information, which has significantly improved the rapid response of the disaster emergency relief and decision-making capability.Upon the full completion, the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System will provide more high-performance positioning, navigation, timing and short-message communication services for civil aviation, shipping, railways, finance, postal and other industries.IV. International Exchange and CooperationThe international exchange and cooperation for the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System will be carried out in an active and pragmatic way, which is in line withChina’s foreign policies, focusing on China's basic tasks and strategic objectives for the construction of navigation satellite systems, using the domestic and international markets and resources in a coordinated way. The international exchange and cooperation will be proceeded in a phased, focus-centered, non-discriminatory and selective approach in accordance with the overall development plan of China's navigation satellite system. It will be built upon the basis of equality, mutual benefit, mutual complementarity, peaceful utilization and mutual development and the generally accepted principles of the international laws.The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System adheres to the open and friendly attitude, and has already carried out extensive exchanges and consultation with the countries that have navigation satellite systems, to promote navigation satellite system compatibility and interoperability globally. Through the exchange and cooperation with countries that do not have a navigation satellite system, we also support their use of the existing resources globally and share the benefits of the satellite navigation development.China's international exchange and cooperation in the field of satellite navigation started in the 1990s. In nearly 20 years, various forms of activities have been carried out with extensive results.In 1994, under the framework of International Telecommunication Union(ITU),China started the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System frequency coordination activities. Satellite network information was submitted in accordance with the BeiDou system construction plan and progress. International frequency coordination has been carried out in a phased, step by step, focus-centered approach. China has actively participated bilateral frequency coordination activities with Europe, the UnitedStates and Russia, and has actively taken part in the World Radiocommunication Conference and the meetings of ITU study groups and working groups.China, as an important member of the International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems (ICG), has participated in every ICG General Assembly Meeting and the ICG Providers Forum. In 2007, China became one of the four core providers designated by the organization. Focusing on compatibility and interoperability, China has carried out the extensive exchange and cooperation with the other navigation satellite systems in the world. The Technical Working Group (TWG) on compatibility and interoperability between BeiDou and Galileo was established. Until now, seven TWG meetings have been held.China actively participates, organizes and hosts international academic exchanges on satellite navigation, which include the American Institute of Navigation (ION) Conferences, the International Symposium on GPS/GNSS (ISGNSS), Munich Satellite Navigation Summit and other international conferences and forums. The China academic conferenceon satellite navigation is held annually, together with many other forums and seminars.China encourages and supports domestic research institutions, industrial enterprises, universities and social organizations, under the guidance of the government policy, to carry out international exchanges, coordination and cooperation activities with other countries and international organizations in the fields of the compatibility and interoperability, satellite navigation standards, coordinates frame, time reference, application development and scientific research. China has been actively engaged in international activities in terms of monitoring and assessment of open service for GNSS to promote the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System better serving the global users, and to promote the development of satellite navigation technology.ConclusionThe rapid development of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System is attributedto China's reform and opening-up policy as well as the sustainable development of economy. As always, China will continue to promote the Global Navigation Satellite System construction and industrial development, to encourage the use of new satellite navigation technologies to provide new services, meeting the growing diversified needs of the people. By actively propelling international exchanges and cooperation, China will realize the compatibility and interoperability between the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System and other navigation satellite systems in the world. China will provide global customers with high performance and highly reliable positioning, navigation and timing services.The Launch Record of BeiDouNavigation Satellites·October 31, 2000, launch of 1st BeiDou navigation experiment satellite.·December 21, 2000, launch of 2nd BeiDou navigation experiment satellite.·May 25, 2003, launch of the 3rd BeiDou navigation experiment satellite.·February 3, 2007, launch of the 4th BeiDou navigation experiment satellite.·April 14, 2007, launch of the 1st BeiDou navigation satellite.·April 15, 2009, launch of the 2nd Beidou navigation satellite.·January 17, 2010, launch of the 3rd BeiDou navigation satellite.·June 2, 2010, launch of the 4th BeiDou navigation satellite.·August 1, 2010, launch of the 5th BeiDou navigation satellite.·November 1, 2010, launch of the 6th BeiDou navigation satellite. ·December 18, 2010, launch of the 7th BeiDou navigation satellite. ·April 10, 2011, launch of the 8th BeiDou navigation satellite. ·July 27, 2011, launch of the 9th BeiDou navigation satellite. ·December 2, 2011, launch of the 10th BeiDou navigation satellite.译文北斗定位前言卫星导航系统可以提供所有的时间，所有天气情况下用户在地球表面或近地空间的高精度定位、导航和授时服务。
关于洗衣机的毕业外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
外文翻译资料外文原文：Washing machinesLet’s look inside one of today’s fully automatic washing machines that use swirling water to clean the clothes. There are many types of washing machines but this Figure shows you what most of them are basically made up of.。
The reason why a washing machine like this can wash and get the water out of the clothes at the same time is because it has a double layer drum.When1washing and rinsing,the pulsator spins and makes the water swirl..To get the water out of the clothes, the inner wall f the drum spins and the water goes through the holes.These days,the“centrifugal force washing machines”are quite popular.This type of machine does not use a pulsator.Instead,the inner wall spins really quickly.1外文翻译资料When the drum spins,the dirty clothes get stuck to the wall.The water and detergent also try to escape through the holes of the wall but before they do so,they are forced to escape through the clothes.When this happens,the power of the water and detergent removes the dirt form the clothes.Another good thing about this type of machine is that clothes don’t get tangled up so you don’t have to worry about your clothes getting ripped or damaged.Next,let’s look at some different types ofwashing machines!Many of you probably think that the water inside washing machines goes round and round. Actually, different washing machines make water flow in different ways.Whirlpool type:This type of washing machine uses a pulsator to force the water to move like a whirlpool inside the Drum.The spinning water forces the dirt out form the clothes inside the machine. Some of the newer models of this type also make the whirlpool move up and down to make it clean clothes even better!Agitator stirring typeThis type of washing machine has something that looks like a propeller at the bottom of the tub.This Propeller spins around and stirs the water.The water then forces the dirt out from the clothes in the machine.The good thing about this type of machine is that clothes do not get tangled up and clothes get evenly washed.Drum type:This type of machine has a drum with many holes in it. There are also protrusions bumps on the wall of the drum.As the drum turns,the clothes are picked up by the protrusions. When the clothes fall down from the top of the drum through the water,the movement removes dirt from the clothes.Centrifugal force type:2外文翻译资料As we have said before, the spinning drum pushes the water and detergent out through the wall of the inner drum. The power that comes form spinning the drum is called centrifugal force., which is where the name comes from. The water is forced through the clothes and then the holes in the inner wall.After one cycle,the water is recycled back into the tank and the process starts again.This cycle is what cleans the clothes!In Japan,people first started using machines in1930.But then the price of a washing machine was so high that most average persons could not buy one for their homes.Looking back now, there was something strange and funny on some of the first versions of the washing machine .The machine had two rollers that were used to sandwich each shirt and other clothes to squeeze the water out of them.The rollers were turned by hand,and in fact,you needed a lot of strength to turn those things!Still,people then thought it was a really neat invention!This type of water squeezer was used for almost 30 years until something new came along. The spin drier that used“centrifugal force”to get most ofthe water is out of the clothes.In1953,the nozzle type washing machine was first sold in Japan.This washing machine is like the older brother of the swirling washing machine that you see today. The price of these washing machines was lower and because of this, more people bought them. The first fully automatic washing machine was introduced in1968,and after that,washing clothes became a lot easier to do!There are a lot of different types of washing machines. What kind of washing machine do you have in your house?Fully automatic:The fully automatic machine has two drum layers that wash, rinse and removewater from clothes together. All you have to do is add detergent and put in dirty3外文翻译资料clothes and then washing machine will do the rest.There is also a new type of fully automatic washing machine that can dry clothes after they have been washed.Twin tub:This washing machine has one part that dose the washing and another part that does the squeezing.Even though it’s a hassle to take the clothes out and move them to other tub,the good thing is that you can wash and squeeze at the same time with one machine.Front loading:The main feature of front loaders is that they use a lot less water than other types.This is the type of Washing machine that dry cleaners use but a lot of people in western countries have this type of washing machine in their homes too.Let’s try to make the best washing machine in the world!We should already thank the scientists that invented the fully automatic washing machine because it makes washing clothes a piece of cake.Scientists are still trying really hard to find ways to make washing machines a lot handier to use for everyone.Some of the things that they are trying to do are to find better ways of making clothes clean and ways to make washing machines last longer.There are washing machines with d trying function today so you don’t even have to hang clothes after words because it dries them automatically!Amazing!Scientists are also trying to find ways to use less water and less detergent in washing machines at present.This is because that it is better to use less water for preserving the environment.What are washing machines of the future going to be like? Maybe there will be a washing machine that dries and folds your clothes after washing them,or maybe there will be one that will wash your clothes while you are still wearingthem! How handy would that be! Remember, if the first washing machine was like4外文翻译资料a dream to people in the old days, all the dreams you have about washing machines of the future may come true!Now, washing machine is becoming more and more popular. We see the main classification.Washing machine can be divided into automatic type and semi-automatic type two kinds, automatic type washing machine as long as we begin our work proactively set better washing procedure,washing machine began to work until the end without manual intervention. And semi-automatic washing machine washing and dewatering process is divided,is also called the double barrel washing machine, a tong,one takes off a bucket,and put tong inside washing out to artificial add to take off in the barrel dehydration is handled and complete laundry process.Full-automatic washing machine in structure to take off in tong internal bucket suit, two barrels of axis,while working with the clutch to finish washing state and dehydration of the transition of the states,on the key said is automatic washing machine.Full-automatic washing machine press catharsis means to points,can be dividedinto bunt washer and roll barrel type two kinds of washing machine, From the electric control ways to points,can be divided into mechanical program-controlled type and computer board controls type washing machine two kinds.The cylinder and the pulsator washing machine are now the main two kinds.Pulsator washing machine working principle is to add clothing,then open the inlet valve,choose good bibcock of water level and correct working procedures, switch on the power,closed warehouse door,and safety switch closed at water level,the public internal switch contacts are and dehydration contacts are interlinked,inlet valve electrify water,when the barrel water reaches the specifiedheight,in air pressure under the action of water level switch inside public contacts5外文翻译资料disconnect dehydration contacts and connect washing contacts,feed valve power to stop water,motor power is switched on,motor started running,and periodically sometimes are turning,sometimes reverse,mutual alternant,driven by clutch BoLun using the same cycle are turning,inversion,with a certain speed rotating BoLun can drive inside bucket of water and clothing,clothing rotating water formed in the mutual friction and reach the purpose of laundry. When washing process is completed,drainage electromagnetic valve electrify work,drain valve is opened,inside bucket of water exudes,and linkage shaft also the clutch from washing state switch to dehydration state,when drainage is completed,atmospheric pressure drop and inside bucket of water level switch public contacts reset through dehydration contacts,drainage electromagnetic valve keep electrify state,motor driven off running electrify bucket high-speed andjilt dry clothing,laundry program after washing machine disconnect hydropower and stop. As for intermediate process of how many times, laundry to wash the length of time, by process control.Roller-type washing machine of the principle and Pulsator washing machine are basic similar.But110mm drum machine it no clutch variable speed,but its motor is double-speed motor, so when washing machine work in washing state, program-controlled device connected motor washing low-speed windings, motor speed slow, working on dehydration, when they connect dehydration modal high-speed windings,motor high-speed operation,this process is programmed through the device and motor to work together to finish.To sum up, the role of these two kinds of washing machine is same, but different implementation,each has his strong point,Pulsator washing machine is simulated handmade kneaded action to work, 110mm drum type washing machine is by gravity inertial function to finish our work,they realize washing and6dewatering way also have different features,Pulsator washing machine to wear clothes is relatively large,but detergents degree is higher,110mm drum machine for clothing wear small,but detergents degrees,but lower than Pulsator washing machine to save water.So far,washing machine is still towards a higher requirements development.7译文：洗衣机来看一下涡流式全自动洗衣机的构造。
财务管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译
财务管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译核准通过，归档资料。
未经允许，请勿外传～LNTU Acc公司治理与高管薪酬:一个应急框架总体概述通过整合组织和体制的理论，本文开发了一个高管薪酬的应急办法和它在不同的组织和体制环境下的影响。
高管薪酬的研究大都集中在委托代理框架上，并承担一种行政奖励和业绩成果之间的关系。
我们提出了一个框架，审查了其组织的背景和潜在的互补性方面的行政补偿和不同的公司治理在不同的企业和国家水平上体现的替代效应。
我们还讨论了执行不同补偿政策方法的影响，像“软法律”和“硬法律”。
在过去的20年里，世界上越来越多的公司从一个固定的薪酬结构转变为与业绩相联系的薪酬结构，包括很大一部分的股权激励。
因此，高管补偿的经济影响的研究已经成为公司治理内部激烈争论的一个话题。
正如Bruce，Buck，和Main指出，“近年来，关于高管报酬的文献的增长速度可以与高管报酬增长本身相匹敌。
”关于高管补偿的大多数实证文献主要集中在对美国和英国的公司部门，当分析高管薪酬的不同组成部分产生的组织结果的时候。
根据理论基础，早期的研究曾试图了解在代理理论方面的高管补偿和在不同形式的激励和公司业绩方面的探索链接。
这个文献假设，股东和经理人之间的委托代理关系被激发，公司将更有效率的运作，表现得更好。
公司治理的研究大多是基于通用模型——委托代理理论的概述，以及这一框架的核心前提是，股东和管理人员有不同的方法来了解公司的具体信息和广泛的利益分歧以及风险偏好。
因此，经理作为股东的代理人可以从事对自己有利的行为而损害股东财富的最大化。
大量的文献是基于这种直接的前提和建议来约束经理的机会主义行为，股东可以使用不同的公司治理机制，包括各种以股票为基础的奖励可以统一委托人和代理人的利益。
正如Jensen 和Murphy观察，“代理理论预测补偿政策将会以满足代理人的期望效用为主要目标。
股东的目标是使财富最大化;因此代理成本理论指出，总裁的薪酬政策将取决于股东财富的变化。
本科毕业论文外文文献翻译
本科毕业论文外文文献翻译本科毕业论文外文文献翻译随着全球化的不断发展，人们对外文文献的需求也越来越高。
尤其是在本科毕业论文的撰写过程中，引用和翻译外文文献是不可或缺的一部分。
本文将探讨本科毕业论文外文文献翻译的重要性以及一些技巧和注意事项。
首先，翻译外文文献对于本科毕业论文的写作至关重要。
外文文献是学术研究中的重要参考资料，可以帮助我们了解国外学者在相关领域的研究成果和观点。
通过引用外文文献，我们可以对研究问题进行深入分析和论证，提高论文的学术价值和可信度。
然而，翻译外文文献并非易事。
首先，我们需要具备良好的外语水平，特别是对于所研究领域的专业术语要有一定的了解。
其次，在翻译过程中，我们需要保持准确性和一致性。
准确性是指翻译内容要忠实于原文，不失原意。
一致性是指在整个论文中使用相同的术语和翻译方法，避免混淆读者。
在翻译外文文献时，我们还要注意一些技巧和细节。
首先，我们可以使用在线翻译工具来辅助翻译，但不能完全依赖它们。
在线翻译工具通常会存在一些语法和词汇错误，需要我们进行修正和改进。
其次，我们可以参考一些翻译指南和词典，特别是针对所研究领域的专业词汇。
这些资源可以帮助我们更准确地理解和翻译外文文献。
此外，我们还需要注意一些常见的翻译错误。
首先是直译错误，即直接将外文句子逐字逐句地翻译成中文，忽略了语言和文化的差异。
这样的翻译通常会造成中文表达不通顺和不自然的问题。
其次是漏译和误译，即在翻译过程中遗漏了一些重要信息或者错误地理解了原文的意思。
这些错误会导致我们对外文文献的理解和引用出现偏差。
在翻译外文文献的过程中，我们还应该注重文化因素的考虑。
不同的语言和文化背景下，同一概念可能有不同的表达方式。
因此，我们需要在翻译过程中充分考虑到文化差异，避免产生歧义和误解。
最后，我们还需要在引用外文文献时遵守学术道德和规范。
我们应该正确标注引用文献的来源和作者，避免抄袭和侵权行为。
同时，我们还应该遵循学术规范，不对外文文献进行删减、修改或者歪曲，保持原文的完整性和准确性。
洗衣机Washingmachines-毕业论文外文文献翻译
洗衣机Washing machinesThe washing machine from invention to now bas experienced more than a century, through the following stages of development:The world’s first washing machine is the United States in 1874 by Bill Blackstonesuccessfully developed. Around 1910, a first horizontal shaft drum type electric washing machine, marking the housework automatic start. Nineteen twenties, the first vertical shaft stirring type washing machine to the United States of Americatrial-produceis successful, thewashingmachine, started the “vertical”and “horizontal”cent. The mid 50's, Japan’s Sanyo Company launched Dan Tongbo wheel type washing machine. Starts with the identification of a drum type, mixing type and the wave wheel three working modes. In 60, the Japanese launched with flings the dry barrel semi-automatic washing machine, and a large number of applications of plastic, so that the washing machine’s development into a new stage. In 70, the Japa nese launched a wave wheel sets of barrels of fully automatic washing machine, began washing machine concept. In the late 70, the Japanese launched a with “automatic”microcomputer controlled full automatic washing machine. Completed by the mechanical and electric program control computer control transition, started the computer control era. Then, the washing machine in the developed countries have entered the period of saturation, while in Asia Pacific developing countries began to enter the period of popularization. The late 80's,“fuzzy control washing machine” began to appear, to achieve the home electric appliance control method on the high automation. “White goods” concept. In 90’s, with the development of inverter technology, Japan launched the first of up motor direct driven washing machine washing machine driving mode, realized the revolution.The washing machine will be of high reliability，perfect function, water saving and power saving, time saving and noise reduction of specifications varieties diversification for the direction of development.The reason why a washing machine like this can wash and get the water out of the clothes at the same time is because it has a double layer drum. When washing and rinsing, the pulsator spins and makes the water swirl... To get the water out of the clothes, the inner wall of the drum spins and the water goes through the holes.are quite popular. This These days, the “centrifugal force washing machines” type of machine does not use a pulsator. Instead, the inner wall spins really quickly.When the drum spins, the dirty clothes get stuck to the wall. The water and detergentalso try to escape through the holes of the wall but before they do so, they are forcedto escape through the clothes. When this happens, the power of the water and detergent removes the dirt form the clothes. Another good thing about this type ofmachine is that clothes don’t get tangled up so you don’t have to worry aboutyourclothes getting ripped or damaged.types of washing machines!Next, let’s look at some differentMany of you probably think that the water inside washing machines goes roundand round. Actually, different washing machines make water flow in different ways.Whirlpool type:This type of washing machine uses a pulsator to force the water to move like awhirlpool inside the Drum. The spinning water forces the dirt out form the clothesinside the machine. Some of the newer models of this type also make the whirlpoolmove up and down to make it clean clothes even better!Agitator stirring type:This type of washing machine has something that looks like a propeller at thebottom of the tub. This Propeller spins around and stirs the water. The water thenforces the dirt out from the clothes in the machine. The good thing about this type ofmachine is that clothes do not get tangled up and clothes get evenly washed.Drum type:This type of machine has a drum with many holes in it. There are also protrusions bumps on the wall of the drum. As the drum turns, the clothes are pickedup by the protrusions. When the clothes fall down from the top of the drum throughthe water, the movement removes dirt from the clothes.Centrifugal force type:As we have said before, the spinning drum pushes the water and detergent outthrough the wall of the inner drum. The power that comes from spinning the drum iscalled centrifugal force, which is where the name comes from. The water is forcedthrough the clothes and then the holes in the inner wall. After one cycle, the water isrecycled back into the tank and the process starts again. This cycle is what cleans theclothes!In Japan, people first started using machines in 1930. But then the price of awashing machine was so high that most average persons could not buy one for theirhomes.Looking back now, there was something strange and funny on some of the firstversions of the washing machine .The machine had two rollers that were used tosandwich each shirt and other clothes to squeeze the water out of them. The rollerswere turned by hand, and in fact, you needed a lot of strength to turn those things!Still, people then thought it was a really neat invention! This type of water squeezerwas used for almost 30 years until something new came along. The spin drier thatet most of the water is out of the clothes.used “centrifugal force” to gIn 1953, the nozzle type washing machine was first sold in Japan. This washingmachine is like the older brother of the swirling washing machine that you see today.The price of these washing machines was lower and because o f this, more peoplebought them. The first fully automatic washing machine was introduced in 1968, andafter that, washing clothes became a lot easier to do!There are a lot of different types of washing machines. What kind of washingmachine do you have in your house?Fully automatic:The fully automatic machine has two drum layers that wash, rinse and removewater from clothes together. All you have to do is add detergent and put in dirtyclothes and then washing machine will do the rest. There is also a new type of fullyautomatic washing machine that can dry clothes after they have been washed.Twin tub:This washing machine has one part that dose the washing and another part thatdoes the squeezing. Even though it’s a hassle to take the clothes out and move them to other tub, the good thing is that you can wash and squeeze at the same time with one machine.Front loading:The main feature of front loaders is that they use a lot less water than other types.This is the type of Washing machine that dry cleaners use but a lot of people inwestern countries have this type of washing machine in their homes too.Let’s try to make the best washing machine in the world!We should already thank the scientists that invented the fully automatic washingmachine because it makes washing clothes a piece of cake.Scientists are still trying really hard to find ways to make washing machines a lothandier to use for everyone. Some of the things that they are trying to do are to findbetter ways of making clothes clean and ways to make washing machines last longer.There are washing machines with drying function today so you don’t even have tohang clothes after words because it dries them automatically! Amazing!Scientists are also trying to find ways to use less water and less detergent in washing machines at present. This is because t hat it is better to use less water for preserving the environment.What are washing machines of the future going to be like? Maybe there will be a washing machine that dries and folds your clothes after washing them, or maybe there will be one that will wash your clothes while you are still wearing them! How handy would that be! Remember, if the first washing machine was like a dream to people in the old days, all the dreams you have about washing machines of the future may come true!Now, washing machine is becoming more and more popular. We see the main classification.Washing machine can be divided into automatic type and semi-automatic type two kinds, automatic type washing machine as long as we begin our work proactively set better washing procedure, washing machine began to work until the end without manual intervention. And semi-automatic washing machine washing and dewatering process is divided, is also called the double barrel washing machine, a tong, one takes off a bucket, and put tong inside washing out to artificial add to take off in the barrel dehydration is handled and complete laundry process. Full-automatic washing machine in structure to take off in tong internal bucket suit, two barrels of axis, while working with the clutch to finish washing state and dehydration of the transition of the states, on the key said is automatic washing machine.Full-automatic washing machine press catharsis means to points, can be divided into bunt washer and roll barrel type two kinds of washing machine, From the electric control ways to points, can be divided into mechanical program-controlled type and computer board controls type washing machine two kinds.The cylinder and the pulsator washing machine are now the main two kinds.Pulsator washing machine working principle is to add clothing, then open the inlet valve, choose good bibcock of water level and correct working procedures, switch on the power, closed warehouse door, and safety switch closed at water level, the public internal switch contacts are and dehydration contacts are interlinked, inlet valve electrify water, when the barrel water reaches the specified height, in air pressure under the action of water level switch inside public contacts disconnect dehydration contacts and connect washing contacts, feed valve power to stop water, motor power is switched on, motor started running, and periodically sometimes areturning, sometimes reverse, mutual alternant, driven by clutch BoLun using the same cycle are turning, inversion, with a certain speed rotating BoLun can drive inside bucket of water and clothing, clothing rotating water formed in the mutual friction and reach the purpose of laundry. When washing process is completed, drainage electromagnetic valve electrify work, drain valve is opened, inside bucket of water exudes, and linkage shaft also the clutch from washing state switch to dehydration state, when drainage is completed, atmospheric pressure d rop and inside bucket of water level switch public contacts reset through dehydration contacts, drainage electromagnetic valve keep electrify state, motor driven off running electrify bucket high-speed and jilt dry clothing, laundry program after washing machine disconnect hydropower and stop. As for intermediate process of how many times, laundry to wash the length of time, by process control.Roller-type washing machine of the principle and Pulsator washing machine are basic similar. But 110mm drum machine it no clutch variable speed, but its motor is double-speed motor, so when washing machine work in washing state, program-controlled device connected motor washing low-speed windings, motor speed slow, working on dehydration, when they connect dehydration modal high-speed windings, motor high-speed operation, this process is programmed through the device and motor to work together to finish.To sum up, the role of these two kinds of washing machine is same, but different implementation, each has his strong point, Pulsator washing machine is simulated handmade kneaded action to work, 110mm drum type washing machine is by gravity inertial function to finish our work, they realize washing and dewatering way also have different features, Pulsator washing machine to wear clothes is relatively large, but detergents d egree is higher, 110mm drum machine for clothing wear small, but detergents degrees, but lower than Pulsator washing machine to save water.So far, washing machine is still towards a higher requirements development.The world today is technology, knowledge explosion time, as long as the people have the need, it may produce some kind of product to meet the needs of the people. The development of washing machine is such, people found it some inconvenience in practice, will continue to improve and perfect it, new washing machine is born in this kind of situation.译文：洗衣机洗衣机从发明到现在已经经历了一个多世纪，经历了以下的发展阶段：世界上第一台洗衣机是于1874年由美国的比尔·布莱克斯通集团研制成功的。
土木工程专业钢筋混凝土结构设计毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：钢筋混凝土结构设计文献、资料英文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：土木工程班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14毕业设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES原文：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETESTRUCTURES1. BASIC CONCERPTS AND CHARACERACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETEPlain concrete is formed from hardened mixture of cement, water , fine aggregate , coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel ) , air and often other admixtures . The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to accelerate of the chemical hydration of hen cement mix and results in a hardened concrete. It is generally known that concrete has high compressive strength and low resistance to tension. Its tensile strength is approximatelyone-tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile reinforcement in the tension zone has to be provided to supplement the tensile strength of the reinforced concrete section.For example, a plain concrete beam under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig .1.1(a), when the distributed load increases and reaches a value q=1.37KN/m , the tensile region at the mid-span will be cracked and the beam will fail suddenly . A reinforced concrete beam if the same size but has to steel reinforcing bars (2φ16) embedded at the bottom under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig.1.1(b). The reinforcing bars take up the tension there after the concrete is cracked. When the load q is increased, the width of the cracks, the deflection and thestress of steel bars will increase . When the steel approaches the yielding stress ƒy , thedeflection and the cracked width are so large offering some warning that the compression zone . The failure load q=9.31KN/m, is approximately 6.8 times that for the plain concrete beam.Concrete and reinforcement can work together because there is a sufficiently strong bond between the two materials, there are no relative movements of the bars and the surrounding concrete cracking. The thermal expansion coefficients of the two materials are 1.2×10-5K-1 for steel and 1.0×10-5~1.5×10-5K-1 for concrete .Generally speaking, reinforced structure possess following features :Durability .With the reinforcing steel protected by the concrete , reinforced concreteFig.1.1Plain concrete beam and reinforced concrete beamIs perhaps one of the most durable materials for construction .It does not rot rust , and is not vulnerable to efflorescence .(2)Fire resistance .Both concrete an steel are not inflammable materials .They would not be affected by fire below the temperature of 200℃when there is a moderate amount of concrete cover giving sufficient thermal insulation to the embedded reinforcement bars.(3)High stiffness .Most reinforced concrete structures have comparatively large cross sections .As concrete has high modulus of elasticity, reinforced concrete structures are usuallystiffer than structures of other materials, thus they are less prone to large deformations, This property also makes the reinforced concrete less adaptable to situations requiring certainflexibility, such as high-rise buildings under seismic load, and particular provisions have to be made if reinforced concrete is used.(b)Reinfoced concrete beam(4)Locally available resources. It is always possible to make use of the local resources of labour and materials such as fine and coarse aggregates. Only cement and reinforcement need to be brought in from outside provinces.(5)Cost effective. Comparing with steel structures, reinforced concrete structures are cheaper.(6)Large dead mass, The density of reinforced concrete may reach2400~2500kg/pare with structures of other materials, reinforced concrete structures generally have a heavy dead mass. However, this may be not always disadvantageous, particularly for those structures which rely on heavy dead weight to maintain stability, such as gravity dam and other retaining structure. The development and use of light weight aggregate have to a certain extent make concrete structure lighter.(7)Long curing period.. It normally takes a curing period of 28 day under specified conditions for concrete to acquire its full nominal strength. This makes the progress of reinforced concrete structure construction subject to seasonal climate. The development of factory prefabricated members and investment in metal formwork also reduce the consumption of timber formwork materials.(8)Easily cracked. Concrete is weak in tension and is easily cracked in the tension zone. Reinforcing bars are provided not to prevent the concrete from cracking but to take up the tensile force. So most of the reinforced concrete structure in service is behaving in a cracked state. This is an inherent is subjected to a compressive force before working load is applied. Thus the compressed concrete can take up some tension from the load.2. HISTOEICAL DEVELPPMENT OF CONCRETE STRUCTUREAlthough concrete and its cementitious(volcanic) constituents, such as pozzolanic ash, have been used since the days of Greek, the Romans, and possibly earlier ancient civilization, the use of reinforced concrete for construction purpose is a relatively recent event, In 1801, F. Concrete published his statement of principles of construction, recognizing the weakness if concrete in tension, The beginning of reinforced concrete is generally attributed to Frenchman J. L. Lambot, who in 1850 constructed, for the first time, a small boat with concrete for exhibition in the 1855 World’s Fair in Paris. In England, W. B. Wilkinson registered a patent for reinforced concrete l=floor slab in 1854.J.Monier, a French gardener used metal frames as reinforcement to make garden plant containers in 1867. Before 1870, Monier had taken a series of patents to make reinforcedconcrete pipes, slabs, and arches. But Monier had no knowledge of the working principle of this new material, he placed the reinforcement at the mid-depth of his wares. Then little construction was done in reinforced concrete. It is until 1887, when the German engineers Wayss and Bauschinger proposed to place the reinforcement in the tension zone, the use of reinforced concrete as a material of construction began to spread rapidly. In1906, C. A. P. Turner developed the first flat slab without beams.Before the early twenties of 20th century, reinforced concrete went through the initial stage of its development, Considerable progress occurred in the field such that by 1910 the German Committee for Reinforced Concrete, the Austrian Concrete Committee, the American Concrete Institute, and the British Concrete Institute were established. Various structural elements, such as beams, slabs, columns, frames, arches, footings, etc. were developed using this material. However, the strength of concrete and that of reinforcing bars were still very low. The common strength of concrete at the beginning of 20th century was about 15MPa in compression, and the tensile strength of steel bars was about 200MPa. The elements were designed along the allowable stresses which was an extension of the principles in strength of materials.By the late twenties, reinforced concrete entered a new stage of development. Many buildings, bridges, liquid containers, thin shells and prefabricated members of reinforced concrete were concrete were constructed by 1920. The era of linear and circular prestressing began.. Reinforced concrete, because of its low cost and easy availability, has become the staple material of construction all over the world. Up to now, the quality of concrete has been greatly improved and the range of its utility has been expanded. The design approach has also been innovative to giving the new role for reinforced concrete is to play in the world of construction.The concrete commonly used today has a compressive strength of 20~40MPa. For concrete used in pre-stressed concrete the compressive strength may be as high as 60~80MPa. The reinforcing bars commonly used today has a tensile strength of 400MPa, and the ultimate tensile strength of prestressing wire may reach 1570~1860Pa. The development of high strength concrete makes it possible for reinforced concrete to be used in high-rise buildings, off-shore structures, pressure vessels, etc. In order to reduce the dead weight of concrete structures, various kinds of light concrete have been developed with a density of 1400~1800kg/m3. With a compressive strength of 50MPa, light weight concrete may be used in load bearing structures. One of the best examples is the gymnasium of the University of Illinois which has a span of 122m and is constructed of concrete with a density of 1700kg/m3. Another example is the two 20-story apartment houses at the Xi-Bian-Men in Beijing. The walls of these two buildings are light weight concrete with a density of 1800kg/m3.The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world today is the 76-story Water Tower Building in Chicago with a height of 262m. The tallest reinforced concrete building in China today is the 63-story International Trade Center in GuangZhou with a height a height of 200m. The tallest reinforced concrete construction in the world is the 549m high International Television Tower in Toronto, Canada. He prestressed concrete T-section simply supported beam bridge over the Yellow River in Luoyang has 67 spans and the standard span length is 50m.In the design of reinforced concrete structures, limit state design concept has replaced the old allowable stresses principle. Reliability analysis based on the probability theory has very recently been introduced putting the limit state design on a sound theoretical foundation. Elastic-plastic analysis of continuous beams is established and is accepted in most of the design codes. Finite element analysis is extensively used in the design of reinforced concrete structures and non-linear behavior of concrete is taken into consideration. Recent earthquake disasters prompted the research in the seismic resistant reinforced of concrete structures. Significant results have been accumulated.3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE COURSEReinforced concrete is a widely used material for construction. Hence, graduates of every civil engineering program must have, as a minimum requirement, a basic understanding of the fundamentals of reinforced concrete.The course of Reinforced Concrete Design requires the prerequisite of Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, and some if not all, of Theory of Structures, In all these courses, with the exception of Strength of Materials to some extent, a structure is treated of in the abstract. For instance, in the theory of rigid frame analysis, all members have an abstract EI/l value, regardless of what the act value may be. But the theory of reinforced concrete is different, it deals with specific materials, concrete and steel. The values of most parameters must be determined by experiments and can no more be regarded as some abstract. Additionally, due to the low tensile strength of concrete, the reinforced concrete members usually work with cracks, some of the parameters such as the elastic modulus I of concrete and the inertia I of section are variable with the loads.The theory of reinforced concrete is relatively young. Although great progress has been made, the theory is still empirical in nature in stead of rational. Many formulas can not be derived from a few propositions, and may cause some difficulties for students. Besides, due to the difference in practice in different countries, most countries base their design methods on their own experience and experimental results. Consequently, what one learns in one country may be different in another country. Besides, the theory is still in a stage of rapid。
计算机专业毕业设计论文外文文献中英文翻译——java对象
1 . Introduction To Objects1.1The progress of abstractionAll programming languages provide abstractions. It can be argued that the complexity of the problems you’re able to solve is directly related to the kind and quality of abstraction。
By “kind” I mean，“What is it that you are abstracting?” Assembly language is a small abstraction of the underlying machine. Many so—called “imperative” languages that followed （such as FORTRAN，BASIC, and C) were abstractions of assembly language。
These languages are big improvements over assembly language，but their primary abstraction still requires you to think in terms of the structure of the computer rather than the structure of the problem you are trying to solve。
The programmer must establish the association between the machine model (in the “solution space，” which is the place where you’re modeling that problem, such as a computer) and the model of the problem that is actually being solved (in the “problem space,” which is the place where the problem exists). The effort required to perform this mapping, and the fact that it is extrinsic to the programming language，produces programs that are difficult to write and expensive to maintain，and as a side effect created the entire “programming methods” industry.The alter native to modeling the machine is to model the problem you’re trying to solve。
毕业论文文献外文翻译----危机管理：预防,诊断和干预文献翻译-中英文文献对照翻译
第1页 共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。
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毕业论文外文文献翻译
毕业论文外文文献翻译
在撰写毕业论文的过程中，外文文献的翻译是不可避免的一部分。
对于许多学
生来说，这是一个具有挑战性的任务，因为它要求我们不仅要理解原文的含义，还要将其准确地翻译成中文。
在本文中，我们将探讨外文文献翻译的一些技巧
和注意事项。
首先，对于外文文献的翻译，我们需要确保准确理解原文的含义。
这就需要我
们具备一定的外语水平和阅读能力。
在阅读原文时，我们应该注意理解每一个
句子和段落的意思，而不仅仅是简单地翻译单词和短语。
这意味着我们需要关
注上下文，以便更好地理解作者的意图和论证。
其次，我们需要注意词汇和语法的准确性。
在翻译过程中，我们应该尽量避免
直译和字面翻译，而是要根据上下文和语境来选择合适的词汇和表达方式。
此外，我们还需要注意语法的正确性，以确保翻译的流畅和准确。
此外，对于一些特定的学科领域，我们还需要熟悉相关的专业术语和概念。
这
些术语和概念在不同的学科领域中可能有不同的含义和用法，因此我们需要仔
细研究和理解这些内容。
在翻译过程中，我们应该尽量使用准确的专业术语和
表达方式，以确保翻译的准确性和专业性。
此外，我们还需要注意文化差异的影响。
不同的文化背景可能会导致不同的表
达方式和理解方式。
因此，在翻译过程中，我们需要考虑到读者的文化背景和
理解水平，以便更好地传达原文的含义。
在某些情况下，我们可能需要进行一
些文化适应和解释，以确保翻译的准确性和可理解性。
最后，我们还需要进行校对和修改。
在翻译完成后，我们应该仔细检查和修改
翻译的内容，以确保其准确性和流畅性。
我们可以请教他人的意见，或者使用一些语言工具来帮助我们检查语法和拼写错误。
总之，外文文献的翻译是毕业论文撰写过程中的重要环节。
通过准确理解原文的含义，注意词汇和语法的准确性，熟悉专业术语和概念，考虑文化差异的影响，以及进行校对和修改，我们可以更好地完成外文文献的翻译工作。
希望这些技巧和注意事项能够对大家在撰写毕业论文时有所帮助。