常见英文注释的写作方法

常见英文注释的写作方法
常见英文注释的写作方法

常见英文注释的写作方法

南京师范大学法学院颜林

一、案例的引用

一项标准的案例注释应包括:案件的名称、可查询到该案例的出版物,并在括号中列明如下一些信息:(1)作出该判决的时间,(2)当所引用的报告及其卷期之名所提供的信息不清楚时,须列明作出判决的法院,如果该案在该法院判决前和判决后还有其他的判决,也应一并予以列明。

如:Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison co., 348 F.Supp.954 (M.D. Pa. 1972),aff’d, 483 F.2d 754 (3d Cir. 1973), aff’d, 419 U.S.345(1974).

二、对美国成文法的引用

众所周知,美国是一个以判例法为主的国家,但事实上,美国社会从未放弃对法典化立法的期盼。第一次真正全国意义上的法典编纂是在1875年开始的,并于1878年进行了正式的法典编纂。经过了几十年的努力,直到1926年,美国法典才完成了第一次比较全面、系统的编纂,至此美国的法典编纂已经形成了一套比较固定的体系和比较规范的程序。

美国现行官方的法典编纂制度分为“美国法典编纂”和“美国联邦行政法典编纂”两个部分。这两个法典分别由两个专设机构负责编纂。负责美国法典编纂的机构是设在美国国会众议院内的法律修订委员会办公室(the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the House of Representatives);负责美国联邦行政法典编纂的机构是联邦政府公报室(Bulletin Office of the Federal Government)。此外,各州的议会和政府也设有专门机构根据各自的立法权限进行独立的法律编纂。

(一)《美国法典》的历史、内容及其引用

1、就《美国法典》而言,它的编纂是一个相当大的法律汇编工程。1926年首次将建国二百多年以来国会制定的所有立法(除独立宣言、联邦条例和联邦宪法外)加以整理编纂,把每部单行法都按照条文逐一拆开,再按照事先划分的50个大类进行分门别类,同一类别的条文就编入一个大类中,而不论其来自哪部成文法。这样把全部的法律进行分解、分类,重排,汇编,就形成了50个大类(如劳工、证券、版权、专利、破产、税收、教育、食品与药品、医疗卫生、对外关系、高速公路、外国人及国籍、国内安全、战争国防、货币金融、总统、国旗、农业、印地安人、商业贸易、教育、含酒精类饮料、运输、电报电话等等)组

成的美国法律“分类汇编”,并将之命名为《美国法典》(United States Code,简称U.S.C),首次以15卷的篇幅发表,这就是第一版《美国法典》的来历。Wikipedia中,对《美国法典》的结构有着更清楚的介绍,可以看英文原文的介绍https://www.360docs.net/doc/4d6896024.html,/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%B3%95%E5% 85%B8。

美国法典按照50个主题分别排列组合而成,是一种包纳特定立法主体(如国会、联邦政府)在一定时期内颁布的所有法律或法规的相关内容,类似于法律全书式的综合性分类法律文件。任何独立的法律文件一经分解,纳入到法典体系之后就不再保持原有的完整状态。另外,美国的法典编纂也不是一个创造新法的过程,而是局限于一些纯粹技术性的分类、拆解、重新组合等工作。稍微涉及到一些实质性内容的事项,就必须报经国会审议通过。承担美国法典编纂工作的机构和人员是立法主体内部的职能机构和专业人员,而不是大陆法系意义上的“法典起草人”。

需要强调的是,美国人的法典在编纂机关和效力方面与大陆法系国家的法典完全不同,他们并不是大陆法系国家所理解的真正意义上的法典。前述的美国法典和美国联邦法典(或称“美国联邦行政法典”)的编纂机构虽然分别设在国会和联邦政府,但这些机构并不是立法机关,因此其并不具备法律拘束力,其作用更多地在于方便查询使用和教学研究,而大陆法系国家的法典则具有法律拘束力效力。美国法典也不是我们所通常理解的简单的法律汇编(Compilation)。我们理解的一般意义上的法律汇编是指依据法律文件的制定机关、效力等级、颁行时间、性质内容等标准进行分类、集中,并加以系统编排,汇编成册。这种汇编完整地保留了原有法律文件的原貌,不对单独的法律文件加以分解重组,不改动法律文件的内部序列,仅仅是根据一定的分类标准进行分类汇编。从对法律文件进行技术处理的标准、方式和变动幅度这个角度来说,它都不如美国法典的工作来得复杂。美国的法典编纂只有一个分类标准——就是50个预设的“主题”门类,以“主题”为最大构成单元进行法条分解重组。美国法典不像一般的法律汇编,经它编纂过的法律文件都已经被肢解得“支离破碎”了,各法条散布于50个大类的各个角落。而法律汇编里面收录的单个法律文件都能保持原有的完整形态,未加任何改变。

需要特别指出的是,普通法的法典化运动几乎伴随了美国整个的立法史,它的表现形式和成果绝不仅仅是《美国法典》的出现和编纂这么简单。这个只是官方层面的做的工作,是大量的民间法典化工作的长期推动的结果,是民间和法律学界法典化运动在官方的反应和呼应。其实更重要的工作成果还有两个,都是在民间和学界,一个是美国统一州法全国委员会

(National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws)倡导并身体力行的“标准法典”的编纂。它的最辉煌的成果就是那部大名鼎鼎的《美国统一商法典》(UCC)。另一个就是由美国法学会(American Law Institute)主导的,由法官、律师、法学家、教授等完成的“私人法典编纂”(Private Codification)工作,这项工作包括该学会编纂出版了大量供美国各州参考使用的“模范法典”,以及由著名法学家完成的针对部门法的“法律重述”(Restatement of the Law)。

比起美国官方的法典编纂工作来,这些民间和法律学界的工作更显得重要。他们不是简单地把法律进行分解重组和分类汇编,而是从统一全国各州法律、克服普通法的“不确定性”和判例的“复杂性”这个目的出发,沿袭普通法的判例法精神,采用大陆法的法典形式,有组织地进行浩大的民间立法工程,编纂各部门法的“标准法典”或者“模范法典”,写作大量的“法律重述”,阐明一般原则和法律原理。这些工作不仅推动了美国普通法法典化的进程,更重要的是丰富完善了美国的普通法法律体系,促使普通法在和大陆法的立法融合过程中,吸收了外来法律体系和优点,部分地克服了自身的不足。

(以上部分内容见博文《<美国法典>(USC)和美国的法典化运动》,作者:海上寻梦斋,链接地址:https://www.360docs.net/doc/4d6896024.html,/loujinjing/blog/item/3dd900fa07a3669759ee90b0.html。略有删改。)

另见阮一峰的博客对美国法典的介绍:

美国任何一部法律的产生首先由美国国会议员提出法案,当这个法案获得国会通过后,将被提交给美国总统给予批准,一旦该法案被总统批准(有可能被否决)就成为法律(Act)。当一部法律通过后,国会众议院就把法律的内容公布在美国法典上。

1926年美国人将建国二百多年以来国会制定的所有立法(除独立宣言、联邦条例和联邦宪法外)加以整理编纂,按50个项目系统地分类编排,命名为《美国法典》(United States Code,简称USC),首次以15卷的篇幅发表,这是第一版《美国法典》。1964年又出版了修订版,以后每年还出增刊。

(一)《美国法典》的体系与结构

该法典根据法律规范所涉及的领域和调整对象,划分为50个主题或“部”(Title)。它们依次是:总则、国会、总统、国旗,国玺,政府部门和联邦各州、政府组织与雇员、担保债务(现已废除)、农业、外国人与国籍、仲裁、武装力量、破产、银行与金融、人口普查、

海岸警卫、商业与贸易、资源保护、版权、犯罪与刑事程序、关税、教育、食品与药品、对外关系、公路、医院与收容所、印第安人、财政收入、麻醉性酒精、司法和司法程序、劳工、矿藏和采矿、货币与财政、国民警卫、航运与可航水域、海军(现已废除)、专利、宗教习俗、规制行业薪金与津贴、退伍军人救济金、邮政事业、公共建筑、公共合同、公共卫生与福利、公共土地、国家印刷品与文献、铁路、航运、电报,电话和无线电报,领土与岛屿所有权、交通、战争与国防。(除前六个总领性主题外,其余主题均按照A、B、C、D……的字母顺序依次排列)

在50个主题之下,法典依次分为卷、章、部分、节、条等,法典最大的组成单位是卷,每一个主题对应一卷。每卷、章、部分、节、条都用简短的文字作题注。每条均用编号标注其来源,即哪一届国会通过的哪一部法律的哪一条,或者哪一届国会进行的修改。

(二)《美国法典》的编纂程序

国会每颁布一部法律,在发行单行本的同时,由设在美国国会众议院内的法律修订委员会办公室的专业人员将这部法律分解为若干部分,再根据其规范的内容编排到50个相应主题的相关卷中。如美国法典第十二卷为“银行与金融”,其内容就是由每一届国会通过的法律中涉及银行和金融的全部条款经分解后重新组装而成。这样编纂的好处在于,人们只需要查看第十二卷就可以找到现行有效的所有美国银行和金融方面的法律规定,而无需查阅卷帙浩繁的法律全书。承担法典编纂工作的法律修订委员会办公室只能对法律作一些必要的技术处理,如涉及到法律含义等重大问题时,则必须报经国会审议通过。

美国法典每隔六年重新编纂颁布一次,目前最新版本是1994年法典,共35卷。在六年期间,每年将国会当年通过的法律按照法典编排的序号,编辑成一个补充卷。在新的法典尚未编纂之前,人们可以通过补充卷来查阅和引用最新的法律规定。

=================================

Wikipedia中,对《美国法典》的结构有着更清楚的介绍。

The Code is divided into 50 titles (listed below), which deal with broad, logically organized areas of legislation. Titles may optionally be divided into subtitles, parts, subparts, chapters, and subchapters. All titles have sections as their smallest basic coherent unit, though sections are often divided into subsections, paragraphs, and clauses. Not all titles use the same series of subdivisions above the section level, and they may arrange them in different order. For example, in Title 26 (the tax code), the order of subdivision runs Title - Subtitle - Chapter - Subchapter - Part - Subpart - Section - Subsection - Paragraph - Subparagraph - Clause - Subclause. In Title 38 (Veteran's

Benefits) the order runs Title - Part - Chapter - Subchapter - Section. Put another way, the Title is always the largest division of the Code, and the section the smallest (except for subsections, paragraphs, clauses, etc.), but intermediate levels vary in both number and sequence from Title to Title.

The word "title" in this context is roughly akin to a printed "volume," although many of the larger titles span multiple volumes. Similarly, no particular size or length is associated with other subdivisions; a section might run several pages in print, or just a sentence or two. Some subdivisions within particular titles acquire meaning of their own; for example, it's common for lawyers to refer to a "Chapter 11" bankruptcy or a "Subchapter K" partnership.

A sample citation would be 5 U.S.C. § 552a, the Privacy Act of 1974. A lawyer would read that out loud as "Title five, United States Code, section five hundred fifty-two A."

When sections are repealed, their text is deleted and replaced by a note summarizing what used to be there. This is necessary so that lawyers reading old cases can understand what the cases are talking about. As a result, some portions of the Code consist entirely of empty chapters full of historical notes. For example, Title 8, Chapter 7 is labeled "Exclusion of Chinese." This contains historical notes relating to the Chinese Exclusion Act, which is no longer in effect.

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以上资料引自网络博客:https://www.360docs.net/doc/4d6896024.html,/blog/2006/04/united_states_code.html

2、《美国法典》的引用须包括以下内容:

法典的标题编号、法典本身的缩写(即“U.S.C”)、章节编号、出版年代。

如:29 U.S.C. §1001 (1976)

(二)《美国联邦行政法典》(Code of Federal Regulations,简称CFR,或称“美国联邦法典”、“美国联邦法规”)的历史、主要内容及其引用。

1、历史及其主要内容。《美国联邦行政法典》是美国联邦政府执行机构和部门在“联邦公报”(Federal Register,简称FR)中发表与公布的一般性和永久性规则的集成,具有普遍适用性和法律效应。因此,CFR的内容覆盖广泛。读者在使用CFR时需要注意的是,美国联邦法律在为CFR中的法规提供权威性的同时,对CFR也设置了一定的限制条件。这意味着CFR任何主题下的法规都应当与美国法典(U.S.C.,United States Code)中具有紧密联

系的相应部分一起应用。在某些情况下,法庭可以因为CFR的某法规与联邦法律发生冲突而认定其无效。

CFR的编纂工作始于1936年。最初,联邦政府公报室将联邦政府机构当天发布的所有行政法规、会议纪要、决定、通知以及将要议定的行政法规草案等编辑成联邦政府公报手册(相当于联邦行政法律全书),对外公布,周一至周五每周共五册,每年200多册。后来,由于行政法律全书数量越来越多,内容庞杂,查询起来极为困难。因此,1936年联邦政府参照美国法典的编纂方式开始进行行政法典的编纂。

(1)《美国联邦行政法典》的结构与分类

行政法典的编纂也按照法律规范所涉及的领域和调整对象,分为50个主题。由于对于国家基本制度等方面的事项,联邦政府无权立法,因此行政法典的这50个主题分类并不完全等同于美国法典的50个主题,但二者在很多主题的名称上是完全一致的。为了便于编辑和公众查找方便,联邦政府行政法典是按照联邦机构管理的内容作为分类标准的。美国行政法典的50个主题,按前后顺序排列分别是:总则、保留、总统、会计、行政人事、保留、农业、外国人与公民、动物与动物产品、能源、联邦选举、银行金融、商业信用与资助、航空与航天、商业与外贸、商业实践、商品与证券交易、电力,水力资源保护、关税、雇员利益、食品与药品、对外关系、公路、住宅与城市发展、印第安人、国内收入、烟,酒产品与军火、司法行政、劳动、矿产资源、财政金融、国家防御、航运与可航水域、教育、巴拿马运河、公园,森林和公共财产、专利,商标与版权、抚恤金,津贴和老兵救助、邮政服务、环境保护、公共合同与财产管理、公共卫生、公共土地、抢险救灾、公共福利、航运、电讯、联邦收购规则系统、交通、野生动物与渔业。这些事项与《美国法典》在编排的项目和顺序上有较大的相似性,但也有一定的不同。

美国联邦行政法典与美国法典一样,每个主题之下也分卷、章、部分、节、条,它的题注、编号、索引、指引等做法与美国法典的做法是一样的。

(2)《美国联邦行政法典》的编纂程序

联邦行政法典每一年编纂更新一次,联邦政府公报室具体负责对每天编辑的联邦政府公报进行拆解、重新组合。每次更新,全部换套封、封面,但并不是将原来的所有内容全部删除重印。对相应修改或变动较多的,将原件抽出更新;修改或变动较少的,在该期的封底另页补充;没有修改或变动的,将原封面换为新版封面,注明新日期。

为了便于公众及时查询和引用最新的联邦政府颁布的法规,公报室每月编一期修改或新制定的法规的目录,放在原法典之后,同时指明具体条文所在的相应联邦政府公报,供查

阅引用。

美国官方的法律编纂工作还包括联邦最高法院的判例编纂,1754年-1973年间公布的判例被编纂成《美国最高法院判例汇编》,也分为50卷。

(3)内容结构

CFR共50篇(title),部分有章(subtitle),分别代表联邦法规的各个领域;每章中有若干节(chapter),各节通常以法规颁发机构的名称为标题,有的节还分为分节(subchapter);每一节中包含特定的法规领域的若干部分(Part),有的部分由于内容多,又分为子部分(subpart)。每一部分由包含具体法规的若干小节(section)组成。

由此可见,CFR的层次有篇、章、节、分节、部分、子部分、小节。

根据44 U.S.C. 1510的规定,CFR每年至少补充、重新核对出版一次。通常,CFR的修订本公布顺序为:

(具体日期将印制在每册CFR的封面上。)

CFR是由联邦公报管理委员会(Administrative Committee of the Federal Register)负责将其从每一家具有普遍适用性和法律效应的政府机构获取的,由该机构在FR(Federal Register)上公布或发表的,或者向FR管理委员会递交的成文法律文件的草案和特别出版物及其修改版装订的法规集成。CFR每册都附有读者帮助和关于其内容覆盖范围的说明;另有单独出版的一本总索引。CFR由联邦公报(FR)的单独发行物(除国家法定休息日之外从星期一至星期五每天出版)决定其最新程度。因此,这两种出版物必须联合使用,以确定任何给定规则的最新更新版本。为了确定某册CFR在其修订日期之后是否作了其它修改,需查阅”CFR受影响章节列表”(List of CFR Sections Affected,LSA)。LSA每月出版一次,而”受影响部分累积列表”(Cumulative List of Parts Affected)出现在每日出版的FR的读者帮助部分。这两个列表给出了任何给定规则最新更新处所在页码。

根据44 U.S.C. 1510的规定,机构在FR的补充版上出版的成文化法律文件,随后由FR 办公室编档保存,在FR的每日出版物中发表,并且在发表之日当日开始生效。

(4)使用方法

每册CFR都包含有一题为CFR索引与搜索帮助(Finding Aids)的主题索引,每年1月1日左右修改一次;另包含有CFR标题与章节列表,以及在该册CFR中出现机构的字母顺序列表。

每册CFR都包括自最近一次修订版之后发表在FR上的修改部分。在引用这些法规时,援用册号、FR的页码号以及发表日期。发表日期和生效日期通常并不一样,因此必须注意确定具体的生效日期。生效日期超出某项法规的截止日期时,有注解指示未来的生效日期;FR中发表的法规明确给出了截止日期时,有适当注解插在法规文本后面。

在每册CFR的封面上都注有修订日期,在此日期之前废弃的条款将不出现在该册CFR 中。可通过使用适当的受影响章节号码清单,搜索在指定日期有效的法律条款文本。在1986年1月1日之前,可查阅LSA 1949-1963,1964-1972或1973-1985;在1986年1月1日之后,每册CFR末尾都列有LSA。

(上述内容参见“上海标准化服务信息网”,略有增添。https://www.360docs.net/doc/4d6896024.html,/guanchangintroduce73.jsp)

2、《美国联邦行政法典》的引用应包括以下内容:

法典的标题编号、法典本身的简写(即“C.F.R”),章节编号、出版年代。

如:11 C.F.R. §100.3 (1982)

(三)《联邦公报》(Federal Register)的引用

该引用应包括:卷次、公报简写(即“Fed. Reg.”),被引用资料在公报上的起始页,出版年代

如:47 Fed. Reg. 40,443(1982).

三、对杂志中的作品的引用

作者、作品名、杂志名、出版日期、被引用部分所在的页码

Robert J. Samuelson, A Slow Fix for the Banks, NEWSWEEK, Feb.18, 1991, at 55.

四、对报纸上所发表的文章的引用

作者、作品名、报纸名、出版日期、版次

如:Seth Mydans, Los Angeles Police Chief Removed for 60 Days in Inquiry on Beating, N.Y.TIMES, Apr.5,1991, at A1.

五、对美国和其他国家所签订的条约的引用:

条约名、签订日期、缔约方、卷次、起始页

如:Convention for the Avoidance of Double Taxation, Nov.24,1978, U.S.-Fr.,32 U.S.T.1935.

六、对书籍的引用

卷次(如果是多卷本的话)、各作者的名字(每个作者的第一个名字和最后一个名字)、书籍在封面页上所表明的名称、要读者所关注的或阅读的具体的页码、章节或段落、版本(如果有多个版本的话)、出版时间

如:2 W. Crosskey, Politics and the constitution in the History of the United states 1119 (1953)

七、对法律评论上所发表的作品的引用

作者的最后一个名字、文章的名字、法律评论的卷次(如果没有卷次,则写清楚出版年份)、发表被引用文章的该法律评论的缩写、被引用文章的起始页、最后在括号内注明出版年份(如果在注释中没有写的话)

如:Vandevelde, The New Property of the Nineteenth Century: The Development of the Modern Concept of Property, 29 Buffalo L.Rev.325 (1980).

有时也可以具体到某一页:

如:Vandevelde, The New Property of the Nineteenth Century: The Development of the Modern Concept of Property, 29 Buffalo L.Rev.325, 337-338 (1980).

Interpreting Legal Citations(from the University of Wisconsin Law Library)

https://www.360docs.net/doc/4d6896024.html,/services/find/guides/subject/legalcitations.html

Tools

?The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation, 18th ed. Reserve & Reference KF/245/U55

?Wisconsin Guide to Citation, 5th ed. Reserve & Reference

KFW/2475/W57/2001

?Bieber's Dictionary of Legal Abbreviations Reference KF/246/B46...

Citation Types

Primary Authority

1. Cases

Citation of a case decided by U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, later reversed by the U.S. Supreme Court, with parenthetical information about the Fourth Circuit decision:

All Wisconsin Supreme Court & Court of Appeals opinions published since January 2000 include a public domain citation.

2. Statutes

Citation of an entire statute, the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act, as codified in the United States Code:

3. Public Law

Citation of an entire public law, the Health Professions Education Extension Amendment of 1992, as appears in the Statutes at Large:

4. Legislative Materials

Several citations to bills, resolutions, reports, documents, etc.:

Abbreviations used in citations to legislative materials:

5. Code of Federal Regulations

Citation of a particular provision of a regulation in the Code of Federal Regulations:

6. United Nations Materials

Citation of a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly:

Secondary Authority

1. Books - Both author and title appear in ALL CAPS

Citation of a particular section of James and Hazard's treatise on civil procedure:

Citation of a particular page within Charles Dicken's Bleak House:

2. Periodical Materials - Article titles appear in italics and journal titles appear in ALL CAPS

Citation of particular pages within a law review article with parenthetical information about what appears on those pages:

Citation of an entire magazine article:

Citation of a signed newspaper article:

英语写作的常见错误

英语写作常见错误分析 一.不一致(Disagreements) 所谓不一致不光指主谓不一致,它还包括了数的不一致时态不一致及代词不一致等. 例1.When one have money ,he can do what he want to . (人一旦有了钱,他就能想干什么就干什么.) 剖析:one是单数第三人称,因而本句的have应改为has ;同理,want应改为wa nts.本句是典型的主谓不一致. 改为:Once one has money ,he can do what he wants (to do) 二.修饰语错位(Misplaced Modifiers) 英语与汉语不同,同一个修饰语置于句子不同的位置,句子的含义可能引起变化.对于这一点中国学生往往没有引起足够的重视,因而造成了不必要的误解.例1.I believe I can do it well and I will better know the world outside the campus. 剖析:better位置不当,应置于句末. 三.句子不完整(Sentence Fragments) 在口语中,交际双方可借助手势语气上下文等,不完整的句子完全可以被理解.可是书面语就不同了,句子结构不完整会令意思表达不清,这种情况常常发生在主句写完以后,笔者又想加些补充说明时发生. 例1.There are many ways to know the society. For example by TV ,radio ,newspa per and so on . 剖析:本句后半部分"for example by TV ,radio ,newspaper and so on .”不是一个完整的句子,仅为一些不连贯的词语,不能独立成句. 改为:There are many ways to know society ,for example ,by TV ,radio ,and newspap er. 四.悬垂修饰语(Dangling Modifiers) 所谓悬垂修饰语是指句首的短语与后面句子的逻辑关系混乱不清.例如:At the a ge of ten, my grandfather died. 这句中"at the age of ten"只点出十岁时,但没有说明”谁”十岁时.按一般推理不可能是my grandfather, 如果我们把这个悬垂修饰语改明确一点,全句就不那么费解了. 改为: When I was ten, my grandfather died.

英文summary写作范例

Article Children Must be Taught to Tell Right from Wrong William Kilpatrick Many of today 's young people have a difficult time seeing any moral dimension ( 道德层 面 ) to their actions. There are a number of reasons why that 's true, but none more prominent than a failed system of education that eschews ( 回避 ) teaching children the traditional moral values that bind Americans together as a society and a culture. That failed approach, called “decision - making, ” was introduced in schools 25 years ago. It tells children to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. It replaced “character education. ( 品格教 育 )” Character education didn 't ask children to reinvent the moral wheel ( 浪费时间重新发明早已存 在的道德标准); instead, it encouraged them to practice habits of courage, justice and self-control. In the 1940s, when a character education approach prevailed, chewing gum; today they worry about robbery and rape. Decision-making curriculums pose thorny ( 棘手的 ) ethical dilemmas to students, with the impression that all morality is problematic and that all questions of right and wrong are in dispute. Youngsters are forced to question values and virtues they 've never acquired in the first place or upon which they have only a tenuous ( 薄弱的 ) hold. The assumption behind this method is that students will arrive at good moral conclusions if only they are given the chance. But the actual result is moral confusion. For example, a recent national study of 1,700 sixth- to ninth-graders revealed that a majority of boys considered rape to be acceptable under certain conditions. Astoundingly, many of the girls agreed. This kind of moral illiteracy is further encouraged by values-education (价值观教育 ) programs that are little more than courses in self-esteem ( 自尊 ). These programs are based on the questionable assumption that a child who feels good about himself or herself won 't want to do anything wrong. But it is just as reasonable to make an opposite assumption: namely, that a child who has uncritical self-regard w ill conclude that he or she can 't do anything bad. Such naive self-acceptance results in large part from the non-directive ( 无指导性的 ), non-judgmental ( 无是非观的 ), as-long-as-you-feel-comfortable-with-your-choices mentality ( 思 想) that has pervaded ( 渗透) public education for the last two and one-half decades. Many of today 's drug education, sex education and values -education courses are based on the same 1960s philosophy that helped fuel the explosion in teen drug use and sexual activity in the first place. Meanwhile, while educators are still fiddling with ( 胡乱摆弄 ) outdated “feel - good ” approaches, New York, Washington, and Los Angeles are burning. Youngsters are leaving school believing that matters of right and wrong are always merely subjective. If you pass a stranger on the street and decide to murder him because you need money —if it feels right —you go with that feeling. Clearly, murder is not taught in our schools, but such a conclusion —just about any conclusion —can be reached and justified using the decision-making method. It is time to consign ( 寄出 ) the fads (风尚 ) of “decision - making ” and “non- judgmentalism ” to the ash heap of failed policies, and return to a proved method. Character education provides a much more realistic approach to moral formation. It is built on an understanding that we learn morality not by debating it but by practicing it. Sample teachers worried about students leaving them

英语写作常见错误分析

大学英语四六级应试技巧写作篇(英语写作常见错误分析) 检查主要针对四个重点部位:1)是否切题它又分三个层面: 一是整篇文章内容是否切合文章标题要求; 二是段落主题句的内容是否与各段落提示句内容相一致; 三是段落内部的内容是否与段落主题句的表达相一致。如果发现任何一个层面不切题,应尽可能弥补,删除那些多余的或不切题的地方;增添残缺的、语义表达不足的地方。由于时间所限,删的内容一定要精,要切中要害,切忌动“大手术”。 2)是否连贯检查上下文是否连贯,句子衔接是否自然流畅,检验的标准主要是句子是否通顺,该用连接词的地方用了没有,以及所用的连接词是否合适。 3)是否有语法错误主谓是否一致,动词的时态、语态、语气的使用是否正确,词组的搭配是否合乎习惯。为避免不必要的语法错误,对把握性不大的词组、句型绝不要用。而应使用那些自己熟悉的词组、句型来表达相同或相近的意思。 4)是否有大小写、拼写、标点错误在这些细枝末节上,谨慎细心地处理,无疑会进一步提高文章的整体质量。在检查、改错的过程中,切忌乱涂乱抹。保持卷面清洁,无疑会给阅卷者留下好印象。英语写作常见错误 一、不按提纲写/ 不切题 一、不切题英汉不同的语篇思维模式是造成不切题的直接原因。一些外国人认为东方人写作善用迂回法,也就是总绕着主题的外围转,而不从主题入手展开讨论。汉语语篇的思维模式是中国历史文化的产物,人们认为这种方式含蓄、委婉,容易使人接受,而英美人则喜欢开门见山的叙述主题;所以我国学生进行英语写作时,由于受汉语语篇思维模式的影响,阐述时不从主题入手,不能紧扣主题进行写作,致使文章主题不明确,观点不够鲜明。我们来看一篇以"Trees"为题目的作文:Trees are man's friends. 1. We can see trees everywhere. 2. We plant trees every year. 3. We can make tables with trees. 4. Trees also give us fruits to eat. 5. I like to eat fruits very much. 再来看改写后的段落:Trees are man’s friends.1.They provide man with timber, fruits and seeds. With timber, man can build houses and make furniture. 2. Fruits are the food, which is necessary to us every day. 3. As for seeds, they can be used to extract oil. 这样就克服了前面所犯错误,紧紧围绕了主题句来展开,算是一篇好的作文。 二、语言表达的错误 从题目或给出的关键词中照搬,不注意单词在句中所做的成分及大小写 忽视第三人称单数 忽视被动语态的用法 三、语言表达的错误重点分析。 1.句子结构混乱,出现句子不完整或句子成分多余2.词性误用3.主谓不一致 4.根据中文逐字硬译5. 名词可数与不可数的误用 6.介词to和不定式符号的混淆7 .动宾搭配不当 8. 词组搭配错误 9.综合性语言错误: 有诸如时态,语态,标点符号,大小写等方面的错误 1.句子结构混乱,出现句子不完整或句子成分多余。句子不完整(Sentence Fragments)在口语中,交际双方可借助手势语气上下文等,不完整的句子完全可以被理解.可是书面语就不同了,句子结构不完整会令意思表达不清,这种情况常常发生在主句写完以后,笔者又想加些补充说明时发生. 例1.There are large number of people die from the disasters.

summary 范文

Original: My neighbor's children love playing hide-and-seek as all children do, but no one imagine that a game they played last week would be reported in the local newspaper. One afternoon, they were playing in the vacant lot down the corner. Young Paul, who is only five years old, found the perfect place to hide. His sister, Natalie, had shut her eyes and was counting to ten when Paul noticed the storage mail box at the corner and saw that the metal door was standing open. The mailman had just taken out several sacks of mail and had carried them to his truck which was standing at the curb a few feet away. Paul climbed into the storage box and pulled the door closed so hard that it locked. Soon realizing what he had done, he became frightened and started crying. Meanwhile, Natalie was looking for him everywhere but could not find him. It was lucky that she happened to pause at the corner for a minute and heard her brother's cries. She immediately ran to tell the mailman who hurried back from his truck to unlock the metal door. Paul was now free, but he had had such a bad scare that he could not stop crying. The mailman, however, soon found a way of making him laugh again. He told him that the next time he wanted to hide in a mail box, he should remember to put a stamp on himself! Summary: The children were playing hide-and-seek in a vacant lot one afternoon. Finding that the storage mailbox had been left open, Paul hid and locked himself in it accidentally. His sister, Natalie, heard his cries and realized where he was hiding, so she immediately told the mailman to unlock the metal door. After letting him out, the mailman made him stop crying by telling him to put a stamp on himself the next he wanted to hide in a mailbox. Original: Why do some animals die out? In the past two hundred years people have caused many kinds of animals to die out--to become extinct. People keep building houses and factories in fields and woods. As they spread over the land, they destroy animals' homes. If the animals can't find a place to live, they die out. Sixteen kinds of Hawaiian birds have become extinct for this reason. Other animals, such as the Florida Key deer, may soon die out because they are losing their homes.Hunters have caused some animals to become extinct, too. In the last century, hunters killed all the passenger pigeons in North America and most of the buffalos. Today they are fast killing off hawks and wolves. Pollution is killing many animals today, too. As rivers become polluted, fish are poisoned. Many die. Birds that eat the poisoned fish can't lay strong, healthy eggs. New birds aren’t born. So far, no animals have become extinct because of pollution. But some, such as the bald eagle and the brown pelican, have become rare and may die out. Scientists think that some animals become extinct because of changes in climate. The places where they live become hotter or cooler, drier or wetter. The food that they eat cannot grow there any more. If the animals can't learn to eat something else, they die. Dinosaurs may have died out for this reason. Summary:

一篇英语summary范文英语Summary写

一篇英语summary范文英语Summary写第一步:阅读 A.认真阅读给定的原文材料。如果一遍不能理解,就多读两遍。阅读次数越多,你对原文的理解就越深刻。 B.给摘要起一个标题。用那些能概括文章主题思想的单词、短语或短句子作为标题。也可以采用文中的主题句作为标题。主题句往往出现在文章的开头或结尾。一个好标题有助于确定文章的中心思想。 C.现在,就该决定原文中哪些部分重要,哪些部分次重要了。对重要部分的主要观点进行概括。 D.简要地记下主要观点——主题、标题、细节等你认为对概括摘要重要的东西。 第二步:动手写作 A. 摘要应该只有原文的三分之一或四分之一长。因此首先数一下原文的字数,然后除以三,得到一个数字。摘要的字数可以少于这个数字,但是千万不能超过这个数字。

B. 摘要应全部用自己的话完成。不要引用原文的句子。 C. 应该遵循原文的逻辑顺序。这样你就不必重新组织观点、事实。 D. 摘要必须全面、清晰地表明原文所载的信息,以便你的读者不需翻阅原文就可以完全掌握材料的原意。 E. 写摘要时可以采用下列几种小技巧: 1) 删除细节。只保留主要观点。 2) 选择一至两个例子。原文中可能包括5个或更多的例子,你只需从中筛选一至二个例子。 3) 把长段的描述变成短小、简单的句子。如果材料中描述某人或某事用了十个句子,那么你只要把它们变成一两句即可。 4) 避免重复。在原文中,为了强调某个主题,可能会重复论证说明。但是这在摘要中是不能使用的。应该删除那些突出强调的重述句。

5) 压缩长的句子。如下列两例: “His courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lion-like.” 可以概括为:”He was very brave in battle.” “He was hard up for money and was being pressed by his creditor.”可以概括为:“He was in financial difficulties.” 6) 你还可以使用词组代替整句或者从句。请看下面的例子: “Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, Lushan Mountain, and Mount Huang, were visited by only a few people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on these mountains, and better train and bus services, have brought them within reach of many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago.”

英语写作中常见错误与讲解

英语写作中常见错误与讲解 一.句子结构 1.误:Although I tried my best to speak English in class, but I failed at last. 正:Although I tried my best to speak English in class, I failed at last. 解:从句用了although,主句就不要用but,两者只能用一个;类似错误:In my opinion, I think..., Because…, so….等,只用其中一个。 2.误:There are many people do not have a good score…. 正:There are many people who do not have a good score…. 解:一个句子中只能有一个谓语动词,如果还要用动词表意,则要变换形式为分词或不定式(它们又叫“非谓语动词”),或者变从句。

3.误:It’s about eight years since I first learning English. 正:It has been about eight years since I first began learning English. 解:since自从……时候起,是完成时态的标志,这里“啥时”以过去发生了什么事情来表示。 4.误:…no matter you learn English well or not… 正:…whether you learn English well or not… 解:no matter how/when/which的“不论”非同于whether…or not之“不论”。 5.误:Not only satisfied dramatically was my vanity, but also my result in English was improved significantly. 正:Not only was my vanity satisfied, my English proficiency was also improved significantly. 解:not only, never, seldom, little, scarcely,

英语写作常见错误与分析

英语写作常见错误与分析 英语写作常见错误与分析 下面我们对一些在英语写作中典型的病句实例逐一加以剖析. 一.不一致(Disagreements)所谓不一致不光指主谓不一致,它还包括了数的不一致时态不一致及代词不一致等.例1. When one have money ,he can do what he want to .(人一旦有了钱,他就能想干什么就干什么.)剖析:one是单数第三人称,因而本句的have应改为has ;同理,want应改为wants.本句是典型的主谓不一致.改为:Once one has money ,he can do what he wants (to do) 二.修饰语错位(Misplaced Modifiers)英语与汉语不同,同一个修饰语置于句子不同的位置,句子的含义可能引起变化.对于这一点中国学生往往没有引起足够的重视,因而造成了不必要的误解.例1. I believe I can do it well and I will better know the world outside the cus. 剖析:better位置不当,应置于句末. 三.句子不完整(Sentence Fragments)在口语中,交际双方可借助手势语气上下文等,不完整的句子完全可以被理解.可是书面语就不同了,句子结构不完整会令意思表达不清,这种情况常常发生在主句写完以后,笔者又想加些补充说明时发生.例

1. There are many ways to know the society. For exle by TV ,radio ,newspaper and so on . 剖析:本句后半部分"for exle by TV ,radio ,newspaper and so on .”不是一个完整的句子,仅为一些不连贯的词语,不能独立成句.改为:There are many ways to know society ,for exle ,by TV ,radio ,and newspaper. 四.悬垂修饰语(Dangling Modifiers)所谓悬垂修饰语是指句首的短语与后面句子的逻辑关系混乱不清.例如:At the age of ten, my grandfather died. 这句中"at the age of ten"只点出十岁时,但没有说明” 谁”十岁时.按一般推理不可能是my grandfather, 如果我们把这个悬垂修饰语改明确一点,全句就不那么费解了.改为:When I was ten, my grandfather died.例1. To do well in college, good grades are essential.剖析:句中不定式短语“to do well in college” 的逻辑主语不清楚.改为:To do well in college, a student needs good grades. 五.词性误用(Mi suse of Parts of Speech)“词性误用”常表现为:介词当动词用;形容词当副词用;名词当动词用等.例1. None can negative the importance of money.剖析:negative 系形容词,误作动词。改为:None can deny the importance of money.

英文Summary写作方法、范例及常用句式

摘要是对一篇文章的主题思想的简单陈述。它用最简洁的语言概括了原文的主题。写摘要主要包括三个步骤:(1)阅读;(2)写作;(3)修改成文。 第一步:阅读 A.认真阅读给定的原文材料。如果一遍不能理解,就多读两遍。阅读次数越多,你对原文的理解就越深刻。 B.给摘要起一个标题。用那些能概括文章主题思想的单词、短语或短句子作为标题。也可以采用文中的主题句作为标题。主题句往往出现在文章的开头或结尾。一个好标题有助于确定文章的中心思想。C.现在,就该决定原文中哪些部分重要,哪些部分次重要了。对重要部分的主要观点进行概括。 D.简要地记下主要观点——主题、标题、细节等你认为对概括摘要重要的东西。 第二步:动手写作 A. 摘要应该只有原文的三分之一或四分之一长。因此首先数一下原文的字数,然后除以三,得到一个数字。摘要的字数可以少于这个数字,但是千万不能超过这个数字。 B. 摘要应全部用自己的话完成。不要引用原文的句子。 C. 应该遵循原文的逻辑顺序。这样你就不必重新组织观点、事实。 D. 摘要必须全面、清晰地表明原文所载的信息,以便你的读者不需翻阅原文就可以完全掌握材料的原意。 1 / 19

E. 写摘要时可以采用下列几种小技巧: 1) 删除细节。只保留主要观点。 2) 选择一至两个例子。原文中可能包括5个或更多的例子,你只需从中筛选一至二个例子。 3) 把长段的描述变成短小、简单的句子。如果材料中描述某人或某事用了十个句子,那么你只要把它们变成一两句即可。 4) 避免重复。在原文中,为了强调某个主题,可能会重复论证说明。但是这在摘要中是不能使用的。应该删除那些突出强调的重述句。 5) 压缩长的句子。如下列两例: “His courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lion-like.” 可以概括为:”He was very brave in battle.” “He was hard up for money and was being pressed by his creditor.” 可以概括为:“He was in financial difficulties.” 6) 你还可以使用词组代替整句或者从句。请看下面的例子:“Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, Lushan Mountain, and Mount Huang, were visited by only a few people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on these mountains, and better train and bus services, have brought them within reach of many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago.” 2 / 19

英语写作常见错误及改错

英语写作常见错误与分析 一.不一致(Disagreements) 所谓不一致不光指主谓不一致,它还包括了数的不一致,时态不一致及代词不一致等. 例1.When one have money, he can do what he want to . (人一旦有了钱,他就能想干什么就干什么.) 剖析:one是单数第三人称,因而本句的have应改为has ;同理,want应改为wants.本句是典型的主谓不一致. 改为:Once one has money, he can do what he wants (to do) 另有WE和YOU 上下文混用的问题。 二.修饰语错位(Misplaced Modifiers) 英语与汉语不同,同一个修饰语置于句子不同的位置,句子的含义可能引起变化.对于这一点中国学生往往没有引起足够的重视,因而造成了不必要的误解. 例1.I believe I can do it well and I will better know the world outside the campus. 剖析:better位置不当,应置于句末. 三.句子不完整(Sentence Fragments) 在口语中,交际双方可借助手势语气上下文等,不完整的句子完全可以被理解.可是书面语就不同了,句子结构不完整会令意思表达不清,这种情况常常发生在主句写完以后,笔者又想加些补充说明时发生. 例1.There are many ways to know the society. For example by TV, radio, newspaper and so on . 剖析:本句后半部分"for example by TV ,rad io ,newspaper and so on .”不是一个完整的句子,仅为一些不连贯的词语,不能独立成句. 改为:There are many ways to know society, for example, by TV , radio ,and newspaper. 四.悬垂修饰语(Dangling Modifiers) 所谓悬垂修饰语是指句首的短语与后面句子的逻辑关系混乱不清. 例1:At the age of ten, my grandfather died. 这句中"at the age of ten"只点出十岁时,但没有说明” 谁”十岁时.按一般推理不可能是my grandfather, 如果我们把这个悬垂修饰语改明确一点,全句就不那么费解了. 改为:When I was ten, my grandfather died. 五.措词毛病(Troubles in Diction) Diction 是指在特定的句子中如何适当地选用词语的问题,由于教学时间紧迫,教师平时在这方面花的时间往往极其有限,影响了学生在写作中没有养成良好的推敲,斟酌的习惯。他们往往随心所欲,拿来就用。所以作文中用词不当的错误比比皆是。 例1.The increasing use of chemical obstacles in agriculture also makes pollution. (农业方面化学物质使用的不断增加也造成了污染。)

中考英语作文常见错误分析

xx英语作文多见错误分析 一篇优异的英语作文在内容和语言两方面应是一个统一体,任何一方面的欠缺都会直接影响到作文的质量。然而,很多考生在写作中或者由于粗心大意,或者由于基本功不结壮而经常出现名词不变复数、第三人称单数不加s,前后不一致,以及时态语态、句子统统性等方面的错误。学习方法网不希望看到你的英语作文中有如下的错误哟。 1.审题不清 如2004年中考作文要求写一项最喜欢的课外活动,有些考生将作文的主题定位为“我最喜欢的活动”,偏离了“一项、课外活动”这一主题。依据作文的评分原则,若文章内容不切题,则不管语言如何规范、用词如何确凿,都会被判为零分。 2.拼写错误 拼写是考生应该具备的最起码的基本功,但在考生的作文中却经常能发现很多拼写错误。有拼写错误的作文肯定会被酌情扣分,而且有大量拼写错误存在的作文不仅体现出语言基本功差,同时也直接影响内容的表达,通常会降低作文的档次。 3.名词单复数问题 误myfatherandmymotherisallteacher。 正myfatherandmymotherarebothteachers。 4.缺少动词 在汉语中没有动词的句子是允许的,但英语中每个统统的句子都必须有动词来构成,如:“我累了。”这个句子没有动词作谓语,而用形容词,但英语形容词不能作谓语,一定要写成:i“mtired。 误ihappyicancometobeijingzoo。 正iamhappyicancometobeijingzoo。

误theapplescheap.i“lltakesome。 正theapplesarecheap.i“lltakesome。5.缺少介词、冠词等 还有一些考生因为没有熟练掌握介词或者冠词的用法,不了解中英文语言习惯的例外,也会出现明明的错误,造成丢分现象。 误becauseheavyrainwecan“tholdthesportsmeeting。 正becauseoftheheavyrainwecan“tholdthesportsmeeting。 6.代词的误用 英语中代词的形式很多,包括主格、宾格、物主代词、反身代词等。而汉语中没有主格和宾格、形容词性物主代词和名次性物主代词之分;此外汉语中很多时候不用物主代词,而英语中物主代词是不可省略的,代词的误用是考生最简易发生的错误。 误imotherandiwenttotheshoptobuyapresentforifather。 正mymotherandiwenttotheshoptobuyapresentformyfather。 7.句子不统统 有的考生因为对句子结构认识含混,所以出现只写半句的现象,这也是造成失分的原因之一。 误 manystudentshaveahardtimepassingalltheteststogetintocollege.forexample,myf riendinhighschool。 (这段文章的第二句话没有动词,他不能独立构成一个句子。这是一个非常多见的错误,修改的方法是将两个句子连接起来。) 正 manystudentshaveahardtimepassingalltheteststogetintocollege,forexample,myf riendinhighschool。

英文summary写作范例教学提纲

英文s u m m a r y写作范 例

Article Children Must be Taught to Tell Right from Wrong William Kilpatrick Many of today’s young people have a difficult time seeing any moral dimension (道德层面) to their actions. There are a number of reasons why that’s true, but none m ore prominent than a failed system of education that eschews (回避) teaching children the traditional moral values that bind Americans together as a society and a culture. That failed approach, called “decision-making,” was introduced in schools 25 years ago. It tells children to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. It replaced “character education. (品格教育)” Character education didn’t ask children to reinvent the moral wheel (浪费时间重新发明早已存在的道德标准); instead, it encouraged them to practice habits of courage, justice and self-control. In the 1940s, when a character education approach prevailed, teachers worried about students chewing gum; today they worry about robbery and rape. Decision-making curriculums pose thorny (棘手的) ethical dilemmas to students, leaving them with the impression that all morality is problematic and that all questions of right and wrong are in dispute. Youngsters are forced to question values and virtues they’ve never acquired in the first place or upon which they have only a tenuous (薄弱的) hold. The assumption behind this method is that students will arrive at good moral conclusions if only they are given the chance. But the actual result is moral confusion. For example, a recent national study of 1,700 sixth- to ninth-graders revealed that a majority of boys considered rape to be acceptable under certain conditions. Astoundingly, many of the girls agreed. This kind of moral illiteracy is further encouraged by values-education (价值观教育) programs that are little more than courses in self-esteem (自尊). These programs are based on the questionable assumption that a child who feels good about himself or herself won’t want to do anything wrong. But it is just as reasonable to make an opposite assumption: namely, that a child who has uncritical self-regard will conclude that he or she can’t do anything bad. Such naive self-acceptance results in large part from the non-directive (无指导性的), non-judgmental (无是非观的), as-long-as-you-feel-comfortable-with-your-choices mentality (思想) that has pervaded (渗透) public education for the last two and one-half decades. Many of today’s drug education, sex education and values-education courses are based on the same 1960s philosophy that helped fuel the explosion in teen drug use and sexual activity in the first place. Meanwhile, while educators are still fiddling with (胡乱摆弄) outdated “feel-good” approaches, New York, Washington, and Los Angeles are burning. Youngsters are leaving school believing that matters of right and wrong are always merely subjective. If you pass a stranger on the street and decide to murder him because you need money—if it feels right—you go with that feeling. Clearly, murder is not taught in our schools, but such a conclusion—just about any conclusion—can be reached and justified using the decision-making method. It is time to consign (寄出) the fads (风尚) of “decision-making” and “non-judgmentalism” to the ash heap of failed policies, and return to a proved method. Character education provides a much more realistic approach to moral formation. It is built on an understanding that we learn morality not by debating it but by practicing it.

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