语法、功能与话题
新课标话题要求（24个话题，86个话题点）1．个人情况（Personal information）
(1) 个人情况(Personal data) (2) 家庭信息(Family data)
(3) 学校信息(School data) (4) 兴趣与爱好(Interests and hobbies) (5) 工作与职业(Jobs and careers)
2．家庭、朋友与周围的人(Family, friends and people around)
(6) 家人和亲友(Family and relatives) (7) 朋友(Friends)
(8) 其他人（Other people）
3．周围的环境(Personal environment)
(9) 房屋与住所(Kinds of homes) (10) 居室(Rooms in homes) (11) 家具和家庭用品(Furniture & household items) (12) 社区(Community) 4．日常活动(Daily routines)
(13) 家庭生活(Life at home) (14) 学校生活(School life)
(15) 周末活动(Weekend activities)
5．学校(School)
(16) 学校设施(School facilities) (17) 学校人员(People at school) (18) 学习科目(School subjects) (19) 学校活动(School activities) 6．个人兴趣（Personal interests）
(20) 游戏与休闲(Games and leisure) (21) 爱好(Hobbies)
(22) 娱乐活动(Entertainments) (23) 旅游(Tourism)
7．情感与情绪（Feelings and emotions）
(24) 描述情感（Describing feelings）(25) 表达情感（Expressing emotions）8．人际交往(Interpersonal communications)
(26) 社会行为(Social behaviors)
(27) 合作与交流（Cooperation and communication）
9．计划与安排（Plans and arrangements）
(28) 计划(Planning) (29) 安排(Arranging)
10．节假日活动（Festivals, holidays and celebrations）
(30) 节日与假日(Festivals and holidays)(31) 个人庆典(Personal celebrations) 11．购物(Shopping)
(32) 计划（Planning）(33) 商品（Products）(34) 选择（Selecting）(35) 付款（Paying）(36) 个人喜好（Personal preference）
12．饮食(Food and drink )
(37) 食物（Food）(38) 饮料（Drinks）
(39) 饮食习俗（Eating customs）(40) 点餐(Ordering food and drink)
13．卫生与健康（Hygiene and health）
(41) 身体部位（Parts of body）(42) 体育健身(Physical fitness and exercise) (43) 个人卫生（Personal hygiene）(44) 疾病（Illnesses）
(45) 健康饮食(Health diet) (46) 医疗(Medical care)
14．安全与救护(Safety and first aid)
(47) 安全守则(Safety rules) (48) 意外(Accidents)
(49) 急救(First aid) (50) 自我保护(Self protection)
15. 天气(Weather)
(51) 描述天气情况(Describing weather) (52) 天气预报(Weather report) (53) 衣着与天气(Dressing for the weather)
16．文娱与体育(Recreation and sports)
(54) 电影与戏剧(Movies and theatre) (55) 音乐与舞蹈(Music and dance) (56) 体育与赛事(Sports and matches)
17．旅游与交通(Travel and transport)
(57) 旅行(Travel) (58) 交通运输方式(Modes of transportation) (59) 问路(Asking the way) (60) 交通标志(Road signs)
(61) 使用地图(Reading maps)
18．通讯(Communications)
(62) 写信(Writing letters) (63) 打电话(Making phone calls)
(64) 使用互联网(Using the Internet)
19. 语言学习( Language learning)
(65) 语言学习经历(Language learning experiences)
(66) 语言与文化(Language and culture)
(67) 语言学习的策略(Language learning strategies)
(68) 体态语(Body language)
20．自然（Nature）
(69) 动物和植物（Animals and plants）
(70) 山川与河流(Mountains and rivers)
(71) 季节(Seasons) (72) 宇宙（Universe）(73) 人与自然(Man and naure) 21．世界与环境（The world and the environment）
(74) 国家与民族(Countries and nationalities)
(75) 环境保护(Environmental protection) (76) 人口(Population)
22．科普知识与现代技术(Popular science and modern technology)
(77) 数字与数据(Numbers and data) (78) 科普知识(Popular science)
(79) 发明与技术(Inventions and technological advances)
(80) 信息技术(Information technology)
23．历史与社会（History and society）
(81) 中国历史与世界历史(History of China and the world)
(82) 著名人物(Famous people)
24．故事与诗歌(Stories and poems)
(83) 故事(Stories)
(84) 诗歌(Poems)
(85) 短剧(Short plays)
(86) 作家(Writers)
语法项目表
1．名词
（1）可数名词及其单复数（2）不可数名词
（3）专有名词（4）名词所有格
2．代词
（1）人称代词（2）物主代词（3）反身代词（4）指示代词
（5）不定代词(some, any, no) （6）疑问代词
3．数词
（1）基数词（2）序数词
4．介词和介词短语5．连词6．形容词（比较级和最高级）7．副词（比较级和最高级）8．冠词
9．动词
（1）动词的基本形式（2）系动词（3）及物动词和不及物动词
（4）助动词（5）情态动词
（6）时态
①现在进行时
②一般现在时
③一般过去时
④一般将来时
⑤过去进行时
⑥现在完成时
（7）被动语态（一般现在时，一般过去时，一般将来时）
（8）非谓语动词（动词不定式做宾语、宾语补足语、目的状语）
（9）动词短语
10. 构词法（前缀、后缀，转化、合成）
11．句子种类
（1）陈述句（肯定式和否定式）
（2）疑问句（一般疑问句、特殊疑问句、选择疑问句）
（3）祈使句（4）感叹句
12．简单句的基本句型
（1）主语+系动词+表语（2）主语+不及物动词
（3）主语+及物动词+宾语（4）主语+及物动词+间接宾语+直接宾语
（5）主语+及物动词+宾语+宾语补足语（6）there be句型
13．并列复合句
14．主从复合句
（1）宾语从句（2）状语从句
（3）定语从句（能辨认出带有由that, which, who引导的限定性定语从句，并能理解句子意思。）
功能意念项目
1．社会交往 (Social Communications)
（1）问候 (Greetings) （2）介绍 (Introduction)（3）告别 (Farewells) （4）感谢 (Thanks) （5）道歉 (Apologies) （6）邀请 (Invitation) （7）请求允许 (Asking for permission)
（8）祝愿和祝贺 (Expressing wishes and congratulations)
（9）请求与提供帮助 (Asking for and offering help)
（10）约会 (Making appointments)
（11）打电话 (Making telephone calls)
（12）就餐 (Having meals)
（13）就医 (Seeing the doctor)
（14）购物 (Shopping)
（15）问路 (Asking the way)
（16）谈论天气 (Talking about weather)
（17）语言交际困难 (Language difficulties in communication)
（18）提醒注意 (Reminding)
（19）警告和禁止（Warning and prohibition）
（20）劝告 (Advice)
（21）建议 (Suggestions)
（22）接受与拒绝（Acceptance and Refusal）
2．态度 (Attitudes)
（23）同意和不同意 (Agreement and disagreement)
（24）喜欢和不喜欢 (Likes and dislikes)
（25）肯定和不肯定 (Certainty and uncertainty)
（26）可能和不可能 (Possibility and impossibility)
（27）能够和不能够 (Ability and inability)
（28）偏爱和优先选择 (Preference)
（29）意愿和打算 (Intention and plan)
（30）希望和愿望 (Hope and wish)
（31）表扬和鼓励 (Praise and encouragement)
（32）判断与评价（Judgement and evaluation）
3．情感 (Emotions)
（33）高兴 (Happiness) （34）惊奇 (Surprise)（35）关切（Concern）（36）安慰 (Reassurance)（37）满意 (Satisfaction)
（38）遗憾 (Regret)
4．时间 (Time)
（39）时刻 (Point of time)（40）时段 (Duration)
（41）频度 (Frequency)（42）顺序 (Sequence)
5．空间 (Space)
（43）位置 (Position)（44）方向 (Direction)（45）距离 (Distance)
6．存在 (Existence)
（46）存在与不存在 (Existence and Non-existence)
7．特征 (Features)
（47）形状 (Shape)（48）颜色 (Colour)（49）材料 (Material)
（50）价格 (Price)（51）规格 (Size) （52）年龄 (Age)
8．计量 (Measurement)
（53）长度 (Length)（54）宽度 (Width)
（55）高度 (Height)（56）数量 (Quantity)（57）重量（Weight）
9．比较 (Comparison)
（58）同级比较 (Equal comparison)
（59）差别比较 (Comparative and superlative)
（60）相似和差别 (Similarity and difference)
10．逻辑关系 (Logical relations)
（61）原因和结果 (Cause and effect )（62）目的 (Purpose)
11．职业(Occupation)
（63）工作 (Job)
（64）单位 (Employer)
附录 2 词汇表
说明：
1．本词汇表列出1500词，要求学习和掌握基本词义和用法。
2．为体现在具体语境中学习和使用单词的理念，本词汇表不标注单词的词性和中文释义。
3．本词汇表不列词组和短语。
4．动词人称与时态变化、名词复数特殊变化、美式英语等，采用括号形式标注，如be (am, is, are)，child (pl. children)，colour (AmE color)。
5．本词汇表不列语法术语。
6．可根据构词法推导出的名词、形容词、副词等不单列。
A
a/an ability able about above abroad
absent
accept
according to
achieve
across
act
action
active
activity
actor
actress
add
address advantage advice advise afford afraid Africa African after afternoon again against age
ago agree agreement air airport alive
all
allow almost alone along aloud already also although always America American among ancient and angry animal another answer ant
any anybody anyone anything anyway anywhere appear apple April area
arm army around arrive art
article
artist
as
Asia
Asian
ask
asleep
at
attend
attention
August
aunt
Australia
Australian
autumn
avoid
awake
away
awful
B
baby
back
background
bad
bag
ball
balloon
bamboo
banana
bank
baseball
basic
basket
basketball
bathroom
be (am, is, are, was, were,
been)
beach
bean
beat
beautiful
because
become
bed
bedroom
beef
before
begin
behind
believe
bell
below
beside
best
better
between
big
bike(=bicycle)
bill
bird
birth
birthday
biscuit
bit
black
blackboard
blind
block
blood
blouse
blow
board
boat
body
book
bored
boring
born
borrow
boss
both
bottle
bottom
bowl
box
boy
brain
brave
bread
break
breakfast
bridge
bright
bring
Britain
brother
brown
brush
build
building
burn
bus
business
busy
but
buy
by
C
cake
calendar
call
camera
camp
can (can’t, cannot) Canada
Canadian
cancel
candle
candy
cap
capital
car
card
care
careful
careless
carrot
carry
cartoon
cat
catch
cause
celebrate
cent
central
centre (AmE center) century
certain
certainly
chair
chalk
chance
change cheap
check
cheer
chemistry
chess
chicken
child (pl. children)
China
Chinese
chocolate
choice
choose
chopsticks
Christmas
cinema
circle
city
class
classmate
classroom
clean
clear
clever
climb
clock
close
clothes
cloud
cloudy
club
coach
coal
coast
coat
coffee
coin
cold
collect
college
colour (AmE color)
come
comfortable
common
communicate
communication
community
compare
competition
complete
computer
concert
condition
connect
consider
continue
control
conversation
cook
cookie
cool
copy
corn
corner
correct
cost
cough
could
count
country
countryside
couple
courage
course
cousin
cover
cow
crayon
crazy
create
cross
cry
culture
cup
customer
cut
cute
D
daily
dance
danger
dangerous
dark
date
daughter
day
deaf
deal
dear
December
decide
decision
deep
degree
delicious
depend
describe
desk
develop development dialogue (AmE dialog) diary
dictionary
die
difference
different
difficult
difficulty
dig
dining
dinner
direct
direction
director
dirty
discover
discovery
discuss
discussion
dish
divide
do
doctor
dog
dollar
door
double
doubt
down
draw
dream
dress
drink
drive driver
drop
dry
duck
dumpling
during
E
each
ear
early
earth
earthquake
east
eastern
easy
eat
education
egg
eight
eighteen
eighth
eighty
either
elder
electronic
elephant
eleven
else
empty
encourage
end
enemy
engineer
England
English
enjoy
enough
enter
environment
eraser
especially
Europe
European
even
evening
ever
every
everybody
everyone
everything
everywhere
exactly
exam(=examination)
example
excellent
except
excited
exciting
excuse
exercise
expect
expensive
experience
explain
express
eye
F
face
fact
factory
fail
fair
fall
family
famous
fan
fantastic
far
farm
farmer
fast
fat
father (dad)
favourite ( AmE favorite)
fear
February
feed
feel
feeling
festival
fever
few
field
fifteen
fifth
fifty
fight
fill
film
finally
find
fine
finger
finish
fire
first
fish
fisherman
fit
five
fix
flag
floor
flower
fly
follow
food
foot (pl. feet) football
for
force
foreign
forest
forget
fork
form
forty
four
fourteen
fourth
France
free
French
fresh
Friday
fridge (=refrigerator) friend
friendly friendship
from
front
fruit
full
fun
funny
future
G game
garden
gate
general
gentleman
geography
German
Germany
get
gift
giraffe
girl
give
glad
glass
glove
glue
go
gold
good
goodbye (bye)
government
grade
grammar
granddaughter
grandfather (grandpa)
grandmother (grandma)
grandparent
grandson
grape
grass
great
green
grey
ground
group
grow
guard
guess
guest
guide
guitar
gun
H
habit
hair
half
hall
hamburger
hand
handbag
handsome
hang
happen
happy
hard
hardly
harmful
hat
hate
have (has)
he
head
headache
health
healthy
hear
heart
heat
heavy
height
hello
help
helpful
hen
her
here
hero
hers
herself
hi
hide
high
hill
him
himself
his
history
hit
hobby
hold
hole
holiday
home
hometown
homework
honest
hope horse hospital
hot
hotel
hour house housework how however huge human humorous hundred hungry hurry
hurt husband
I
I
ice
ice-cream idea
if
ill
illness imagine important impossible in
include increase India Indian industry influence information inside instead instruction instrument interest interesting international Internet interview into introduce introduction
invent
invention
invite
island
it
its
itself
J
jacket
January
Japan
Japanese
job
join
joke
journey
juice
July
jump
June
just
K
keep
key
keyboard
kick
kid
kill
kilo( =kilogram )
kilometre (AmE kilometer)
kind
king
kiss
kitchen
kite
knee
knife (pl. knives)
knock
know
knowledge
L
lab (=laboratory)
lady
lake
land
language
large
last
late
later
laugh
law
lay
lazy
lead
leader
leaf (pl. leaves)
learn
least
leave
left
leg
lemon
lend
less
lesson
let
letter
level
library
lie
life
lift
light
like
line
lion
list
listen
litter
little
live
lively
local
lock
London
lonely
long
look
lose
lot
loud
love
lovely
low
luck
lucky
lunch
M
machine
mad
magazine
magic
main
make
man (pl. men) manage
manager
many
map
March
mark
market
marry
match
maths (=mathematics) matter
may
May
maybe
me
meal
mean
meaning
meat
medical
medicine
meet
meeting
member
mention
menu
mess
message
method
metre (AmE meter) middle
might
mile
milk
mind
mine
minute
Miss miss
missing
mistake
mix
mobile phone
model
modern
Monday
money
monkey
month
moon
more
morning
most
mother (mum)
mountain
mouse (pl. mice)
mouth
move
movie
Mr
Mrs
Ms
much
museum
music
musician
must
my
myself
N
name
national
natural
nature
near
nearly
necessary
neck
need
neighbour (AmE neighbor)
neither
nervous
never
new
news
newspaper
next
nice
night
nine
nineteen
ninety
ninth
no
nobody
nod
noise
noisy
none
noodle
noon
nor
north
northern
nose
not
note
notebook
nothing
notice
November
now
number
nurse
O
object
o’clock
October
of
off
offer
office
officer
often
oil
OK
old
Olympics
on
once
one
online
only
open
opposite
or
orange
order
other
our
ours
ourselves
out
outside
over
own
P
Pacific
page
pain
paint
pair
palace
pale
pancake
panda
paper
pardon
parent
park
part
party
pass
passage
passenger
passport
past
patient
pay
PE(=physical education) peace
pear
pen
pencil
people
perfect
perhaps
period
person
personal
pet
phone
photo (=photograph ) physics
pick
picnic
picture pie
piece
pig
pilot
pink
pioneer
pity
place
plan
plane
planet
plant
play
player
playground
please
pleasure
plenty
poem
point
police
policeman /policewoman
polite
pollute
pollution
pool
poor
popular (pop )
population
possible
post
postcard
postman
potato
pound
practice
praise
prepare
present
president
pretty
price
pride
primary
private
prize
probably
problem
produce
product
programme (AmE program)
progress
project
promise
pronounce
pronunciation
proper
protect
proud
provide
public
pull
punish
pupil
purple
purpose
push
put
Q
quarter
queen
question
quick
quiet
quite
R
rabbit
race
radio
railway
rain
rainy
raise
rapid
reach
read
ready
real
realise (AmE realize)
really
reason
receive
recently
red refuse regret relationship relative relax remain remember repair repeat reply report require research rest restaurant result return review rice
rich
ride
right
ring
rise
risk
river
road
robot
rock
role
room
rope
rose round
row rubbish rule
ruler
run
rush Russia Russian
S
sad
safe safety salad sale
salt
same
sand
sandwich
satisfy
Saturday
save
say
scarf
school
schoolbag
science
scientist
scissors
score
screen
sea
search
season
seat
second
secret
secretary
see
seem
seldom
sell
send
sense
sentence
separate
September
serious
serve
service
set
seven
seventeen
seventh
seventy
several
shake
shall
shame
shape
share
she
sheep (pl. sheep)
shine
ship
shirt
shoe
shop
short
short s
should
shoulder
shout
show
shower
shut
shy
sick
side
sign
silence
silent
silk
silly
silver
similar
simple
since
sing
single
sir
sister
sit
situation
six
sixteen
sixth
sixty
size
skate
skill
skirt
sky
sleep
sleepy
slow
small
smart
smell
smile
smoke
smooth
snake
snow
snowy
so
social society sock
sofa
soft
solve
some somebody someone something sometimes somewhere son
song
soon
sorry sound
soup
south southern space spare speak speaker special speech speed
spell spend
spirit spoon
sport spread spring square stamp stand standard star
start
state station
stay
steal
step
stick
still stomach stomachache stone
stop
store
storm
story
straight
strange
stranger
strawberry
street
strict
strong
student
study
stupid
succeed
success
successful
such
sudden
sugar
suggest
suggestion
summer
sun
Sunday
sunny
supermarket
support
suppose
sure
surface
surprise
survey
sweater
sweet
swim
swimming
T
table
tail
take
talk
tall
tape
task
taste
taxi
tea
teach
teacher
team
technology
telephone
television (=TV )
tell
temperature
ten
tennis
tenth
term
terrible
test
text
than
thank
that
the
theatre (AmE theatre)
their
them
themselves
then
there
these
they
thick
thin
thing
think
third
thirsty
thirteen
thirty
this
those
though
thought
thousand
three
through
throw
Thursday
ticket
tidy
tie
tiger
time
tiny
tired
to
today together
toilet
tomato tomorrow
ton
tonight
too
tool
tooth (pl. teeth) toothache
top
total
touch
tour
tourist toward(s) tower
town
toy
trade traditional traffic
train
training translate travel treasure
treat
tree
trip
trouble trousers
truck
true
trust
truth
try
T-shirt Tuesday
turn
twelfth twelve twentieth twenty
twice
two U
ugly
UK
umbrella
uncle
under
underground
understand
unit
university
unless
until (till)
up
upon
us
US
use
used
useful
usual
usually
V
vacation
valuable
value
vegetable
very
victory
video
village
violin
visit
visitor
voice
volleyball
W
wait
wake
walk
wall
wallet
want
war
warm
warn
wash
waste
watch
water
watermelon
way
we
weak
wealth
wear
weather
website
Wednesday
week
weekday
weekend
weigh
weight
welcome
well
west
western
wet
what
whatever
wheel
when
whenever
where
whether
which
while
white
who
whole
whom
whose
why
wide
wife
wild
will
win
wind
window
windy
wing
winner
winter
wise
wish
with
without
woman (pl. women)
wonder
wonderful
wood
word
work
worker
world
worry
worse
worst
worth
would
wound
write
writer
wrong
X
X-ray
Y
yard
year
yellow
yes
yesterday
yet
you
young
your
yours
yourself (pl. yourselves) Z
zero
zoo
乔姆斯基与转换生成理论
乔姆斯基与转换生成理论 20世纪50年代后半叶，美国语言学界出现了一种全新的理论——转换生成语法，它猛烈地冲击了当时在美国占主导地位的结构主义描写语言学。该理论的创始人就是A·N·乔姆斯基（Avram Noam Chomsky）。乔姆斯基的转换生成语法所研究的不是语言现象，也不是人们的语言运用，而是人们的语言能力，这种做法是对当时美国占统治地位的布龙菲尔德的结构主义语言学理论的否定。转换生成语法的创立，被认为是语言学中的一场革命，乔姆斯基的语言理论，很快成为现代语言学最有影响、最有活力的理论。 1.乔姆斯基的简介 诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)基出生在宾夕法尼亚州的费城。他的父亲威廉·乔姆斯基（William Chomsky）是希伯来学者，来自一个后来被纳粹灭绝了的乌克兰小镇。她的母亲艾尔西·乔姆斯基·西蒙诺夫斯基（Elsie Chomsky Simonofsky）是白俄罗斯人，但跟她的丈夫不同的是，她生长在美国，说“普通的纽约英语”。他们两人的第一语言都是意第绪语，虽然乔姆斯基本人说父母在家禁止讲这种语言。他说，他们住在分裂为“意第绪区”和“希伯来区”的犹太人聚居地，他的家庭认同后者，并用“纯粹的希伯来文化和文学”教导他。 乔姆斯基记得他的第一篇文章写于10岁那年，文章是论在巴塞罗那陷落之后，纳粹主义蔓延的威胁。从12或13岁开始，乔姆斯基更加彻底地认同无政府主义。 毕业于费城中央高中，1945年起在宾夕法尼亚大学师从哲学家C·维斯特·切奇曼（C. West Churchman）、尼尔森·古德曼（Nelson Goodman）和语言学家泽里格·哈里斯（Zellig Harris）学习哲学和语言学。哈里斯对他讲授了自己在语言结构线性算子方面的发现。乔姆斯基后来把这些解释为对来自标记系统的上下文无关文法产物的操作。哈里斯的政治观点对乔姆斯基政治立场的形成产生了重要影响。 1949年，与语言学家卡罗尔·沙茨结婚（Carol Schatz）。婚后育有两女：阿维瓦（Aviva，1957年）和戴安（Diane，1960年）。还有一子哈里（Harry，1967年）。
高考英语语法填空：历年语法填空真题20套
最新高考英语考前冲刺语法填空短文改错精准训练历年语法填空真题20套Passage 1(2019课标全国I) The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and some big land masses as far south as Newfoundland. While they are rare north of 88°,there is evidence 1 they range all the way across the Arctic, and as far south as James Bay in Canada. It is difficult to figure out a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been 2 (poor) studied; however, biologists calculate that there are about 20,000-25,000 polar bears worldwide. Modem methods 3 tracking polar bear populations have been employed only since the mid-1980s,and are expensive 4 (perform) consistently over a large area. In recent years some Inuit people in Nunayut 5 (report) increases in bear sightings around human settlements, leading to a 6 (believe) that populations are increasing. Scientists have responded by 7 (note) that hungry bears may be congregating(聚集) around human settlements, leading to the illusion(错觉) that populations are 8 (high) than they actually are. Of 9 nineteen recognized polar bear subpopulations, three are declining, six 10 (be) stable, one is increasing, and nine lack enough data. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ? 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ? 答案： 1 that 2 poorly 3 of/for 4 to perform 5 have reported
韩礼德与系统功能语法
韩礼德与系统功能语法 韩礼德（M. A. K. Halliday,1925--），英国语言学家。1925年出生于英格兰约克郡里兹，青年时期在英国伦敦大学主修中国语言文学，获得学士学位。1947年至1949年到中国北京大学深造，导师为罗常培先生；1949年至1950为攻读现代汉语转入岭南大学，跟随王力先生学习。回国后，跟随剑桥大学弗思（Firth）教授继续攻读博士学位；1955年完成了对用我国14世纪北方官话译述的《元朝秘史》一文的语言学分析，获得剑桥大学哲学博士学位。毕业后，韩礼德先后在剑桥大学、爱丁堡大学、伦敦大学、美国印第安纳大学、耶鲁大学、布朗大学和肯尼亚内罗毕大学任教。1963年韩礼德担任伦敦大学语言学教授，主持多项对英语研究和教学工作，1973年到1974年担任美国斯坦福大学行为科学高级研究员，1974年到1975年任英国埃克塞斯大学教授，1976年移居澳大利亚筹建悉尼大学语言学系并担任系主任，1987年12月退休。 韩礼德是伦敦学派的主要成员，又是"新弗思派"的领袖。他的学术思想，受弗思和马林诺夫斯基影响很深，在60年代后期，他接受了布拉格学派的"功能句子观"和美国S.拉姆的"语言层次和体系"的理论，进一步发展了他的学说。韩礼德的代表性著作有《语言功能探索》（1973）、《语言的系统和功能》（1976）、《作为社会符号的语言》（1978）和《功能语法导论》（1985/1994/2004）。韩礼德坚持从系统和功能的角度研究语言，批评乔姆斯基的纯形式理论。世界各地围绕着韩礼德已形成了一支系统功能语法学家的队伍，他的理论对我国语法研究的影响也已日渐加深。 从韩礼德对语言学和语言的一些基本观点，我们可以进一步探索贯穿于他的系统功能语法的理论核心，最主要有六点： 1、纯理论功能的( metafunctional )思想 韩礼德认为语言的性质决定人们对语言的要求，即语言所必须完成的功能。尽管这种功能千变万化，我们可以把它们归纳为若干个有限的抽象的功能，这就是“纯理功能”或“元功能”，这是种种语言用途所固有的。纯理论功能包括三方面： （1）语言是对存在于主客观世界的过程和事物的反映，这是“经验”（experiential）功能，或者说关于所说的“内容”的功能。在语言中还有“逻辑”（logical）功能，即以表现为并列关系和从属关系的线性的循环结构的形式出现，由于两者都是建立于说话人对外部世界和内心世界的经验，与其功能相比较是中性的，因而可统称为“概念”(ideational) 功能。 （2）语言是社会人的有意义的活动，是做事的手段，是动作，因此它的功能之一必须是反映人与人间的关系。这个纯理功能称为“人际”(interpersonal) 功能。 （3）实际使用中的语言基本单位不是词或句，而是表达相对的来说是完整思想的“语篇”（text），上述两种功能部分最后要由说话人把它们组织成语篇才能实现。这就是语篇（textual）功能。语篇功能使语言和语境发生联系，是说话人只产生与语境相一致的语篇。 上述三种功能用通俗的话可转述为“观察者”的功能（指说话人对主客观世界的观察）“闯入者”的功能（只向他们灌输自己的思想）和“相关”功能（指语篇的完整性、一致性、衔接性）。韩礼德认为心理语言学可能会强调概念功能，社会语言学会强调人际功能，但他本人坚持这三个纯理功能是三位一体的，不存在主次问题。
历年高考语法填空真题大全
历年高考语法填空真题 1. (2017全国Ⅰ)阅读下面短文,在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。 There has been a recent trend in the food service industry toward lower fat content and less salt. This trend, which was started by the medical community(医学界)61 a method of fighting heart disease, has had some unintended side 62 (effect) such as overweight and heart disease—the very thing the medical community was trying to fight. Fat and salt are very important parts of a diet. They are required 63 (process) the food that we eat, to recover from injury and for several other bodily functions. When fat and salt 64 (remove) from food, the food tastes as if is missing something. As 65 result, people will eat more food to try to make up for that something missing. Even 66 (bad), the amount of fast food that people eat goes up. Fast food 67 (be) full of fat and salt; by 68 (eat) more fast food people will get more salt and fat than they need in their diet. Having enough fat and salt in your meals will reduce the urge to snack(吃点心) between meals and will improve the taste of your food. However, be 69 (care) not to go to extremes. Like anything, it is possible to have too much of both, 70 is not good for the health. 2. (2017全国Ⅱ)阅读下面短文,在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。 In 1863 the first underground passenger railway in the world opened in London. It ran for just under seven kilometers and allowed people to avoid terrible __61__(crowd) on the roads above as they travelled to and __________62__ work. It took three years to complete and was built using an interesting method. This included digging up the road, ____63___(lay) the track and then building a strong roof over___64___ top. When all those had been done, the road surface was replaced. Steam engines ___65__(use) to pull the carriages and it must have been___66__(fair)unpleasant for the passengers, with all the smoke and noise. However, the railway quickly proved to be a great success and within six months, more than 25,000 people were using___67__ every day. Later, engineers ____68___(manage) to construct railways in a system of deep tunnels (隧道), which became known to the tube. This development was only possible with the ___69___ (introduce) of electric-powered engines and lifts. The central London Railway was one of the most ___70___(success) of these new lines, and was opened in 1900. It had white-painted tunnels and bright red carriages, and proved extremely popular with the public. 3. (2017全国Ⅲ)阅读下面短文,在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。 She looks like any other schoolgirl, fresh-faced and full of life. Sarah Thomas is looking forward to challenge of her new A-level course .But unlike school friends ,16-year-old Sarah is not spending half-term 61 ________ (rest). Instead, she is earning $6500 a day as 62 __________ model in New Y ork. Sarah 63 __________ (tell) that she could be Britain?s new supermodel earning a million dollars in the new year. Her father Peter 44,wants her to give up school to model fulltime But Sarah, 64 _______ has taken part in shows along with top models wants 65_________ (prove) that she has brains as well as beauty. She is determined to carry on with her 66_________ (educate). She has turned down several 67_______ (invitation) to star at shows in order to concentrate on her studies After school she plans to take a year off to model full time before going to university to get a degree 68___________ engineering or architecture. Sarah says, "My dad thinks I should take the offer now. But at the moment, school 69 ___________ (come) first. I don't want to get too absorbed in modeling. It is 70 _________ (certain) fun but the lifestyle is a little unreal. I don't want to have nothing else to fall back on when I can't model my more." 4. (2016全国Ⅰ)阅读下面材料,在空白处填入适当的内容(1个单词)或括号内单词的正确形式。
转换生成语法
Avram Noam CHOMSKKY’THEORY ——转换生成语法 转换生成语法 一、代表人物 二、含义 三、语言结构的转换规则 四、语法研究的主要内容 五、意义与局限 Noam CHOMSKKY’THEORY ——诺姆.乔姆斯基 ?诺姆.乔姆斯基是当代最著名的语言学家，也是美国著名的政治评论家，曾被哲学界誉为历史上影响最为重大的5位思想家之一。如今是美国科学院院士，美国文理科学院院士，美国政治科学院院士，英国皇家科学院通讯院士。 ?主要著作《句法结构》，之后一场声势浩大的…乔姆斯基?革命开始席卷整个美国语言学界 转换 1.“转换”本来是控制论的术语，指事物从一种状态转化为另一种状态。生成语法学早期借用这个术语，指的是在句子的生成过程中所采用的各种具体的操作手段及相应规则的总称。 2.乔姆斯基的“转换”与Harris的“转换”是有一定的联系的。我们平时所讲是“变换”来自Harris，指的是一种表层的转换，关注的是句子与句子或结构与结构之间的“平行”关系。 3.乔姆斯基的“转换”不单是一种平行的变换，更为重要的是一种深层形式到表层形式的生成过程。是把现代音位学的“位”观念引申到语句结构中的必然结果。 4.“转换”体现的是生成语法学“规则系统”阶段的特点，带有个别语法的性质。 生成 一、创造性 这时就语言本身的客观属性来说的。任何一种具体语言都有很高程度上的递归特点，即“有限手段的无限运用”。具体说，外在化的语言是个无限的句子集合，但内在性语言却表现为一套数量有限的规则，语言的创造性就表现为以有限的规则生成无限数量的合格的句子。 二、明确性 这是就语法理论而言的。指的是，一种有效的语法理论必须清晰的理论陈述明确地“预言”某种具体预言中所有“合法”的句子，同时保证不会产生“不合法”的句子。而“明确的陈述必须最终成为一种形式化的理论”。 语言结构的转换规则 ?乔姆斯基语言学的特点是更加注重语言的结构转换规则研究。他认为，短语规则是形成句子的一套规则，这一规则先有一套短语结构改写规则。即句子可以改写为名词短语＋动词短语。 ?S 如:the tall man kicked the ball ?NP1 VP
历年高考语法填空真题汇总
历年高考语法填空真题汇总 (2020全国卷I)阅谈下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。 China has become the first country to land a spacecraft on the far side of the moon. The unmanned Chang'e-4 probe (探测器）－the name was inspired by an ancient Chinese moon goddess- 61 (touch) down last week in the South Pole-Aitken basin. Landing on the moon's far side is 62 (extreme) challenging. Because the moon's body blocks direct radio communication with a probe, China first had to put a satellite in orbit above the moon in a spot 63 it could send signals to the spacecraft and to Earth. The far side of the moon is of particular 64 (interesting) to scientists because it has a lot of deep craters (环形山）, more so 65 the familiar near side. Chinese researchers hope to use the instruments onboard Chang'e-4 66 (find) and study areas of the South Pole-Aitken basin. "This really excites scientists, "Carle Pieters, a scientist at Brown University,says, "because it 67 (mean)we have the chance to obtain information about how the moon 68 (construct) . ”Data about the moon's composition,such as how 69 ice and other treasures it contains,could help China decide whether 70 (it) plans for a future lunar (月球的）base are practical. (2020全国卷2)阅谈下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。 Decorating with Plants, Fruits and Flowers for Chinese New Year Chinese New Year is a 61 (celebrate) marking the end of the winter season and the beginning of spring. This is why decorating with plants, fruits and flowers 62 (carry) special significance. They represent the earth 63 (come) back to life and best wishes for new beginnings. These are some of the most popular in many parts of the country: Oranges: Orange trees are more 64 decoration; they are a symbol of good fortune and wealth. They make great gifts and you see them many times 65 (decorate) with red envelopes and messages of good fortune. Bamboo: Chinese love their “Lucky Bamboo”plants and you will see them often in their homes and office. 66 (certain) during the holiday period, this plant is a must. Bamboo plants are associated 67 health, abundance and a happy home. They are easy 68 (care) for and make great presents. Branches of Plum Blossoms (梅花): The 69 (beauty) long branches covered with pink-colored buds (蓓蕾) make fantastic decorations. The plum trees are 70 first to flower even as the snow is melting(融化). They represent the promise of spring and a renewal of life. (2020全国卷3)阅谈下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。 In ancient China lived an artist 61.________ paintings were almost lifelike. The artist's reputation had made him proud. One day the emperor wanted to get his portrait (画像) done so he called all great artists to come and present their 62.________ (fine) work, so that he could choose the best. The artist was sure he would. 63.___________ (choose), but when he presented his masterpiece to the emperor's chief minister, the old man laughed. The wise old man told him to travel to the Li River - perhaps he could learn a little from the greatest artist in the world. Filled with 64.________ (curious), the artist packed his bags and left. 65._______ he asked the villagers on the banks of the river where he could find the legendary (传奇的) artist, they smiled and 66._________ (point) down the river. The next morning he hired a boat and set out 67.________ (find) the well-known painter. As the small boat moved 68.________ (gentle) along the river he was left speechless by the mountains being silently reflected in the water. He passed milky white waterfalls and
语言学流派 系统 功能学派
语言学流派系统功能学派 语言学流派系统功能学派 语言学,流派,功能学派,系统 系统功能学派的兴起，与整个语言学的功能主义思潮有关。功能主义(functionalism)指的是当代语言学界与形式主义相对峙的一种学术思潮。它旨在通过语言在社会交际中应实现的功能来描写和解释各种语言的音系的、语法的和语义的语言学特征。在这个学术思潮中，有几个主要的学派影响比较大，它们是布拉格学派伦敦学派。 布拉格学派一直是语言学界公认的一个功能主义学派，它所说的功能主要包括语言在交际行为中的功能、语言在社会中的作用、语言在文学中的功能以及从功能观点看语言在不同层次方面的问题。伦敦学派的兴起稍为晚一点，由英国语言学家弗思教授开创，后来由他的学生韩礼德(M.A.K.Halliday)教授继承和发展，形成现在人们称之为系统功能语言学的学派。韩礼德从20世纪70年代以来陆续发表了很多著述，建立起系统功能语法的理论体系，成为语言学中一个独树一帜的的学派。 系统功能语法学派的语言学家门每年举行一次系统理论讨论会。第一届至第八届在英国召开。随着影响的扩展和队伍的扩大，1982年第九届年会在加拿大召开，这标志着该学派的理论已具有国际影响。1985年美国密执安大学举办第十二届年会，由于到美国是布龙菲尔德结构主义和乔姆斯基转换生成语法学派的堡垒，所以在美国举行这样的大会具有深远意义。到今天，功能主义已经与形式主义成为语言学研究中的两大思潮。 系统功能语法包括"系统语法"和"功能语法"两个部分，但这不是两种语法的简单总和，而是一种完整的语言理论框架的两个不可分割的方面。
系统语法或系统语法学着重说明语言作为系统的内部底层关系，它是与意义相关联的可供人们不断选择的若干个子系统组成的系统网络，又称"意义潜势"。语言作为符号的一种，在表述说话人想要表达的语义时，必然要在语言的各个语义功能部分进行相应的选择。功能语法重点需要说明的是:语言是社会交 往的工具，语言系统是人们在长期交往中为了实现各种不同的语义功能而逐渐形成起来的;人们在交往中需要在语言系统中进行选择时，也是根据所要实现的功能而进行有动因的活动。 系统功能语法的六个核心思想是: 1.纯理功能的(metafunctional)思想。 韩礼德认为语言的性质决定人们对语言的要求，即语言所必须完成的功能。这种功能千变万化，具有无限的可能性，但其中有着若干个有限的抽象的功能，这就是"纯理功能"，或称"元功能"。它包括三个方面: 语言是对存在于客观世界的过程和事物的反映，这是"经验(experiential) 功能;语言是社会人的有意义的活动，是做事的手段，是动作，因此其功能之一是反映人与人之间的关系，这是"人际(interpersonal)功能;实际使用中的语言的基本单位不是词或句这样的语法单位，而是"语篇"，它表达相对地说来是比较完整的思想，这样的由说话人将上述两种功能组织起来成为语篇的功能称"语篇功能"。 2.系统的思想。 语言不是所有合乎语法的句子的集合，因此对语言的解释应用意义的有规则的源泉--意义潜势来解释。韩礼德认为结构是过程的底层关系，是从潜势中衍生的，而潜势可以更好得用聚合关系来表达，因此韩礼德的系统的思想是把语言系统解释成一种可进行语义选择的网络，当有关系统的每个步骤一一实现后，就可以产生结构。
生成语法理论
《生成语法理论》是一本比较基础的书，对生成语法感兴趣的任何人都可以读，该书从最基本的概念讲起，讲到1985年初的发展。读过这本书后，可以从中掌握生成语法理论，领会生成语法研究方法，了解生成语法的当前研究方向。 人们通常把1957年，乔姆斯基发表第一部专著《句法结构》之时看成转换-生成语法诞生之时。生成语法学是科学研究，而不是哲学研究，生成语法学家研究语法结构形成，不涉及交际功能也不涉及说话时的环境。乔姆斯基等多数生成语法学家认为语言学是经验科学。生成语法学家对大脑物质进行的一种研究。因此生成语法学属于经验科学中的自然科学。 乔姆斯基的研究方法与美国结构主义语言学研究方法不同。第一，归纳法不可能完整地描写语言，生成语法规则系统是用演绎法建立的。第二，认为语言学应与其他科学一样，在分析某一层次上的结构时尽量利用其他层次上分析的结果，避免对共同性质作重复说明，以便使整个语法理论做到最大限度的精简。第三，语言学应该是提出理论假设，揭示现象背后的哪些观察不到的过程和机制。 从生成语法角度看，语言具有无限性，离散性和结构层次性的特点。生成语法学中语言概念的基础是集合论。每种语言都是句子的集合。句子具有离散性才有可能用字母记录，乔姆斯基说：语言是用有限的字母表构成的长度有限的句子的集合。语言是一个无限集合，不可能把所有的句子都例举出来，所以只好用描写法，语言学家使用语法规则来描写语言，规则构成规则系统，语法学家构拟生成语法规则
系统来模拟人们内在的生成语法知识。生成语法规则系统是人们内在的生成语法知识模式。 生成学派从六十年代起就十分重视对普遍语法的研究。乔姆斯基提出自然语言的共性表现在内容普遍性和形式普遍性两个方面。经过十几年的研究总结出了一套比较具体的有关语言共性的理论。人的语法知识包含两个部分：一部分是全人类语言共有的，称为普遍语法，另一部分是各民族语言特有的，称为个别语法。 生成语法学家认为语言不仅包括已知的句子，而且包括一切可能的句子，认为语法不仅指已知语言的语法，而且指一切可能存在的语法。生成语法学不研究语言运用，只研究语言能力，研究理想的说话者-听话者的语感，并不研究所有具体的说话者-听话者的语感。 纵观语言学历史各个流派不仅研究的对象，范围有所不同，企图达到的目标也各不相同。生成语法学派试图解释语感，用普遍语法来解释语感，而普遍语法正是人头脑中的机制。
(完整版)历年高考语法填空真题
历年高考语法填空真题 1.（2017 全国Ⅰ）There has been a recent trend in the food service industry toward lower fat content and less salt. This trend, which was started by the medical community（医学界）61 a method of fighting heart disease, has had some unintended side 62 (effect) such as overweight and heart disease—the very thing the medical community was trying to fight. Fat and salt are very important parts of a diet. They are required 63 (process)the food that we eat, to recover from injury and for several other bodily functions. When fat and salt 64 (remove) from food, the food tastes as if is missing something. As 65result, people will eat more food to try to make up for that something missing. Even66 (bad), the amount of fast food that people eat goes up. Fast food 67 (be) full of fat and salt; by 68 (eat) more fast food people will get more salt and fat than they need in their diet. Having enough fat and salt in your meals will reduce the urge to snack(吃点心) between meals and will improve the taste of your food. However, be 69 (care) not to go to extremes. Like anything, it is possible to have too much of both,70 is not good for the health. 2.（2017 全国Ⅱ）In 1863 the first underground passenger railway in the world opened in London. It ran for just under seven kilometers and allowed people to avoid terrible __61__(crowd)on the roads above as they travelled to and ________62__work. It took three years to complete and was built using an interesting method. This included digging up the road, ____63___(lay) the track and then building a strong roof over___64___ top. When all those had been done, the road surface was replaced. Steam engines ___65__(use) to pull the carriages and it must have been___66__(fair)unpleasant for the passengers, with all the smoke and noise. However, the railway quickly proved to be a great success and within six months, more than 25,000 people were using___67__ every day. Later, engineers ____68___(manage)to construct railways in a system of deep tunnels (隧道）, which became known to the tube. This development was only possible with the ___69___ (introduce)of electric-powered engines and lifts. The central London Railway was one of the most___70___(success)of these new lines, and was opened in 1900. It had white-painted tunnels and bright red carriages, and proved extremely popular with the public. 3.（2017 全国Ⅲ）She looks like any other schoolgirl, fresh-faced and full of life. Sarah Thomas is looking forward to challenge of her new A-level course .But unlike school friends ,16-year-old Sarah is not spending half-term 61 ________ (rest). Instead, she is earning $6500 a day as 62 __________ model in New York. Sarah 63 __________ (tell)that she could be Britain?s new supermodel earning a million dollars in the new year. Her father Peter 44,wants her to give up school to model fulltime But Sarah, 64 _______has taken part in shows along with top models wants 65_________ (prove) that she has brains as well as beauty. She is determined to carry on with her 66_________ (educate). She has turned down several 67_______ (invitation) to star at shows in order to concentrate on her studies After school she plans to take a year off to model full time before going to university to
功能语法
扬州大学外国语学院 研究生学期作业 学期2008-2009第二学期 课程名称系统功能语法 学科专业 英语语言文学 研究生学号 M080336 研究生姓名 李岩
系统功能语法在外语教学中的应用 摘要：系统功能语法因其极强的科学性、客观性和实践性，其理论体系越来越多地被用于英语教学中。本文简单介绍了系统功能语法的含义，并阐明如何使用系统功能语法指导英语词汇、语法、阅读方面的教学。 关键词：系统功能语法；外语教学；应用 Abstract: Systemic-Functional Grammatics is generally applied in English teaching based on its scientific, objective and practical high level. This paper first give a overall introduction of Systemic-Functional Grammar, and then expounds the datailed application in English teaching of vocabulary, grammar and reading. 1.引言 语言与人类的社会实践分不开，系统功能语法把语言的实际使用作为研究对象，进一步制定了学派的理论体系, 并在应用过程中检验和完善理论。所以，系统功能语法具有极强的科学性、客观性和实践性，这一套理论体系也逐步被用于英语教学中。外语作为一种交流的工具，其教学要达到的目标不仅要培养学生的语言能力，更应注意培养学生的运用语言进行交际的能力。这与以韩礼德(M. A. K. Halliday)为代表的系统功能语法理论相一致。早在1982年，英国语言学家韩礼德便明确指出系统功能语言学理论的最大贡献在于将语言作为社会文化语境的有机组成部分予以研究，因此研究的重心不再是传统语言学所强调的词汇层面或句子层面的研究，而是以语篇为研究的基本单位，并进而从语篇与情景语境中揭示语言的性质与社会功能。系统功能语言学因其独到的功能主义和社会意义学视角，尤其是它对意义研究的重视，为越来越多的人所接受，同时也在语言教学以及其它人类社会活动领域取得了令人瞩目的成就。 2.系统功能语法概述 系统功能语法发源于以英国马利诺夫斯基(Malinowsky)和弗斯(Firth)等人为核心的伦敦学派。伦敦学派认为要从语言的用途和语境去探索语言。20世纪70年代初，弗斯的学生韩礼德(Halliday)在继承前人理论的基础上，从系统语法和功能语法两方面加以发展，形成了当今颇有影响的系统功能语法。系统功能语法是一门既研究语言系统又研究语言功能的语言学理论。系统功能语法理论包含了“系统语法”和“功能语法”两个部分。韩礼德把语言在人类的交际过程中所承担的各种各样的功能归结为三种纯理功能：概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能。韩礼德认为，语言是社会活动的产物。语言之所以是语言，是因为它要发挥一定的功能。换句话说，社会需求决定了语言的结构。因此，韩礼德把研究重点放在了语法的功能部分。功能语法把语言看作为一个交际系统，语法分析的目的在于发