托福阅读超详细剖析讲解
托福阅读超详细剖析讲解，有题有真相（一）
备考托福的同学有福啦！！小编非常难得的请到了托福名师就托福阅读的备考进行超详细讲解。现在网上到处都可以搜到各式各样的备考资料，但是像今天小编与大家分享的如此详尽、如此系统的讲解，真的是凤毛菱角。希望各位同学认真学习消化。由于篇幅太长，今天先与大家分享一半的内容，另一半明天奉上。
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在新托福考试当中，阅读是第一个部分，一共会考到3篇或者4篇文章，每篇文章700-800字左右，每篇文章之后会有13-14个题目。很多同学面对这样托福阅读文章，感觉无从下手，甚至有时即使看懂了文章，题目也无法选对，那么应该如何应对这种情况呢？在这个系列中，老师分别给大家就托福阅读的具体解题技巧进行剖析讲解，作为考前冲刺，给大家考试助力，点睛指导！
考试中一共十种题型，他们分别是: 词汇题，指代题，句子简化题，句子插入题，细节题，否定信息题，推理题，作者目的题，小结题和图表填空题。
1. 词汇题 Vocabulary questions
在托福考试当中，词汇题的主要目的是考察考生能否识别词汇在陌生语境中的含义。既然强调语境，那么通过识别生词附近的语境含义，
往往可以推测出生词的含义。我们来看一道新托福考试官方指南上的题目：
Several skeletons ofanother early whale, Basilosaurus, were found in sediments left by theTethys Sea and now exposed in theSahara desert.
The word exposed in the passage is closest inmeaning to
A. Explained
B. Visible
C. Identified
D. Located
这道题目很多同学会选择第四个选项（locate：坐落于…），将这个含义带入到语句当中，意思也通顺，指Basilosaurus坐落于撒哈拉沙漠。但是这里需要注意的是，托福的词汇题并不是选项带入搭配合适就一定能找到正确答案，而是应该从语境入手来选择。正确的做法是，首先查看生词附近有无并列，转折等语境上的含义暗示。本句当中，生词的前方有“and”来暗示并列，而从句子结构来看，前半句中的动词“found”，意思是“找到，发现”，那么后半句的exposed对应语境也应该强调发现某物，即找到，或者看见某物。因此这道题目的正确答案选择B（visible：可看见的）。
2. 指代题 Reference questions
指代题在托福考试中题量大约为0-2个，主要考察学生能否找到原文中代词的指代对象。解决指代题最基本的原则为：单复数与人称一致，前指且符合句意。
It has been suggested that Pakicetus fed on fishin shallow water and was not yet adapted for life in the open ocean. Itprobably bred and gave birth on land.
The word it in the passage refers to
A. Pakicetus
B. Fish
C. Life
D. Ocean
本句代词作主语，在结构上指代上一句话主句中的名词主语，即A选项的Pakicetus。也可以采用带入的方法，将选项逐一带入，符合搭配的只有A选项，其余选项，B fish 鱼类，C life 生命，D ocean海洋，都无法“bred and gavebirth，哺育后代”。
3. 句子简化题 Sentence Simplificationquestions
句子简化题是新题型之一，在这里我们相信的讲解一下。对于句子简化题，有一些题目如果句子不长，我们做题的基本原则就是：同义替换。找到原句中的关键词在选项当中进行同义替换。例如，Inevolutionary history, the development of language set humans apartfrom the rest of the animal kingdom.
Which sentence below best expresses theessential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrectchoices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essentialinformation.
A. Humans evolved as the most powerful speciesafter they are
developed language.
B. The creation of human language has itsorigins in the
language of animals.
C. The emergence of language distinguished early humans
from other animals.
D. Humans and animals developed completeddifferent systems
of communication.
先来看题干：Which sentence below best expresses theessential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrectchoices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essentialinformation.
该题要求从选项中选择一个能够表达原文阴影句子核心信息的句子。很多同学采用翻译的方法做题，即首先翻译原句，然后逐个翻译四个选项。这种做法不仅浪费时间，而且对我们的读句子的能力要求极高。更好的做法是，首先判断句子的核心信息。这是考题当中为数不多的原句比较简单的句子释义题，原句的核心概念在于强调区分（apartfrom）。因此找到同义替换，即是C项当中的distinguished。但是大多数题目的原文不会是一个简单句，多数是带有逻辑关系的复杂句。那么简单的同义替换技巧就无法操作了。如何快速解决这种题型呢？我们主要分两个部分来解析。
其实，我们在读原句的时候并不需要完整的彻底的摄取信息，相反，我们通过快速浏览，只需要关注两个关键点：一是原句当中的表示程度，频率的词，二是原句当中的逻辑关系。并不需要吸收所有信息，只需要快速浏览将所关注的信息点抓住即可，这样便节省了大量的时间。
Theextreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of landand the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the greatdifficulty of reversing or even slowing the process.
Which sentence below best expresses theessential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrectchoices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essentialinformation.
A. Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard
to reverse andaffects large areas of land and great numbers of people.
B. Slowing down the process of desertificationis
difficult because of populationgrowth.
C. The spread of deserts is considered a veryserious problem
that can be solved only if large numbers of people in variouscountries are involved in the effort.
D. Desertification is extremely hard to reverseunless the
population is reduced in the vast areas affected.
解题思路：
句子中最核心的信息首先就是该句的逻辑关系。原句的逻辑关系可以由result from来判断，为因果关系。借此我们就可以缩小选项范围，首先排除掉C,D选项。剩下的A,B两个选项均包含因果的逻辑关系。接下来我们可以根据句子的第二种核心信息：主语，来判断。原句的主语是Desertification沙漠化，而B项的主语是Slowingdown the process of desertification减缓沙漠化进程。所以排除掉B选项，A为正确答案。
将通过程度词解题和借助逻辑关系解题结合起来，对于解答带有逻辑关系的复杂句的释义题很有帮助。我们看一下下面这道题目：
It isone of the most important sensations because it is translated into a negativereaction, such as withdrawal from danger.
Which sentence below best expresses theessential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrectchoices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essentialinformation.
A. Escaping from danger is a negative reaction, but it is
the most important thing an individual learns.
B. The ability to sense pain
is extremely important because pain signals the body to respond to a threat.
C. Experiencing pain is one type of reaction toa negative
stimulus; another type is avoiding danger.
D. We experience a lot of sensations, and the most important
ones are translated into appropriate actions.
(本题节选自，新托福考试备考策略与模拟试题，群言出版社，P150，第1题)
浏览原句，从because可以看出逻辑关系为因果关系，并且原句当中有绝对化词汇most。仅仅凭借most这个程度很强的词汇我们可以排除C选项。因为原文当中带有绝对化词汇而选项中没有，那么这个选项为必错选项。接下来利用逻辑关系排除A项，A中为转折关系。而B恰恰有because这个词，此外B中的extremely可以作为most 的同义替换。正确答案为B。
几乎每一篇文章后面都会有一道释义题，因此考生应加强练习。平时在阅读文章，或者报刊杂志的时候不仅仅要把注意力放在读懂原文上，还应该注意原文的逻辑关系，培养根据逻辑关系思考的习惯。另外，一些程度词的存在也会影响我们对原文的精确理解，平时阅读的时候应当多加关注。
4. 句子插入题 Insert Text questions
■Mostinvestigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotionsin all people. ■Moreover,peo ple in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facialexpressions. ■Inclassic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotionsof anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. ■He then asked people around the world to indicate whatemotions were being depicted in them.
Lookat the four squares ■that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
This universality in the recognitionof emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods.
Whe rewould the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■]to add the sentence to the passage.
解题思路：
Insert Textquestion。该题型要求考生将一句话插入到原文四个黑色空格的其中一个当中，使得段落看起来更通顺。首先可以从这个单独的句子中找到暗示点，例如，本题待插入句子为：This universality in the recognitionof emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods. 主语部分为：这个对于感情的认知的普遍性。如果待插入句子中出现代词，则代词所指内容应当在该句之前出现，结合这道题目，在这个句子应当插入的空之前必有：对于感情认知的普遍性。这道题目选择第三个黑色方框，其之前的句子为：Moreover, people in diverse culturesrecognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. 意思是：另外，来自不同文化背景的人能够通过面部表情的识别来判断对方的情绪。来自不同文化背景的人都可以判断出来，这里暗示了universality 普遍性。同时，放在第三个空也可以对应后面的内容。待插入句子说到“demonstratedby using rather simple methods”：可以用简单的方式证明，对应第三个空后方的句子：Inclassic research Paul Ekman took photographs（在经典的研究项目当中）。
再来看一道题目
Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses areinevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normallydesire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents,because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demandsimme diately. ■Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the lossof parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. ■The Freudianperspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." ■By holding inrather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. ■Pent-upaggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents inindirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed towardstrangers later in life. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where thefollowing sentence can be added to the passage.
According toFreud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demandexpression.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to addthe sentence to the passage.
首先我们来看待插入句子：According to Freud, however, impulses that have beenrepressed continue to exist and demand expression. 本句的前半句说道，According toFreud,（根据弗洛伊德的理论）;后半句：impulses thathave been repressed continue to exist and demand expression.被压抑的冲动会持续存在并且需要表达。这个句子是一句概括性的陈述，一般概括性陈述的后方需要有具体的细节句子来提供支持解释。所以这道题目选择第二个空。第二空格之后紧跟：The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as"steam engines."（从某种意义上讲，弗洛伊德的观点是将人类看做“蒸汽机”）。这里既可以对应Freud，又有具体的细节交代，说持续存在的冲动，就好比蒸汽机，这里的steam engines是解释他观点的具体细节。
■ Because they are always swimming,tunas simply have toopen their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills.■ Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that otherfishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills.■ In fact, tunas must swim to breathe.■They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, sincemost have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac thathelps most other fish remain buoyant.
Lookat the four squares [■] that indicatewhere the following sentence could be added to the passage.
Consequently, tunas do not need tosuck in water.
Where would the sentence best fit?Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.
解题思路：
此题的带插入句子当中并没有代词，这时我们可以根据关联词来解答题目。带插入句子当中的Consequently（结果是...）可以给我们暗示。带插入句子的含义为：结果是，tunas（金枪鱼）不需要吸水。那么该句子的前方应该在陈述关于导致金枪鱼不需要吸水的内容。此题正确答案选C。在第三个空格之前的这句话：...they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use tosuck in water and push it past the gills.（金枪鱼失去了像其他鱼类的嘴里所拥有的一块肌肉，这块肌肉用于吸水和从腮里排水。）既然已经失去了这块用来吸水的肌肉，那么自然紧接着陈述，其结果，即金枪鱼不再需要吸水。
5. 细节题 Factual Informationquestions
细节题是托福考试当中题量最大的一种题型，主要是对原文的事实信息进行提问来考察学生的信息检索能力和阅读能力，并且所有的选项都会出现原文的信息来对考生进行干扰。例如：
The muscles of these fishes and the mechanism that maintains a warm bodytemperature are also highly efficient. A bluefin tuna in water of 7°C (45°F) can maintain a core temperature of over 25°C (77°F). This warm body temperature may helpnot only the muscles to work better, but also the brain and the eyes. Thebillfishes have gone one step further. They have evolved special"heaters" of modified muscle tissue that warm the eyes and brain,maintaining peak performance of these critical organs.
According to paragraph 9, which of the following is trueof bluefin tunas?
A. Their eyes and brain are more efficient than those ofany other fish.
B. Their body temperature can change greatly depending onthe water temperature.
C. They can swim in waters that are much colder thantheir own bodies.
D. They have specialmuscle tissue that warms their eyes and brain. 做细节题的第一步就是“定位”，要找到原文答案所在的区间。题干中
问到“bluefin tunas”，我们回到原文，找到定位句：…A bluefin tuna in water of 7°C(45°F) can maintain acore temperature of over 25°C (77°F)…，即蓝鳍金枪鱼可以在低于自己体温（25°C）的水温（7°C）中生活，所以正确答案选择第三个。而其它干扰选项在原文均有出现，但是并不属于题干所问内容。
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TOEFL阅读高难度句子举例解析及翻译 摘要：托福阅读中也会出现一些考验大家的托福阅读难句，遇到这些句子的时候，要在平时新托福阅读中注意积累，觉得用得到的要记下来，以下总结的托福阅读中的几个高难度句，希望对大家有所帮助。 "Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships." 很多同学，看到上面的“we view the people as ends in themselves”和“we perceive people as means to ends”就彻底晕菜了。这个其实是可以理解的，这两句话实际是哲学家Kant(康德)关于道德的哲学思想。我们先来看看康德是怎么说的： Humanity According to Kant, there are different ways to state what our duty is. One of them involves the idea of a law. Another involves the idea of humanity, or human reason. Morality says that you should never treat rational human beings merely as means to your end. Whenever you use someone’s skills or services to your own end, you should always also treat that person as an end in him- or herself. 翻译：康德认为，有不同的方式来陈述我们的职责。其中一个是涉及法律。另外一个是涉及人性和人道。道德论认为，你永远不应该把一个理性的人只是作为你达到你的目的中间手段。当你用其他的服务和技能作为你达到你的目的是，你应该尊重他们作为个体而不是你的手段而已。 分析：这里的mean实际上是一个途径，一个中间过程。如果我们把他人视为达成某种目标的中间途径,那就不是道德的。end在这里是终点，自身的结果。只有把他人视为end才是尊重别人才是道德的。 其实这个道理很简单。就是我们常说的：不已结婚为目的谈恋爱都是耍流氓。你不已结婚为目的，就是把女孩当成means了，所以很不道德。你如果是以结婚为目的话，就是当成ends了。
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托福阅读真题3 PASSAGE 3 The Native Americans of northern California were highly skilled at basketry, using the reeds,grasses, barks, and roots they found around them to fashion articles of all sorts and sizes- not only trays, containers, and cooking pots, but hats, boats, fish traps, baby carriers, and ceremonialobjects. Of all these experts, none excelled the Pomo — a group who lived on or near the coast during the 1800's, and whose descendants continue to live in parts of the same region to this day. They made baskets three feet in diameter and others no bigger than a thimble. The Pomo people were masters of decoration. Some of their baskets were completely covered with shell
pendants; others with feathers that made the baskets' surfaces as soft as the breasts of birds. Moreover, the Pomo people made use of more weaving techniques than did their neighbors. Most groups made all their basketwork by twining —the twisting of a flexible horizontal material, called a weft, around stiffer vertical strands of material, the warp. Others depended primarily on coiling — a process in which a continuous coil of stiff material is held in the desired shape with tight wrapping of flexible strands. Only the Pomo people used both processes with equal ease and frequency. In addition, they made use of four distinct variations on the basic twining process, often employing more than one of them in a single article. Although a wide variety of materials was available, the Pomo people used only a few. The warp was always made of willow, and the most commonly used weft was sedge root,
托福阅读真题100篇原文+题目(一)
托福阅读真题100篇原文+题目(一) 托福阅读在备考的过程中，大家可以多找一些真题来进行练习 PASSAGE 1 By the mid-nineteenth century, the term icebox had entered the American language, but icewas still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States. The ice tradegrew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by someforward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter. After the Civil War (1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use. Even before 1880, halfthe ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston andChicago, went to families for their own use. This had become possible because a new householdconvenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented. Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the early nineteenthcentury, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration,was rudimentary. The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the icefrom melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling.Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping the ice in blankets, which kept theice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve thedelicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox. But as early as 1803, an ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the righttrack. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the villageof Georgetown was the market center. When he used an icebox of his own design to transport hisbutter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff
汇总解读托福阅读题型5大类常见高频难题
汇总解读托福阅读题型5大类常见高 频难题 汇总解读托福阅读题型5大类常见高频难题,这些针对性解题技巧赶紧学起来，下面就和大家分享汇总解读托福阅读题型5大类常见高频难题,希望能够帮助到大家，快来学习一下吧。 汇总解读托福阅读题型5大类常见高频难题 托福阅读高频难点题型：主旨题 主旨题有三种：A、作者的意图;B、*标题;C、*的中心思想。这种题一般为第一道题，建议考生把这道题放在最后做，因为做其他题时，考生会逐步了解*的各个细节，在做题的过程中就会对*个总的理解，最后处理主旨题可谓水到渠成、万无一失。 托福阅读高频难点题型：列举题 列举题有两种：A、一正三误;B、三正误。也可分为四类。第一类：一句话列举。根据某个选项的语言提示，回归*找到一句话，这句话包含三个选项的内容;第二类：局部列举。根据题意，回归*发现连续两三句话涉及三个选项的内容;第三类：段落列举。题干语言在某自然段首句重现。这个句子为段落主题句，即三个选项的内容在这段出现，不涉及到其他段落;第四类：*列
举。选项内容涉及整个*。一句话列举题和段落列举题有明显的信号词帮助答题，根据题序做题，不必区别对待。*列举题和局部列举题则应放其他题做完之后再处理。 托福阅读高频难点题型：*结论题 *结论题即根据*可以推断出下面哪个选项结论是正确的，题干没有任何语言信号词。这种题有以下几种布局：为*第一道题时，相当于*主旨题，应放在最后一道题时，有可能针对*最后部分，也有可能针对整篇*，但不大可能涉及*其他部分的细节。所以*结论题应该具体情况具体分析，并不一定是面对整个*。 托福阅读高频难点题型：作者态度题 作者态度题分为两种：A、局部作者态度题;B、整体作者态度题。*最后一道题问及作者态度时为整体作者态度题，它涉及通篇*，要根据整个*数个语言点串起来的一根主线答题，也就是作者行文的口气。考生千万不可以根据某一个语言点答题，因为整体作者态度题不是考核某一个点，而是考整体感觉。局部作者态度题位置比较灵活，往往问及作者对*中某一个具体内容的看法，题干通常信号请将考生带回*某一区域，考查考生对某个语言点的理解。有时候，某个选项从作者的表达相悖，因此，做作者态度题时，考生一定注意不要把自己作为读者的分析、观点强加于作者。
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0308 托福试题 阅读（55minutes） Question 1-11 If food is allowed to stand for some time, it putrefies .When the putrefied material is examined microscopically ,it is found to be teeming with bacteria. Where do these bacteria come from , since they are not seen in fresh food? Even until the mid-nineteenth century, many people believed that such microorganisms originated by spontaneous (5 ) generation ,a hypothetical process by which living organisms develop from nonliving matter. The most powerful opponent of the theory of spontaneous generation was the French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur(1822-1895).Pasteur showed that structures present in air closely resemble the microorganisms seen in putrefying materials .He did (10) this by passing air through guncotton filters, the fibers of which stop solid particles. After the guncotton was dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether, the particles that it had trapped fell to the bottom of the liquid and were examined on a microscope slide .Pasteur found that in ordinary air these exists a variety of solid structures ranging in size from 0.1 mm to more than 1.0 mm .Many of these bodies resembled the reproductive (15)structures of common molds, single-celled animals, and various other microbial cells . As many as 20 to 30 of them were found in fifteen liters of ordinary air ,and they could not be distinguished from the organisms found in much larger numbers in putrefying materials .Pasteur concluded that the organisms found in putrefying materials originated from the organized bodies present in the air .He postulated that
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托福阅读难句专业翻译一 1. Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mined the desired effect – success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun – as an actor might. 戴着面具身着盛装的人们，经常扮演各种其他人物、动物或超自然生灵，并且作为一个扮演者所能做的，就是期盼一个在狩猎或战役中获胜、降雨的来临，阳光的重现的结果。 2.But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth. 但是这些事实不能解释这个令人感兴趣的问题，就是为什么在一个特殊的靠近他们出生的地方如此的集中了这么多怀孕的鱼龙。 3.A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instruments capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to a ship, percussive brilliance. 十九世纪一系列持续的机械进步，包括踏板的传入、金属结构的完善和钢丝最完美的质量，最后产生了一种能容纳无数音调-从最精致的和弦到一个成熟管弦的声音或从一个清澈的歌声到辉煌的敲击乐的效 果-的乐器。 4.Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1972 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. 虽然我们习惯于谈到1972年以前的电影是无声的，但用一句完全感性的话来说电影从来就不是没有声音的。 5.For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualifications for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces. 多年以来电影音乐的选择程序完全掌握在导演和音乐督导手中，通常拥有这些权力的主要资格并非是自身的技艺和品味而更多的是因为拥有大量的个人音乐素材库。 6.Rather, they were made of a top layer of woolen or glazed worsted wool fabric, consisting of smooth, compact yarn from long wool fibers, dyed dark blue, green, or brown with a bottom layer of a coarser woolen material, either natural or a shade of yellow.
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托福阅读真题3 PASSAGE 3 The Native Americans of northern California were highly skilled at basketry, using the reeds,grasses, barks, and roots they found around them to fashion articles of all sorts and sizes- not only trays, containers, and cooking pots, but hats, boats, fish traps, baby carriers, and ceremonialobjects. Of all these experts, none excelled the Pomo — a group who lived on or near the coast during the 1800's, and whose descendants continue to live in parts of the same region to this day. They made baskets three feet in diameter and others no bigger than a thimble. The Pomo people were masters of decoration. Some of their baskets were completely covered with shell pendants; others with feathers that made the baskets' surfaces as soft as the breasts of birds. Moreover, the Pomo people made use of more weaving techniques than did their neighbors. Most groups made all their basketwork by twining — the twisting of a flexible horizontal material, called a weft, around stiffer vertical strands of material, the warp. Others depended primarily on coiling — a process in which a continuous coil of stiff material is held in the desired shape with tight wrapping of flexible strands. Only the Pomo people used both processes with equal ease and frequency. In addition, they made use of four distinct variations on the basic twining process, often employing more than one of them in a single article. Although a wide variety of materials was available, the Pomo people used only a few. The warp was always made of willow, and the most commonly used weft was sedge root, a woody fiber that could easily be separated into strands no thicker than a thread. For color, the Pomo people used the bark of redbud for their twined work and dyed bullrush root for black in
18年托福阅读真题附答案
The Extinction of the Dinosaurs million years ago) and the Paleocene period (65..C55 million years ago) in part by the types and amounts of rocks and fossils they contain or lack. Before the limit of 65 million years ago，marine 2.strata are rich in calcium carbonate due to accumulations of fossils of microscopic algae deposited on the sea floor. Above the 65-million-year limit，sea-floor sediments contain much less calcium carbonate ，and fossils of several families of mollusks are no longer found. In continental sediments ，dinosaur fossils ，though frequent before 65 million years ago ，are totally absent. By 3.contrast，new families of mammals appear，including large mammals for the first time. Scientists wondered for many years about what could have caused the dinosaurs' rapid disappearance at the end of the Cretaceous period，coming up with a great variety of theories and scenarios. For some, it could have been due to unfavorable genetic changes triggered by a dramatic increaseby a factor of 10，100，1，000 in cosmic-ray particles reaching the Earth after a supernova explosion somewhere in the neighborhood of the solar system. For these high-energy particles to affect life，they would have to get through the protective barrier of the Earth's magnetosphere ，the region of the upper atmosphere controlled by Earth's magnetic field. That could have happened if the cloud of particles from the supernova explosion reached the Earth during a period when the magnetosphere was weakened ， something that may happen when the Earth's magnetic field changes direction. And we know that the magnetic north and south poles of the Earth switch on the average twice every million years. However，this is not the only possible explanation for dinosaur destruction . 4.Other theories have raised the possibility of strong climate changes in the tropics (but they then must be explained) . Certainly，if climate changes，the changed distributions of temperature and rainfall modify the conditions that favor one ecosystem over another. The extinction of a particular family，genus，or species may result from a complicated chain of indirect causes and effects. Over thirty years ago ，scientist Carl Sagan quoted one suggestion that the demise of the dinosaurs resulted from the disappearance of a species of fern plant that was important for dinosaur digestion. Other theories involved a worldwide cold wave following the spread of a layer of cold but not very salty water in the world's oceans ，which floated on the surface because，with its low salinity，the water was less dense. 5.Proponents of another theory that remains under consideration today postulate that the extinction of the dinosaurs corresponds to a period of intense volcanic activity. It's not a question of just one or even of a thousand eruptions comparable to the explosion of Krakatoa in 1883，one of the largest volcanic events in modern times ，but rather of a prolonged period of activity. On the Deccan plateau in India，basalt (volcanic) rocks cover more than 500，000 square kilometers (nearly 200，000 square miles)，and correspond to massive lava outflows occurring precisely at the end of the Cretaceous. This sort of outflow could correspond to volcanic activity similar to the activity that drives sea-floor spreading ，with lava emerging from elongated fractures in the crust rather than from craters. 6.The volcanic convulsion that buried the Deccan plateau in lava must also have changed the composition of the atmosphere and severely affected climate. Initially，there must have been strong sudden cooling resulting from the blocking of sunlight by sulfate aerosol veils in the