语言学chapter1课后练习答案
Chapter 1
Revision exercises reference
1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the
scientific study of language?
Refer to section1.1.1
Linguistics investigates not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic and Latin, but language in general. Its ultimate goal is to find the rules that govern the structure and use of language that can be applied to all human languages. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of objective linguistic data, not sentence made up by linguists themselves. In their investigation linguistics follow a procedure quite similar to that of natural scientists. First of all they have to observe and collect language facts, i.e. the language people actually use. Based on the data thus obtained, they make some hypotheses about the structure of the language. Then the hypotheses have to be checked again and again against more language data before its validity is fully proved. Only at this stage can the linguists draw a conclusion. From the way the linguists work, we can say their study of language is objective and scientific.
2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
Refer to section1.1.2
The major branches of linguistics include the following:
Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistics communication.
Phonology: The study how sounds are put together and are used to convey meaning in communication.
Morphology: The study of how morphemes, i.e. symbols, are arranged and combined to form work.
Syntax: The study of rules that govern the grammatical formation of sentences.
Semantics: The study of language meaning.
Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in actual communication.
The study of language can also be combined with other branches of learning of the humanities. These include the following:
Sociolinguistics: The study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society.
Psycholinguistics: The study of how the mind works when language is used.
Applied linguistics: The study of how findings in linguistics studies can be applied to the solution of practical problem, such as the recovery of speech ability and foreign language teaching and learning.
3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional
grammar?
Refer to section 1.1.3, part 6.
Modern linguistics and traditional grammar differ in at least the following three ways.
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A modern linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said.
He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”.
Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
Thirdly, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists, it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another.
4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic because modern linguists believe that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.
5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than
to writing?
Refer to section 1.1.3, part 3.
First, from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Above all, for modern linguistics, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech .Thus the former is authentic language in their eyes, and thus the source of data for their investigation.
6.How i s Saussure’s distinction between language and parole similar to
Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
According to Saussure, language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. Language is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the
conventions and application of the rules. Chomsky defines competence as the id eal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. The similarity between the two distinctions is that Saussure’s language and Chomsky’s competence refer to what the lang uage user knows about his language, and Saussure’s parole and Chomsky’s performance refer to the actual use of language.
7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good,
comprehensive definition of language?
A comprehensive definition of language should include the following features:
1) Language is governed by rules; thus it is a system, or it is systematic.
2) Language is primarily spoken, rather than written; therefore the system of
symbols used in language is vocal rather than written.
3) The symbols used in language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection
between the symbols and meanings.
4) Language is used by humans to communicate with each other.
5) And finally language is human-specific, i.e. it is unique to the human species.
All the five features mentioned above are included in the following concise definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.
Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?
In the coursebook five of the twelve features of human language specified by C.
Hockett are discussed: arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement, and cultural transmission.
By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary,
i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.
This feature may seem to be shared by animal communication systems, as the means used by animals to communicate are also arbitrary. But the arbitrary nature of human language is a sign of sophistication and makes it possible for human language to have an unlimited source of expression.
The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. This feature is undoubtedly human-specific for animals have, if any, a very limited number of signals for communication.
Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower or the basic level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher or the superficial level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number. This enables language users to express whatever they want to express. This feature is not possessed by any
animal communication system.
The feature “displacement” means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future. This means that the expressive power of human language is not restricted to “the here and now.” In contrast, animal communication is restricted to the current time and circumstances. Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it. The ability to use a language is not transmitted genetically from our parents. But young animals seem to be born with the ability to use particular ways to communicate with their fellow creatures.
9.What are the major functions of the language? Think of your own examples
for illustration.
Refer to section 1.2.3.
To answer this question, you can base yourself on either tripartite framework or Jakobson’s model of language functions.
According to the tripartite framework, there are three main functions: descriptive, expressive, and social.
In Jakobson’s model, six functions have been specified: emotive, conative, referential, poetic, phatic communication, and metalinguistic.
Supplementary exercise
Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be
formed out of a small number of elements -----for instance, tens of thousands of words out of
a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which
in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems
do not have this design feature of human language.
If language has no such design feature, it will be like animal communicational
system which will be highly limited . It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations ( e.g. words ), which are distinct in meaning.
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ... VP→(Qual) V (NP) ... AP→(Deg) A (PP) ... PP→(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) 3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have? The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure. It has four important properties: 1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. 2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. 3)coordinated categories must be of the same type. 4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. 5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play? A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier. The role each element can play:
(完整版)语言学练习题及答案
练习1 1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is one of the design features of language.A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 3. ___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation .A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 4. __ __ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 5. ______ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 6. ______ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 7. To say “How are you.” “Hi” to your friends is the ____ __of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 8. “Tell me the result when you finish.” If you want to get your hearer to do something, y ou should use the _____ of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __ ___. A. unnatural B. something to be feared C. natural D. abnormal 10. A linguist is interested in ___A. speech sounds only B. all sounds C. vowels only 11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A. [t] B. [m] C. [b] D. [p 12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate? A. [y] B. [t∫] C. [z] D. [dЗ] 13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel? A. [ ? ] B. [ i ] C. [ou] D. [a: ] 14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ? A. [ s ] B. [∫] C. [ l ] D. [θ] 15. In the following sounds, _____ is a voiceless affricative? A. [dЗ] B. [v] C. [t∫] D. [θ] 16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a __ __. A. fricative B. nasal sound C. semi-vowel D. vowel 17. Of the “words” listed below___ is not an English word A. [r∧b ] B. [ l? b ] C. [m?sta:∫] D. [lm?p] 18. ___ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released. A. Back vowels B. Stops C. Fricatives D. Glides 19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in _____. A. 1965 B. 1957 C. 1888 D. 1788 20. ___ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A. Phone B. Phoneme C. Allophone D. Sound 1. [ f ] is a dental consonant. F 2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. F 7. The three / p / are allophones. T 3. Phoneme is a phonological unit. T 4. Phone is a phonetic unit. T
语言学树形图课后答案.
树形图详细讲解 网上的相对理想的树形图答案，注意正两 点： 1. 短语和中心词在一竖线上 2. 含有形容词修饰语的名词短语的画法 NP Det N A N a little boy 1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady suddenly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a) full of people AP A P N
full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det N P NP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP A N often read detective stories
部分语言学课后练习答案
II.Give the description of the following sound segments in English. 1. [?] voiceless dental fricative 2. [?]: voiceless postalveolar fricative 3. [?]: velar nasal 4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop 5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop 6. [k]: voiceless velar stop 7. [l]: alveolar lateral 8. [i]: high front lax unrounded vowel 9. [u:]: high back tense rounded vowel 10. [?]: low back lax rounded vowel III. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below. 1.voiceless labiodental fricative: [f] 2.voiced postalveolar fricative: [?] 3.palatal approximant: [j] 4.voiceless glottal fricative: [h] 5.voiceless alveolar stop: [t] 6.high-mid front unrounded vowel: [i] 7.high central rounded vowel: [] 符号里没找到，就是在语音[U]上划一横 8.low front rounded vowel: [?] 9.low-mid back rounded vowel: [?] 10. high back rounded tense vowel: [u:] V. Discuss the following questions. 4) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ? Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one?s language. It focuses on order.
语言学第四单元课后答案 synta 树状图 the s rule
syntax 1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady suddenly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP
A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N the argument against the proposals e) move towards the window VP V PP P Det N move towards the window 3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. a) The jet landed. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP Det N Pst V The jet landed b) Mary became very ill. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP N Pst V AP
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第五章笔记和习题
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
语言学练习Chapter2 习题
Chapter 2：Phonology I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. F 2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. T 3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. 4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. 5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. 10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. 11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. 12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. 14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. 15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. 16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.
语言学概论课后练习汇总
语言学概论课后练习汇总 第一章总论 本章思考题： 1.“在现代科学体系中语言学是领先和关键的学科。”怎样理解这句话的含义？ 2.你怎样理解应用语言学这一术语？ 3.有人说转换生成语言学是语言学的革命，有人则说它是“毒蛇蛋”；有人说它不断改变看法是理论上的不一贯，有人则说它是理论上的发展。你认为应该怎样正确看待转换生成语言学？ 4.张三和李幺妹刚给2岁的孩子过完两周岁的生日，两人就为小孩的培养问题争吵了起来。张三说：“应该教儿子识字了。”李幺妹说：“应该教儿子学音乐。”请从语言学的角度给他们一点建议。 练习题 名词解 1.语言学 2.小学 3.专语语言学 4.共时语言学 5.历时语言学 二、填空题 1.语言学的三大发源地是______、______、______。 2.我国传统的语文学统称“小学”，包括______、______、______三方面。 3.研究语言的结构，主要包括______、______、______、______四个部分。 4.语言是传递信息的过程，主要包括______、______、______、______、______五个阶段。 5.专语语言学可以从______和______两个方向研究语言，分别被称为______语言学和______语言学。 6.______语言学的建立，标志着语言学开始走上独立发展的道路。 7.布龙菲尔德的代表性著作______是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作，对美国结构主义语言学的形成、发展有重要的作用。 8.______被称为现代语言学之父，其代表作《普通语言学教程》在语言学史上具有十分重要的地位。 三、问答题 1.古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同之处？ 2.语言交际过程分为哪几个阶段？请举例说明。(可结合分析任举一个句子作说明.) 3.“语言学既是一门古老的学科,又是一门年轻的学科;既与社会科学有密切的联系,又与自然科学有密切的联系。”怎样理解这句话的含义？ 4.语言学有哪些作用？请结合实际加以说明。(结合实际部分可以根据自己的学习,工作或生活经历举例) 5.简述语言学的分类。
教你如何画语言学树型图
树形图详细讲解 1、 Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences、 a) The old lady suddenly left、 Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road、 Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road、 Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature、 N Qual V Deg A 2、 The following phrases include a head, a plement, and a specifier、 Draw the appropriate tree structure for each、 a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det N P NP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N P NP Det N the argument against the proposals e) move towards the window VP
胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照
语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.360docs.net/doc/127778491.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.360docs.net/doc/127778491.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.