外文翻译
本科毕业设计（论文）
外文翻译
题目技术性贸易壁垒的经济效应分析
姓名
专业国际经济与贸易
学号
指导教师
郑州科技学院财经学院
二○一四年五月
技术性贸易壁垒的经济效应分析
李树,陈刚
西南政法大学经济学院,重庆400031
中图分类号:F741
文献标识码:A
文章编号:1004-972X(2009)05-0008-06
摘要
技术性贸易壁垒(TBT)的经济效应是指一国实行的技术性贸易壁垒所产生的各种经济影响,包括对相关国家及本国各利益集团的利益得失及其变动的影响。TBT对出口国出口贸易的影响主要通过数量抑制和价格抑制两个方面来实现。在短期内,TBT将会阻碍出口国企业的出口,导致生产者福利的损失;但在中长期内,出口国若能对TBT进行合理的管理和利用,则TBT可能会促使出口国企业的产品与技术创新动力,从而对出口国贸易条件的改善具有促进作用。
关键词: 技术性贸易壁垒;数量抑制;价格抑制;消费者效应;产业效应
技术性贸易壁垒(TBT)是指一国或一个区域组织以维护国家或区域基本安全、保障人类健康和安全、保护动植物健康和安全、保护环境、防止欺诈行为、保证产品质量等为由而采取的一些强制性或自愿性的技术性措施,这些措施对其他国家或区域组织的商品、服务和投资进入该国或该区域市场产生影响。
技术性贸易壁垒的经济效应是指一国实行的技术性贸易壁垒所产生的各种经济影响,包括对相关国家及本国各利益集团的利益得失及其变动的影响。
1 TBT的作用机制分析
从技术贸易壁垒的作用机制来看,一方面,技术性贸易壁垒具有控制进口商品数量的作用，即数量抑制机制另一方面,技术性贸易壁垒具有控制进口商品价格的作用，即价格抑制机制。
1.1数量抑制效应
当技术性要求标准较低时,商品或服务都因达到或超过规定的技术性要求而被允许进口。但当进口国将进口品技术性要求提高时,商品或服务因为低于技术要求而被拒绝进口。技术性要求的提高明显构成了对进口品的贸易障碍,产生对进口品的数量控制作用,。
1.2价格抑制效应
出口商品或服务的质量由于没能达到进口国的最低标准而未获得进口许可,此时,如果出口企业仍想留在进口市场,就只有通过增加投资对产品或服务进行技术改进,出口企业为保住市场不得不改进技术调整生产或服务过程而付出额外费用使之达到新的要求，这样就导致了该产品或服务的单位成本提高，企业要想获得正常利润必须把价格提高,。此时,技术性贸易壁垒影响进口成本,形成对进口商品或服务的价格抑制。
2 进口国的经济效应分析
TBT对进口国的影响在“大国”和“小国”之间是存在差异的。“小国”是指在国际市场上作为价格接受者的国家,其进口(出口)量的变化不会对国际市
场价格产生影响,而“大国”则是指其进口(出口)量的变化可以影响到国际市场价格。
2.1进口小国的经济效应分析
2.1.1国内产业保护的技术性贸易壁垒
对于完全出于保护国内产业目的的技术性贸易壁垒,国外出口企业为了符合相关技术要求会使进口商品的成本升高,国内商品消费量减少,该国经济福利受到损失。随着国内技术性贸易壁垒的设置,生产的资源使用效率越来越低,单位成本不断上升,此时国内资源的使用效率低于壁垒设置之前。
2.1.2消除外部性的技术性贸易壁垒
设置技术性贸易壁垒的一个目标就是要减少市场交易中的信息不对称及生产和消费的负外部效应。因此,一国设置了技术性贸易壁垒,对国内消费者和生产者也会有一定的影响。
首先,对国内消费者的影响。技术性贸易壁垒要求商品达到一定的标准,这就给消费者提供了一种信息,即国内所销售的商品是安全的。这一方面节约了消费者寻找安全商品的成本;另一方面也提高了消费者对这种商品的评价。
其次,对国内生产者的影响。进口商品中如果含有对国内生产者不利的非经济因素，如果政府要消除这种外部性,就需要有一定的技术性贸易壁垒,或者完全禁止贸易。
2.2进口大国的经济效应分析
2.2.1国内产业保护的技术性贸易壁垒
出于产业保护目的的技术性贸易壁垒可以通过对进口量的调整影响国际市场价格,改善本国所面临的贸易条件。
2.2.2消除外部性的技术性贸易壁垒
首先,对消费者的影响。技术性贸易壁垒设置之后，国内需求增加，生产者的供给量也在增加，福利水平要高于技术性贸易壁垒设置之前。
其次,对生产者的影响。设置技术性贸易壁垒时的福利水平要比禁止贸易时的大。如果不设置技术性贸易壁垒,则国内生产者不进行生产,剩余为0,与设置技术性贸易壁垒相比,国内消费者剩余增加了，国内生产者剩余减少了。
3 出口国的经济效应分析
3.1消费者效应
为保护国内生产、市场和环境,限制出口国的产品进口,进口国所设立的技术标准在正常的情况下会高于出口国的技术水平。面对进口国的技术标准,在短期内,出口国的出口厂商有三种策略可供选择:一是调整出口市场,规避或绕开壁垒,包括放弃该进口国市场转攻第三国市场,或者从第三国市场再进入该国;二是受到进口国技术壁垒的限制而减少甚至停止该产品的出口,在该产品停止出口之后,国内可能继续生产,也可能停止生产,还有可能通过对外直接投资(FDI)来代替产品的出口;三是进行“寻租”活动,通过贿赂等方法获取进入进口国市场的资格。在中长期中,出口厂商则可以通过提高生产技术水平来直接满足技术性贸易壁垒的要求。出口厂商的不同应对方法对出口国国内消费者的影响是不同的。
当采取第一种策略，消费者效应的变化取决于出口规模的变化。如果因此而开拓出新的市场,导致出口数量增加,出口规模和国内生产规模扩大,则国内消费者能从规模经济中获利；如果因此而导致出口市场萎缩，出口规模缩小,则国内消费者将不得不为生产商承担一部分成本。
当采取第二种策略，出口国消费者可基于替代效应和收入效应而增加该种产品的消费,消费者剩余增加。在短期内,当出口厂商减少或停止产品出口后,如该产品的生产主要是为了出口,就会出现生产规模不经济,可能会促使厂商停止在国内生产;国内供应停止,则出口国国内的消费者将会损失一种商品的消费选择机会。此外,出口厂商还可能用对外直接投资(FDI)的方式来替代产品的出口,以绕过进口国的技术性贸易壁垒,这时出口国消费者的福利几乎不会发生什么变化。
当采取第三种策略，出口厂商在提高出口产品的技术水平的时候,如果国内市场和国外市场没有足够的措施进行分割,而只能实行自由贸易,那么出口厂商在国内供应的产品也应该是改进了技术的产品,否则就会出现平行进口的现象。
3.2产业效应
(1)贸易限制效应。在短期之内,TBT阻止了出口,使得生产企业的销售量急剧下降,这对于生产企业的冲击是很大的。
(2)贸易促进效应。对于实力薄弱、在短期的冲击中就已经生存不下去的企业,就没有中长期效应了,稍微苛刻的技术性贸易壁垒冲击就使它们在市场中消失。但如果出口国积极主动地提高技术水平,突破TBT的限制,则会在出口量下降到一定程度时,这一TBT壁垒被打破，同时带来技术创新,从而带来出口量的增加，也就是存在着贸易促进效应。
3.3福利净效应
(1)短期的福利净效应损失。,从短期来说,TBT使出口国的福利水平下降,发生福利净损失。
(2)中长期福利净效应由负转为正。在中长期之内,TBT促使出口国在技术上的创新和突破必然带来贸易量的重新恢复和增加,从而就促使出口国的生产者剩余和消费者剩余都增加,也就是社会福利增加。
4结语
作为世界上最大的发展中国家,我国出口产品正面临越来越多的主要来自发达国家的TBT措施的挑战。TBT对我国出口的不利影响主要表现在产品市场准入和竞争力两个方面。①进口国TBT对出口国产品市场准入的影响主要表现在:由于我国产品不符合进口国环境技术标准要求,被限制进口;由于进口国实施某种新的强制性规定或标准,被限制进口;由于进口国采取不合理的规定或标准,甚至实行双重标准,被限制进口。②TBT对出口国产品竞争力的影响表现为:没有获得有关认证产品的市场竞争力大大降低;为达到相关标准而增加原料成本削弱了产品的市场竞争力;技术、环保以及改善劳动条件的投入使成本增加,
从而削弱了产品竞争力;过高的检验检疫费用导致产品竞争力下降;高昂的认证费用导致企业产品竞争力下降。
但不可否认的事实是,TBT在给我国国际贸易带来了巨大负面影响的同时,其对我国国际贸易发展也有积极的一面。TBT对我国的外贸出口的积极效应主要体现在产品技术创新、评审制度建设、技术法规建设、增强环保意识等几个方面。
ECONOMIC EFFECT ANALYSIS ON
TECHNICAL BARRIER TO TRADE Li Shu ,Chen Gang
School of Economics,Southwest University of Political Science&Law ,Chongqing 400031,China
CLC number: F741
Document code: A
Article number: 1004-972X (2009) 05-0008-06
Abstract
The economic effect on technical barrier to trade(TBT) is thought as the influences of economy which is exerted by TBT implemented in one country·For export country, influences on export trade are mainly quantity restraint and price restraint·In short time,TBT could prevent enterprises of export country from exporting,and bring loss of producer welfare;but in middle and long time,if export countries can rationally make use of TBT, it will be able to promote the innovation of products and technology in export countries to improve trade condition·The relative problem is analysis in this article·
Keywords:TBT;quantity restraint; price restraint;consumers effect;industry effect
Technical barriers to trade (TBT) is refers to a country or a regional organization to maintain basic security, national or regional protection of human health and safety, protect animal and plant health and safety, Protect environment, to prevent fraud, to ensure product quality and so on the grounds and take some mandatory or voluntary technical measures, into the the country or the regional market impact of these measures on other countries or regional organizations of goods, services and investment.
The economic effect of technical barriers to trade refers to various economic effects of technical barriers to trade a country produces, including influence of interests of countries and their various interest groups and their changes.
I ANALYSIS OF THE MECHANISM ABOUT TBT
From the mechanism of technical barriers to trade, on the one hand, the technical barriers to trade has the quantity control of imported goods, namely the number of inhibition mechanism on the other hand, the technical barriers to trade has control effect on the prices of imported goods, the price suppression mechanism.
A Quantity effect
When the technical requirements are low, goods or services are due to meet or exceed the technical requirements and are allowed to be imported. But when the importing country will import product technical requirements improve, goods or services for less than the technical requirements and rejected imported. Technical requirements increase obviously constitute trade barriers on imports, the number of import control,.
B Price effect
Quality of export goods or services as the minimum standards can not reach the importing country and did not obtain import license, at this time, if the export enterprises still want to stay in the import market, only by increasing the investment of technology on the product or service improvement, export enterprises to keep the market had to improve technology to adjust the production or service process and the additional cost. To the new requirements, this caused the unit cost of the product or service to improve, the enterprise wants to obtain normal profits must raise prices,.
At this time, the impact of technical barriers to trade the cost of imports, the formation of import commodities or service price suppression.
II ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC EFFECT OF IMPORT
COUNTRY
Effect of TBT on the importing country is the difference between "big" and "small". "Small" is defined as the price of the recipient country in the international market, the import (export) volume changes do not affect the price in the international market, and the "power" refers to the import (export) volume changes can affect the price in the international market.
A Economic effect analysis of small import countries.
The domestic industry protection technical barriers to trade. For fully for the purpose of protecting domestic industries technical barriers to trade, export enterprises in order to comply with the relevant technical requirements will make the cost of imports increased, domestic commodity consumption reduction, the country's economic welfare loss. Along with the technical barriers to trade, production efficiency of resource use is more and more low, unit costs continue to rise, before the use efficiency when domestic resources below the barrier set.
To eliminate the externality of technical barriers to trade. One goal of the technical barriers to trade is to reduce the external negative effects of information asymmetry in market trade and production and consumption. Therefore, a set of technical barriers to trade, will also have a certain impact on domestic consumers and producers.
First of all, the impact on domestic consumers. Technical barriers to trade for goods reached a certain standard, which provides the consumer with a information, which domestic sales of goods is safe. On the one hand, saving consumers looking for safety cost of goods; on the other hand, raising consumer evaluation on this kind of merchandise.
Secondly, the impact on domestic producers. Imports if it contains non economic factors adverse to domestic producers, if the government wants to eliminate the externality, requires a certain amount of technical barriers to trade, or prohibit trade completely.
B Analysis of the economic effects of big import country.
The domestic industry protection technical barriers to trade. For technical barriers to trade industry protection purpose through the price adjustment of imports in the international market, improve the country faced trade conditions.
To eliminate the externality of technical barriers to trade.First of all, the impact on consumers. After the technical barriers to trade, the increase in domestic demand, supply producers are also on the rise, before the welfare level is higher than the set technical barriers to trade.
Secondly, impact on producers. Technical barriers to trade of the welfare level than the ban on the trade of. If you do not set the technical barriers to trade, domestic producers are not production, the remaining 0. Compared with the technical barriers to trade, consumer surplus increases, domestic producer surplus reduces.
III ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC EFFECT OF EXPORT
COUNTRY
A Consumer effect.
For the protection of domestic production, market and environment, import restrictions on the export of China, technical level of technical standards established by the importer will be higher than the export country in normal circumstances. Facing the technical standards of the importing country, in the short term, export country's export manufacturers have three strategies: one is to adjust the export market, to circumvent or bypass the barriers, including the abandonment of the import country market turn to third countries market, or from a third country market to enter the country; two is subject to import technical barriers to limit and reduce or even stop the exports, after the product to stop the export of domestic production, is likely to continue, may also stop production, possibly through foreign direct investment (FDI) instead of the export of products; three of the "Rent-seeking" activities, to get into the market of import country qualification through bribery and other methods. In the long term, export manufacturers can improve the level of production technology to meet the requirements of technical barriers to trade. Different ways of export manufacturers have different influences on domestic consumers exporter.
When taking the first strategy, consumer effect varies depending on the change of export scale. If so as to develop new markets, leading to increase in the number of export, export and domestic expansion of the scale of production, domestic consumers can benefit from economies of scale; if this leads to shrinking export market, export scale down, then the domestic consumers will have to bear part of the cost of a manufacturer.
When using the second strategies, the exporting country consumers can increase the consumption of products based on the substitution effect and income effect, increase consumer surplus. In the short term, when the export manufacturers to reduce or stop the export of products, such as the production of this product is mainly for export, will appear the diseconomies of scale of production, may encourage manufacturers to stop production in China; domestic supply stop, consumers will be the loss of domestic exporters a commodity consumer choice. In addition, firms may also use foreign direct investment (FDI) way to substitute products export, to bypass the importing country's technical barriers to trade, the exporting country consumer welfare is hardly what happens.
When using the third strategies, export manufacturers in time to improve the technical level of export products, if the domestic market and foreign markets is not enough measures for segmentation, and can implement free trade, then export manufacturers in the domestic supply of products should also be improved technology products, otherwise there will be the phenomenon of parallel import.
B Industrial effect.
Trade restriction effect. In the short term, TBT blocked the export production enterprises, making sales fell sharply, this is great for the production of business impact.
Trade promoting effect. The strength of the weak, in the short-term shocks have not live enterprise, there is no long-term effect, technical barriers to trade impact makes slightly harsh they disappear in the market. But if the export country actively to improve the technical level, break through the limit of TBT, has dropped to a certain extent in export volume, the TBT barriers to be broken, at the same time bring technological innovation, leading to the increase in export volume, also is the existence of trade promoting effect.
C Welfare effect.
Loss of welfare net short-term effects. In the short term, TBT The exporting countries' welfare levels drop, net loss of welfare.
The long-term welfare effect from negative to positive. In the long term, TBT to promote export country in the technical innovation and process
Broken will inevitably bring about the trade volume resumed and increased, which prompted the exporter of the producer surplus and consumer surplus will increase, also is the increase in social welfare.
IV CONCLUSION
As the largest developing country in the world, China's exports are facing more and more from developed countries' TBT challenge. The adverse effects of TBT on China's exports is mainly manifested in two aspects: market access and competitiveness. Effects of TBT on market access importer exporter product mainly displays in: because our products do not meet the standard requirements of environmental technology import country, is to restrict imports; since the implementation of a new mandatory regulations or standards import country, is to restrict imports; because of the importing country to take no reasonable regulations or standards, or even a double standard, be restricted imports.
Effect of TBT on the competitiveness of export products as follows: not obtain the relevant certification market competitiveness of the product is greatly reduced; in order to meet the relevant standards and increase the cost of raw materials has weakened the market competitiveness of products; technical, environmental protection and to improve the working conditions of the Cheng Benzeng, which weakened the competitiveness of products; inspection and quarantine costs lead to products declining competitiveness; high certification costs lead to decline in the competitiveness of products.
But the undeniable fact is, TBT to China's international trade has brought great negative influence at the same time, the China international trade development has the positive side of the. TBT on China's export of positive effect is mainly reflected in the products of technological innovation, evaluation system construction, the
development of technical regulations, enhance the awareness of environmental protection and other aspects.
外文翻译
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
网络营销外文翻译
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
交通灯外文翻译 2
当今时代是一个自动化时代，交通灯控制等很多行业的设备都与计算机密切相关。因此，一个好的交通灯控制系统，将给道路拥挤，违章控制等方面给予技术革新。随着大规模集成电路及计算机技术的迅速发展，以及人工智能在控制技术方面的广泛运用，智能设备有了很大的发展，是现代科技发展的主流方向。本文介绍了一个智能交通的系统的设计。该智能交通灯控制系统可以实现的功能有：对某市区的四个主要交通路口进行控制：个路口有固定的工作周期，并且在道路拥挤时中控制中心能改变其周期：对路口违章的机动车能够即时拍照，并提取车牌号。在世界范围内，一个以微电子技术，计算机和通信技术为先导的，一信息技术和信息产业为中心的信息革命方兴未艾。而计算机技术怎样与实际应用更有效的结合并有效的发挥其作用是科学界最热门的话题，也是当今计算机应用中空前活跃的领域。本文主要从单片机的应用上来实现十字路口交通灯智能化的管理，用以控制过往车辆的正常运作。 研究交通的目的是为了优化运输，人流以及货流。由于道路使用者的不断增加，现有资源和基础设施有限，智能交通控制将成为一个非常重要的课题。但是，智能交通控制的应用还存在局限性。例如避免交通拥堵被认为是对环境和经济都有利的，但改善交通流也可能导致需求增加。交通仿真有几个不同的模型。在研究中，我们着重于微观模型，该模型能模仿单独车辆的行为，从而模仿动态的车辆组。 由于低效率的交通控制，汽车在城市交通中都经历过长时间的行进。采用先进的传感器和智能优化算法来优化交通灯控制系统，将会是非常有益的。优化交通灯开关，增加道路容量和流量，可以防止交通堵塞，交通信号灯控制是一个复杂的优化问题和几种智能算法的融合，如模糊逻辑，进化算法，和聚类算法已经在使用，试图解决这一问题，本文提出一种基于多代理聚类算法控制交通信号灯。 在我们的方法中，聚类算法与道路使用者的价值函数是用来确定每个交通灯的最优决策的，这项决定是基于所有道路使用者站在交通路口累积投票，通过估计每辆车的好处(或收益)来确定绿灯时间增益值与总时间是有差异的，它希望在它往返的时候等待，如果灯是红色，或者灯是绿色。等待，直到车辆到达目的地，通过有聚类算法的基础设施，最后经过监测车的监测。 我们对自己的聚类算法模型和其它使用绿灯模拟器的系统做了比较。绿灯模拟器是一个交通模拟器，监控交通流量统计，如平均等待时间，并测试不同的交通灯控制器。结果表明，在拥挤的交通条件下，聚类控制器性能优于其它所有测试的非自适应控制器，我们也测试理论上的平均等待时间，用以选择车辆通过市区的道路，并表明，道路使用者采用合作学习的方法可避免交通瓶颈。 本文安排如下：第2部分叙述如何建立交通模型，预测交通情况和控制交通。第3部分是就相关问题得出结论。第4部分说明了现在正在进一步研究的事实，并介绍了我们的新思想。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
外文翻译
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/525611369.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
建筑-外文翻译
外文文献： Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project By: Paul Stanford Kupakuwana Cost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009 ABSTRACT This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong. KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof
外文翻译中文版(完整版)
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721
营销-外文翻译
外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is
智能交通灯控制系统_英文翻译
英文 Because of the rapid development of our economy resulting in the car number of large and medium-sized cities surged and the urban traffic, is facing serious test, leading to the traffic problem increasingly serious, its basically are behaved as follows: traffic accident frequency, to the human life safety enormous threat, Traffic congestion, resulting in serious travel time increases, energy consumption increase; Air pollution and noise pollution degree of deepening, etc. Daily traffic jams become people commonplace and had to endure. In this context, in combination with the actual situation of urban road traffic, develop truly suitable for our own characteristics of intelligent signal control system has become the main task. Preface In practical application at home and abroad, according to the actual traffic signal control application inspection, planar independent intersection signal control basic using set cycle, much time set cycle, half induction, whole sensor etc in several ways. The former two control mode is completely based on planar intersection always traffic flow data of statistical investigation, due to traffic flow the existence of variable sex and randomicity, the two methods have traffic efficiency is low, the scheme, the defects of aging and half inductive and all the inductive the two methods are in the former two ways based on increased vehicle detector and according to the information provided to adjust cycle is long and green letter of vehicle, it than random arrived adaptability bigger, can make vehicles in the parking cord before as few parking, achieve traffic flowing effect In modern industrial production,current,voltage,temperature, pressure, and flow rate, velocity, and switch quantity are common mainly controlled parameter. For example: in metallurgical industry, chemical production, power engineering, the papermaking industry, machinery and food processing and so on many domains, people need to transport the orderly control. By single chip microcomputer to control of traffic, not only has the convenient control, configuration simple and flexible wait for an advantage, but also can greatly improve the technical index by control quantity, thus greatly improve product quality and quantity. Therefore, the monolithic integrated circuit to the traffic light control problem is an industrial production we often encounter problems. In the course of industrial production, there are many industries have lots of traffic equipment, in the current system, most of the traffic control signal is accomplished by relays, but relays response time is long, sensitivity low, long-term after use, fault opportunity increases greatly, and adopts single-chip microcomputer control, the accuracy of far greater than relays, short response time, software reliability, not because working time reduced its performance sake, compared with, this solution has the high feasibility. About AT89C51 (1)function characteristics description: AT89C51 is a low power consumption, high performance CMOS8 bit micro-controller, has the 8K in system programmable Flash memory. Use high-density Atmel company the beltpassword nonvolatile storage technology and manufacturing, and industrial 80S51 product instructions and pin fully compatible. Chip Flash allow program memory in system programmable, also suitable for conventional programmer. In a single chip, have dexterous 8 bits CPU and in system programmable Flash, make AT89C51 for many embedded control application system provides the high flexible, super efficient solution. AT89C51 has the following standard function: 8k bytes Flash, 256 bytes RAM, 32-bit I/O mouth line, the watchdog timer, two data pointer, three 16 timer/counter, a 6 vector level 2 interrupt structure, full-duplex serial port, piece inside crystals timely clock circuit. In addition, AT89C51 can drop to 0Hz static logic operation, support two software can choose power saving mode. Idle mode, the CPU to stop working, allowing the RAM, timer/counter, serial ports, interruption continue to work. Power lost protection mode, RAM content being saved, has been frozen, microcontroller all work stop, until the next interruption or hardware reset so far. As shown in