外文翻译

外文翻译
外文翻译

有机碳和从一系列实验室合成的生物炭和生物炭与土壤混合物的养分释放

Atanu Mukherjee , Andrew R. Zimmerman

Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, 241 Williamson Hall, P.O. Box 112120, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

摘要

生物炭作为土壤改良剂,会增加土壤的吸收能力和生产能力,但其对溶解有机碳(DOC),氮(N),磷(P)的循环和亏损的影响还不是很清楚。在这里,纯净土壤与土壤混合物被做成批量处理加入各种新鲜的和熟化的生物炭进行提取和淋洗检验其营养释放。在生物炭的连续批量提取中,累计亏损大约分别为总C,N 和P初始量的0.1-2 ,0.5-8 和0.5-100%。在较低温度和草制成生物炭却有更大的释放。氨通常是渗滤液中的最丰富的氮素形态,但是硝酸盐同样在生物炭中也很丰富。而有机氮和磷的损失分别占总N和P的高达61%和93%。释放的有机碳,氮和磷的量是与生物炭挥发物含量和酸性官能团密度呈现正相关的。然而,通过含有矿物质的P样品显示,通过Mehlich-1提取的磷的释放是与灰分含量有更加密切相关的。一系列的土壤和生物炭的混合物显示,土壤吸收生物炭的营养还是生物炭吸收土壤的营养是取决于生物炭和土壤类型的。这项研究表明,生物炭包含有不同释放速率的养分形态,生物炭的释放速率是受土壤肥力和作物类型和时间的影响的。

1、引言

生物炭是在有限的生物质或没有氧气(裂解)的条件下通过热处理得到的碳产物。生物炭最近由于其潜力而获得关注,作为土壤改良剂使用时,会改良退化土壤的肥力和通过植物去储存大气中的碳。最近有很多工作研究生物炭的化学特性和作用于植物与微生物的生长。但是这些伴随生物炭改变的影响的主要机制和对环境可能造成的后果,例如有机污染物或养分释放,目前还不清楚。

生物炭对土壤生态系统的积极影响包括对植物和微生物,已经提出了无论是直接从内部生物炭本身的营养物质或间接地从它的从膨润土吸附和保留营养成分的能力。然而,养分流失可能会有负面的环境的后果,如引起地面或地下水域的水体富营养化。最近的研究表明生物炭的养分含量范围广泛并且同时受物质类型

和燃烧条件控制。但是,更多有关植物和微生物生长,是其生物利用的营养物质含量。最近研究发现,桉树木生物炭中钙的15-20%,磷的10-60%和大约2%的氮是可以用蒸馏水浸出的,量的变化是同时受炭化温度和一部分植物样本的影响的。

当加入到土壤中,生物炭所提供的植物可利用的养分也将随灼烧和土壤类型而变化,速效养分随着生物炭的修改而增大和减少也可以被观察到。例如,相对于对照土壤无生物炭,一个诺福克群岛壤质土的柱渗滤液经加入在700℃温度下制成的山核桃壳生物炭后含有较大量的钾,钠,但少于P(约35%)的Ca,Mn和Zn。因此,生物炭被假设为去交换表面吸附单价阳离子的的多价阳离子。另外一个柱浸试验是经过70天,利用竹炭在600℃下添加到各种砂质粉土的土壤,显示NH4中的N累计损失15%。用家禽垃圾和花园垃圾产生的生物炭在550℃下没有土壤也表明NO 3,NH 4和P浸出在减少,但是这些浸出由于水表面的张力和水的粘着力无法保持水的20孔隙体积(816MM)的增加。与此相反,从绿色废料如鸡粪中提取的生物炭可以大大提高萃取(即浸出)在处理土壤中的营养水平。美国中西部的一个0.4-0.7孔隙体积的0.001摩尔氯化钙每周浸出一次持续500天的关于农业土壤的一个45周的土柱淋溶研究显示,当用20g每千克的生物炭修订时,全N和全P的浸出略有增加。但是,相对于没有生物炭的控制,当粪便也被加入时,N和P的沥滤分别降低11%和69%。土中氮同化数量也显示与热解时间段有很大差异,磷随Ph的变化而释放也有着很大的差异。

生物炭最终是会通过提供营养物质使植物收益还是会通过螯合作用抑制植物的生长仍然是一个悬而未决的问题。一些加入生物炭而使植物生长受抑制的实验已经把原因归结为可利用铵的不足。一些用在400到800°C之间提取的生物炭渣的土柱实验表明,较高的温度下的蔗渣生物炭可以吸附大量的NO3,从而可能导致土壤中速效养分的流失和植物的氮缺失。然而,N主要存在于植物吸收前被硝化(NO3-)最终被氨化(NH4 +)的土壤中有机综合体中。一直没先例的研究同时比较这些不同形式的吸附。

一些生物炭的物理性质,如高的表面积,孔隙率和离子交换能力,也可能与其吸收,也可能是缓慢释放OM或营养素的能力有联系。但是通过对从几乎没有到70cmol每千克的测定阳离子交换容量得出,后者被发现更低的温度。大量的阴离子交换容量(AEC)只有被认定为熟化的生物炭。因此,新鲜的生物炭应该是只保留NH4+,并释放任何可交换的NO3- 和PO43- 。

营养物质可能会丢失或保留在他们的有机形式的程度我们是知之甚少的。最近的一项研究发现新鲜草的生物炭会浸出大量的DOC,但也有很大程度是由它的表面形态,生物物种和炭化温度影响的有机复合物质吸附在它上面。实地通过对哥伦比亚大草原和英格兰东北部的土壤渗滤液的实验表明,生物炭对土壤的修正可以大大提高DOC的浓度。生物炭中铵和有机氮吸附或释放被发现至少部分是可以生物利用的。但是,没有研究是关于探究DOC, N and P的释放形态,或者研究生物炭保留或者研究随生物炭种类和时间推移的一个范围。

显然,更好地理解生物炭的营养保留或释放性是必须的,因为最佳的生物炭是可以被应用到任何特定的土壤类型的,既可以最大限度地提高土壤生产力并还可以减少对环境的有害影响。如果当这样一个系统被制定,额外的需要是可以通过C损失淋溶预测的,因此C螯合可能被分配到那些实现生物炭另外的系统。在这里,无论使用多种类型的生物炭和土壤/生物炭的混合物进行了批次萃取,柱浸出实验。本研究的具体目的是:1)从一系列包括那些新鲜的和熟化的生物炭类

型评估DOC,N,P的,淋失/保留变化,2)探索生物碳与C,N,P和土壤渗滤液之间的相互作用,3)通过生物炭和生物炭/土壤混合物检查其中氮和磷的失去/获得形式4)利用养分流失模式预测较长期的养分流失率。

2、材料与方法

2.1、材料

生物炭是通过葛根栎(柞桂冠),火炬松(火炬松)和瓜地马拉草(伽马草)250℃时在开放的烘箱中燃烧3小时,然后在400和650℃时不断通入99%的纯气态氮气热解(以下简称奥克-250,草650,等)。更多的关于生物炭的制备及特性和分析方法的详情在别处被提出,但都归纳于补充表S1中。用在这些实验中的生物炭只有粗(0.25-2毫米)大小的部分,才用筛子分离然后简单的用蒸馏水冲洗两次除去灰分备用。此外,每种类型的生物炭通过放置在容器中熟化,用细网过筛上面和下面的,以使它都被空气和沉淀风化,而不是发生被阳光风化。从2009年12月1日至2010年9月28日在盖恩斯维尔,佛罗里达州老化过程中的九个月期间有109厘米的降雨,几乎等于这个位置每年平均降雨量123厘米。除了一夸脱的沙子控制,两种土壤被用做这些实验:从盖恩斯维尔,佛罗里达(BY)附近的森林采集的佛罗里达细沙新成土和从碧玉与乔治亚州(GA)附近收集的老成粘壤土。这两种土壤样品收集0-10厘米深的视野并在空气中干燥并过筛(B2毫米)以除去根和植被。沙,BY和GA土壤的孔隙率分别为30.6%,35.8%和50.2%。进一步土壤详情于表S1和S2中补充提供。

2.2、批量提取实验

初步实验表明生物炭中营养物质的浸出不是有时间限制的现象,而使随着萃取剂的体积变化的(即一个平衡,而不是一个动力学上的从动现象)。然而,我们发现,均衡在早期提取后仅仅几个小时就达成,但是在后面的提取需要几天后达成。由于本研究的目的是估计生物炭在自然环境中可能会释放的营养素的最大量,我们进行了生物炭样品在水中的连续批量提取,每次移除和更换上清液并允许足够的时间来达到平衡。约0.5g的各个生物炭样品加入40毫升的蒸馏去离子(DI)水然后加入到50ml塑料离心管中,水平放置的机械平台上摇床(150转)在黑暗中摇匀。在第1,2,4,10和20天的时候,管称重并离心(4500转)然后上清液通过吸管小心取出。剩余的样品称重来确定夹带液的量然后下一轮批次提取之前加入40毫升去离子水。因为我们希望模拟养分在自然条件下释放,因此Ph不是保持恒定不变的。然而,连续的水渗沥液的pH值并没有因为任何特定的生物炭型而显著改变。

取出后,上层清液过滤(40滤纸),并保存在冰箱中可以用于不超过1周的化学分析。浸出的各成分的量的计算为溶液体积和它的浓度的乘积(假设密度1克每厘米)。只有比较少的量是在浸出一开始就出来的(该产品夹带量和浓度,这是之前在上清液中的)。为了进行比较,生物炭还使用标准Mehlich-1(M1)解决方案进行超过24小时的提取。

2.3、柱浸试验

柱浸试验,在纯净的聚乙烯醇管(30.5厘米长×7.5厘米直径的)中进行,是

一个细网聚丙烯筛子和一个底部配有可以插入能控制滤液收集的橡胶阀然后连接到管中组成的。这些柱是500g土被提取为出5g的生物炭制成的。这代表了另外的生物炭中的碳相当于约20%的原生土壤中的有机碳和15厘米高度的土柱。实验的对照是由500g的生物炭用石英砂燃烧(450℃,3小时),然后清洗干净从中提取的5g的生物炭匀浆或者500克没有生物炭的土。蒸馏水是轻轻地用一个小喷水系统加入,以均匀分散在整个土壤表面上。在每个管开始的时候,土柱被填充水到达其上面的顶部和表面都饱和,然后立即排出。实现砂,BY和GA土壤的田间持水率的水平分别保持在10%,35%和44%。此后,每一列每天用100ml 的DI水溶出的砂,BY和GA土柱分别占土壤总孔隙体积的0.45,0.65,0.56。在3-4天试验期中共有1-1.4升的水加入到该土柱中。渗滤液在实验进行的两周之内进行冷藏。

2.4、分析方法

元素碳和氮是用一个卡尔埃尔巴碳氢氮硫分析仪分析。所有的批量提取和柱浸样本都用1MHCl酸化至pH 2-3然后鼓泡2分钟,使用无碳气以除去无机C后用总有机碳分析仪(日本岛津TOC-5000A)进行DOC的分析。凯氏氮(TKN:有机N +NH4+-N),NH4+-N和NO 3的- N的测定是分别采用EPA方法351.2,350.1和353.2连续自动流分析仪进行分析的。总P和无机P的测定是分别采用EPA方法200.7和365.1分光光度计仙乐斯CCD电感耦合等离子体光谱仪进行分析的。所有的氮和磷的分析是在佛罗里达州大学析研究实验室进行的。利用这些数据,有机氮被计算为TKN减NH4+-N,而有机磷计算为总P减无机P。该TKN是衡量所有批次和柱浸出液而NH4+-N和NO 3的- N含量只在最初和最后的渗滤液样品中测量。因为少量的NO3- 不在大多数样本中发现,TKN除非另有规定否则在这里称为N或全氮。生物炭和土壤样品也做全磷和铁分析如下:AOAC985.01(干灰化4小时,然后同时使用盐酸和硝酸消解)。无定形的Fe和Al的提取是土壤用草酸铵用McKeague和Day(1966)提取的。其他分析方法是测定生物炭的包括灰分和挥发物含量和表面酸度在补充资料提供一节的表征。

2.5、统计方法和误差

全部DOC样品一组三个样,并在测定时做对照样品,,如果变异系数>5%的话要重新实验。对ICP的分析,每20样品进行两次。允许误差是铁为±3.46%,铝为6.47%,NH3为2.61%,TKN为P3.16%,无机P为3.16%,总P为3.90%。用来预测长期的养分释放速率和参数之间的相关性的回归分析用Excel中(硕士,2003)工具包进行计算。

3、结果

3.1、批量提取生物炭

在批量提取实验,生物炭新鲜样品释放大量的DOC,氮和磷进入水中。一般指数随着时间的推移减少,或更正确地,随渗滤液体积(图1a,b,c)所示。生物炭所释放的营养素的浓度在第一次40毫升水加入时DOC介于355至4429微克每克,N 为 0 to 302 微克每克, P为159 到 1536 微克每克。通过三次提取,加入120毫升水后,所有新鲜生物炭养分浓度稳定在DOC是187-1255微克

每克,N是0-73微克每克和P是0-224微克每克范围内。初始磷是大于N,但下降更为迅速,使后渗滤液中氮素释放明显大于P。平均来说,新鲜生物炭在较低的温度(250℃)比较高温度(650℃)浸出更多的营养物质(DOC,N和P,分别为66,67和23%),草生物炭比橡木生物炭浸出更多营养物质(DOC,N和P,分别为22, 86 和56% )。松生物炭通常表现为与那些相同温度下碳化的草生物炭和橡木生物炭量是一样的。为简洁起见,松生物炭结果没有在表中和图中示出,但是使用了营养萃取技术统计进行比较。

熟化的生物炭的养分释放趋势是与草性生物炭和橡木生物炭在高温与低温下的养分释放相类似(图1d,e,f)。大多数熟化的生物炭的养分渗滤液浓度在加入第三次水(120毫升后)趋于稳定,但是,新鲜的生物炭有更大程度的可变性。在累计的基础上熟化的生物炭只比新鲜的生物炭多释放 5–37% 的P。没想到,然而草性生物炭和橡木生物炭比新鲜生物炭多释放大约三分之一的DOC。同样,熟化的生物炭和新鲜的生物炭在TKN的累计释放上也有同样的趋势,但是熟化的橡木生物炭比新鲜的生物炭多释放大约2到6倍的TKN。

氮和磷的形态在最初和最后一批渗滤液(即第一和第五次50毫升去离子水取)的收集是在表1中示出,有机组合物的百分数是在补充表S3中示出。硝酸浓度在初始和最后渗滤液生物炭(平均0.08毫克的每L,或者0.16毫克每G的生物炭)是很低的。然而,当硝酸盐仅表现为大多数样品浸出的总N和P的2到14%时,那表示浸出很少N的样品(橡木-650和橡树-250批次浸出后期)损失36 到55% 的N。有机氮是不在橡木生物炭中存在的,但是在草性生物炭中大约初始占60% ,在最后接近占80%(补充表3)。有机磷占生物炭渗滤液初始的总磷的39到83%,但是在最后是没有的。

在24小时Mehlich-1提取生物炭产生类似量的DOC,但是在24小时只有水萃取下却产生2倍的N和P(补充表S4)。熟化生物炭和新鲜生物炭在用Mehlich-1提取和水提取时分别减少87% 和62% 的全P。

3.2、柱浸

生物炭的柱浸(石英砂)显示的一些类似于那些批次实验的趋势,但也有一些明显的特点。类似于批次萃取,柱浸表明低温比高温的生物炭有更多的养分释放(沙/生物炭柱:图2A-C)。营养物质的释放一般随时间或者随冲水量降低,但不是与批处理渗沥液呈指数关系的。事实上,从草250生物炭中释放的DOC 是比第二次冲洗更大的。释放的营养的量一般是直到加入700毫升水冲洗时候才稳定的。

由于其更大的养分释放速率,这两种草生物炭(250和650℃),被选择用于与土壤混合的柱试验。一般情况下,土/草-250在整个柱浸试验与每个相应的土壤单独相比展出更大的营养素释放(图2d-I)。然而,土/草-650混合物与每个土单独相比较表现出等于或小于的养分释放。例如,对于土壤BY,DOC,N,P的平均释放水平是19,3和69%,但是当加入草250生物炭和草650生物炭时,分别减少14, 31, 和 77%。相对于BY土壤,GA土壤和GA土壤/生物炭的混合物的养分释放的差异较小。

在生物炭柱渗滤液的营养种类分布随着生物质类型和柱的浸出速度变化(表1)。就像批次浸出液,NH4+通常是大多数生物炭/沙沥出物最大的氮源。然而,浸出液中硝酸盐占N的范围是2至30%,在最初的草-250生物炭柱渗滤液中有机氮占N的59%。由他人使用TKN的分析(NH4+-N和有机氮)发现(加斯等人,

2008;姚明等人,2010)和在实验中对全氮及其它部分的一个合理的估计,硝酸盐通常代表了从生物炭浸出非常小的部分的N。有机磷在批次柱渗滤液实验中占更大的部分,在最初的渗滤液占41 到93% 在最终的生物炭浸出液占0至67%(补充表三)。

BY土壤(无生物炭)的初始渗滤液中的N形式分布有机氮,氨氮和NO 3 -分别是 3.3, 1.1 和0.07毫克每升(表1)。另外的草-250生物炭在最初的渗滤液有机氮是更大的69%,NH4+是更少的43%,NO3- 是变化不大。这表明生物炭至少在最初,是释放有机氮和吸附氨氮的。在最后的渗滤液,土壤有机氮和NH4的浓度仅略有减少,但有是一个大的NO3达到了19毫克每升。随着加入了草生物炭,最终渗滤液有机氮含量减少,甚至更富集NO3,特别是对草250生物碳(74%以上)时。这N的趋势是与GA土壤和GA土壤/生物炭组合相似的,除了高浓度的NO3未被测定(表1)。磷酸盐一贯是BY土壤和BY/生物炭渗沥液的P主要形式,但在GA土壤和GA土壤/生物炭渗沥液而要低得多,有机磷才是主要的磷形态。

外文翻译

Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the

网络营销外文翻译

E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. (Sales Promotion;E--Marketing;Internet;Strategic Planning ) 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies;More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.

交通灯外文翻译 2

当今时代是一个自动化时代,交通灯控制等很多行业的设备都与计算机密切相关。因此,一个好的交通灯控制系统,将给道路拥挤,违章控制等方面给予技术革新。随着大规模集成电路及计算机技术的迅速发展,以及人工智能在控制技术方面的广泛运用,智能设备有了很大的发展,是现代科技发展的主流方向。本文介绍了一个智能交通的系统的设计。该智能交通灯控制系统可以实现的功能有:对某市区的四个主要交通路口进行控制:个路口有固定的工作周期,并且在道路拥挤时中控制中心能改变其周期:对路口违章的机动车能够即时拍照,并提取车牌号。在世界范围内,一个以微电子技术,计算机和通信技术为先导的,一信息技术和信息产业为中心的信息革命方兴未艾。而计算机技术怎样与实际应用更有效的结合并有效的发挥其作用是科学界最热门的话题,也是当今计算机应用中空前活跃的领域。本文主要从单片机的应用上来实现十字路口交通灯智能化的管理,用以控制过往车辆的正常运作。 研究交通的目的是为了优化运输,人流以及货流。由于道路使用者的不断增加,现有资源和基础设施有限,智能交通控制将成为一个非常重要的课题。但是,智能交通控制的应用还存在局限性。例如避免交通拥堵被认为是对环境和经济都有利的,但改善交通流也可能导致需求增加。交通仿真有几个不同的模型。在研究中,我们着重于微观模型,该模型能模仿单独车辆的行为,从而模仿动态的车辆组。 由于低效率的交通控制,汽车在城市交通中都经历过长时间的行进。采用先进的传感器和智能优化算法来优化交通灯控制系统,将会是非常有益的。优化交通灯开关,增加道路容量和流量,可以防止交通堵塞,交通信号灯控制是一个复杂的优化问题和几种智能算法的融合,如模糊逻辑,进化算法,和聚类算法已经在使用,试图解决这一问题,本文提出一种基于多代理聚类算法控制交通信号灯。 在我们的方法中,聚类算法与道路使用者的价值函数是用来确定每个交通灯的最优决策的,这项决定是基于所有道路使用者站在交通路口累积投票,通过估计每辆车的好处(或收益)来确定绿灯时间增益值与总时间是有差异的,它希望在它往返的时候等待,如果灯是红色,或者灯是绿色。等待,直到车辆到达目的地,通过有聚类算法的基础设施,最后经过监测车的监测。 我们对自己的聚类算法模型和其它使用绿灯模拟器的系统做了比较。绿灯模拟器是一个交通模拟器,监控交通流量统计,如平均等待时间,并测试不同的交通灯控制器。结果表明,在拥挤的交通条件下,聚类控制器性能优于其它所有测试的非自适应控制器,我们也测试理论上的平均等待时间,用以选择车辆通过市区的道路,并表明,道路使用者采用合作学习的方法可避免交通瓶颈。 本文安排如下:第2部分叙述如何建立交通模型,预测交通情况和控制交通。第3部分是就相关问题得出结论。第4部分说明了现在正在进一步研究的事实,并介绍了我们的新思想。

建筑类外文文献及中文翻译

forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.

外文翻译

Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/3318671494.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>

建筑-外文翻译

外文文献: Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project By: Paul Stanford Kupakuwana Cost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009 ABSTRACT This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong. KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof

外文翻译中文版(完整版)

毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计(论文)题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄

最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间,工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先,越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关,甚至变得更加活跃:他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作,同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而,这里是机构间差异较大。例如,环境报告的数量变化,每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间,结果是不那么容易诠释。第一,活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的:一些最高审计机关进入,而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二,但是,审计报告数量略有下降,1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变(1994-1996年,20%的规律性审计和44%绩效审计;1997-1999:16%规律性审计和绩效审计54%)。在一般情况下,绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来,再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年,有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年,这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然,这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯,可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来,少数环境审计是规律性审计(560篇报告中有87篇,占16%)。大多数审计绩效审计(560篇报告中有304篇,占54%),或组合的规律性和绩效审计(560篇报告中有169篇,占30%)。如前文所述,绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中,绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施(560篇报告中有264篇,占47%),符合国家环保法律,法规的,由政府部门,部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问(560篇报告中有212篇,占38%)。此外,审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统(560篇报告中有156篇,占28%)。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告:影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10%至20%。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自:S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721

营销-外文翻译

外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source:Marketing Management Author:Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is

智能交通灯控制系统_英文翻译

英文 Because of the rapid development of our economy resulting in the car number of large and medium-sized cities surged and the urban traffic, is facing serious test, leading to the traffic problem increasingly serious, its basically are behaved as follows: traffic accident frequency, to the human life safety enormous threat, Traffic congestion, resulting in serious travel time increases, energy consumption increase; Air pollution and noise pollution degree of deepening, etc. Daily traffic jams become people commonplace and had to endure. In this context, in combination with the actual situation of urban road traffic, develop truly suitable for our own characteristics of intelligent signal control system has become the main task. Preface In practical application at home and abroad, according to the actual traffic signal control application inspection, planar independent intersection signal control basic using set cycle, much time set cycle, half induction, whole sensor etc in several ways. The former two control mode is completely based on planar intersection always traffic flow data of statistical investigation, due to traffic flow the existence of variable sex and randomicity, the two methods have traffic efficiency is low, the scheme, the defects of aging and half inductive and all the inductive the two methods are in the former two ways based on increased vehicle detector and according to the information provided to adjust cycle is long and green letter of vehicle, it than random arrived adaptability bigger, can make vehicles in the parking cord before as few parking, achieve traffic flowing effect In modern industrial production,current,voltage,temperature, pressure, and flow rate, velocity, and switch quantity are common mainly controlled parameter. For example: in metallurgical industry, chemical production, power engineering, the papermaking industry, machinery and food processing and so on many domains, people need to transport the orderly control. By single chip microcomputer to control of traffic, not only has the convenient control, configuration simple and flexible wait for an advantage, but also can greatly improve the technical index by control quantity, thus greatly improve product quality and quantity. Therefore, the monolithic integrated circuit to the traffic light control problem is an industrial production we often encounter problems. In the course of industrial production, there are many industries have lots of traffic equipment, in the current system, most of the traffic control signal is accomplished by relays, but relays response time is long, sensitivity low, long-term after use, fault opportunity increases greatly, and adopts single-chip microcomputer control, the accuracy of far greater than relays, short response time, software reliability, not because working time reduced its performance sake, compared with, this solution has the high feasibility. About AT89C51 (1)function characteristics description: AT89C51 is a low power consumption, high performance CMOS8 bit micro-controller, has the 8K in system programmable Flash memory. Use high-density Atmel company the beltpassword nonvolatile storage technology and manufacturing, and industrial 80S51 product instructions and pin fully compatible. Chip Flash allow program memory in system programmable, also suitable for conventional programmer. In a single chip, have dexterous 8 bits CPU and in system programmable Flash, make AT89C51 for many embedded control application system provides the high flexible, super efficient solution. AT89C51 has the following standard function: 8k bytes Flash, 256 bytes RAM, 32-bit I/O mouth line, the watchdog timer, two data pointer, three 16 timer/counter, a 6 vector level 2 interrupt structure, full-duplex serial port, piece inside crystals timely clock circuit. In addition, AT89C51 can drop to 0Hz static logic operation, support two software can choose power saving mode. Idle mode, the CPU to stop working, allowing the RAM, timer/counter, serial ports, interruption continue to work. Power lost protection mode, RAM content being saved, has been frozen, microcontroller all work stop, until the next interruption or hardware reset so far. As shown in

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