跨文化交际期末论文

外国语学院2013级硕士研究生课程论文

学年、学期2013/2014学年第一学期院部外国语学院

专业外国语言学及应用语言学课程名称跨文化交际学

姓名许霞

学号132080012

任课教师方小勇

成绩

Barriers and Solutions

----A Closer Look at Intercultural Communication

Abstract

As the development of intercultural communication, many scholars discuss or approach intercultural communication from verbal, nonverbal and other perspectives which all make great contribution to intercultural communication. This paper intends to examine the barriers to intercultural communication. In the intercultural communication and cooperation, cultural conflicts often occur. Although the difference between different cultures is no substantial, it is found at all levels: thinking mode, value orientation, communication norms pragmatic transfer and prejudice. Better understanding those factors that affect the intercultural communication can help to diminish communicative obstacles. Besides, the paper also explores some solutions of improving intercultural communication and overcoming the barriers. With these solutions, there will be more understanding and harmony between people from different cultures in the world.

Key words:barriers; thinking mode; value orientation; communication norms; pragmatic transfer; prejudice; solutions

交际障碍与应对策略

--跨文化交际的一次近观

摘要

随着跨文化交际的不断发展，许多学者从言语，肢体言语和其他方面讨论或研究措施，以便跨文化交际活动能够更有效地进行。本文拟就跨文化交际中存在的障碍进行讨论。在跨文化交际与合作中，文化冲突在所难免。尽管不同文化之间的差异不是物质存在的，它可以被发现在所有层面：思维模式，价值取向，交际规范，语用转移和偏见等。交际障碍能否减少取决于人们能否更好地了解影响跨文化交际的因素。另外，本文还将探讨一些提高跨文化交际能力及克服其中障碍的方法。有了这些方法，来自世界不同文化背景的人们之间就能有更多的理解与和谐。

关键字：障碍；思维模式；价值取向；交际规范；语用转移；偏见；方法

Contents

Abstract (English) ................................................................................... I Abstract (Chinese) ................................................................................. I I Contents................................................................................................. I II ⅠIntroduction . (1)

ⅡBarriers to Intercultural Communication (1)

2.1Thinking Mode (2)

2.2 Value Orientation (3)

2.3 Communication Norms (4)

2.4 Pragmatic Transfer (4)

2.5 Prejudice (5)

2.5.1 Definition of Prejudice (5)

2.5.2 Expressions of Prejudice (6)

2.5.3 Functions of Prejudice (7)

ⅢSolutions of Improving Intercultural Communication (9)

3.1 Enough knowledge (9)

3.2 Skilled Actions (10)

ⅣConclusion (10)

Bibliography (12)

Barriers and Solutions

----A Closer Look at Intercultural Communication Ⅰ Introduction

Since the adoption of the opening up and reform policy, China has increased its foreign exchanges. Nowadays, the developments of the economic globalization and information networking advance this kind of exchanges. However, people find that misunderstandings and even conflicts often occur in this kind of cooperations and exchanges. In fact, most of them are caused by cultural differences. China and other countries have different social cultures, and as a consequence, people have different modes of thinking and behavioral patterns. Socio-cultural differences in China and other countries are mainly in terms of geography, philosophy, religion, political system, economic system, methods of education, concepts of values, customs and life styles. These differences are an objective reality and are within the scope of cross-cultural communication. Only through overcoming these differences can we achieve a successful intercultural communication. This paper intends to examine the barriers to intercultural communication and explore some solutions of improving intercultural communication and overcoming the barriers.

Ⅱ Barriers to Intercultural Communication

Whenever we communicate with others, we all hope that the communication is a fulfilling and effective interaction. But, we often meet some obstacles unavoidably. So, we should know some barriers, which will impair our competence and effective communication. Here,

this paper will focus on the thinking mode, value orientation, pragmatic transfer and communication norms.

2.1Thinking Mode

People of different cultures have different cognitive models to the outside world which leads to the differences in thinking modes, especially between the east and west. The characteristics of western thinking mode are logic and analysis, while eastern mode is based on intuition. It is also the feature of the Chinese traditional cultural thinking mode. People, living in this kind of culture, pay special attention to the intuition, with an obvious generality and vagueness. With the lapse of time, the mindset is formed. Mindset can be interpreted as recognition and simplify the process of the classification of the external perception. Of course, some stereotype is correct, while others are wrong, which may directly affect intercultural communication, resulting in communication errors. In intercultural communication, people?s predictions of the behavior of the others in such a mindset are based on their own culture.

This kind of mistake will not only happen on the average people, even famous people like leaders also cannot avoid. By the end of 1949, when MAO Zedong wanted to explain his different view on the issue of the modern Chinese revolution to Stalin during his visit to the Soviet Union, Stalin always changed the topic. Later, when Stalin?s men visited Mao, he lost his temper ad said some bad word, which made them feel puzzled. Actually, in China, people think the attitude of treating a subordinate officer is the attitude towards the officials. MAO zedong's intention was that they would tell Stalin So that Stalin could make an appointment with him. But in the Soviet Union, people's cognition mode is very different. In their view, the reason that subordinates of a senior official are scorned is that they do poor work. If they tell their supervisor

about that, they will be severely reprimanded. Because of the differences in mindsets, Mao?s efforts became meaningless.

2.2 Value Orientation

People learned communication skills in the process of socialization, and this kind of communicative competence and values are inevitably associated together. Every culture has its unique value system. The system is to inform people what is good and what is evil; what is beautiful and what is ugly; what is to be commended and what should be suppressed. This value becomes a cultural philosophy, moral standard and code of conduct for people. Every culture has different judgment standards. But within its own cultural system, it has its rationality of existence. It must not be understood as a standard of value advanced, while another behind. In Chinese culture, people advocate modest and polite. "Adaptable" and "contentment" are seen as a pursuit of the realm. Temperate, kind, courteous, restrained and magnanimous are regarded as firm beliefs. But competitive, self expression and personal highlight are met cold eyes, and even treated unfairly. The pursuit of personal development is seen as a serious individualism. And individualism in the collective orientation dominated Chinese culture, is bound to be condemned for. In western culture, " taking all things calmly " is seen as an expression of the lack of entrepreneurial spirit, is synonymous with laziness and incompetence. Individualism is the core of its values. This culture advocates independent thinking and judgment, encourages people to rely on their ability to achieve their personal interests. Individualism means not only the pursuit of personal material interests, but also the pursuit of differences. In Oriental culture, especially in China, North Korea South Korea and other countries, in addition to guard home, dogs can be eaten. Words used in the Chinese culture, "dog" is a derogatory

word, such as “狗仗人势” “狗尾续貂” “狗头军师” “狗血喷头”. But in Western culture, the dog is seen as man's best friend.

2.3 Communication Norms

Because the interpretation of the same communicative acts, endowed justice and judgment are based on different norms of social behavior, people of different cultural backgrounds often misunderstand each other. Communication norm is a very important process of communication. From the communication point of view, it can be said that a communication norm is a proper communication mode. Identifying intercultural communication norms and comparing the different social norms are two important factors intercultural communications. It should be noted that, in a culture a certain behavior is normative, but in another culture may be banned. In the conduct system, the taboo system is a very important part. Taboo refers to a violation of the social expectations, including words and actions. The contents of taboos vary depending on nations. In Western culture, hosts must dress neatly to receive guests, but it s not so important in Chinese culture. Overall, this phenomenon arises between a strong multi-cultural communication environment and a weak communication environmental culture. The so-called strong communicative environment culture has more taboo rules and high implicit information. But the weak communicative environment is opposite. Generally speaking, the Eastern countries, like China, Japan and Islamic countries, have a strong cultural communicative environment. But European and American countries generally have a weak cultural communicative environment. Communicating from weak to strong environmental culture, people tend to feel a lot of constraints.

2.4 Pragmatic Transfer

In intercultural communication, people often explain and evaluate culture phenomenon, things and other people's behavior with the criteria of their own cultures. The communication barriers have been caused by pragmatic transfer are not rare. The use of language varies from culture to culture. Standards of a culture in itself can only be interpreted in accordance with specific conditions. The underlying causes of communication failure are that people lack sensitivity to socio-linguistic differences and they will unconsciously use pragmatic transfer.

2.5 Prejudice

It is the personal attitude towards intercultural communication. Attitudes are psychological states that predispose us to act in certain ways when we come across social events or objects in our environment. Among all the formed attitudes, prejudice is one of the most influential and effective ones.

2.5.1 Definition of Prejudice

Prejudice is a rigid attitude that is based on group member and predisposes an individual to feel, think, or act in a negative way toward another person or group of per sons. (Bradford …J? Hall 198). It is a presupposition to either act, think, or feel in a negative way, it is not always obvious to those who are the target of the prejudice or to those observing from a distance that prejudice is being expressed.

Prejudice is based on categorization and the desire to control others in ways that demean them directly or indirectly. This definition of prejudice also recognizes that not all negative interactions involving people of various groups are an expression of prejudice. It is difficult with some outward actions to determine whether they are expressions of prejudice. In particular circumstances, a person may say something rude

to his or her good friend.

2.5.2 Expressions of Prejudice

Prejudice is expressed in a variety of ways ---at times subtle and on other occasions overt. Five of those expressions were discussed by Allport. (Samovar. 247). Knowing how prejudices manifested will help you identify your own prejudices and in so doing will improve the manner in which you perceive, approach, and interact with other people. Antilocution or Verbal Abuse

This level of prejudice involves talking about a member of the target group in negative and stereotypic terms. For example, Chinese people are called “Chink”, Polish are called “Pollack”, Japanese “Jap”, Irish “Mick”, Black people “Negros” or “Coon”. Between 1990 and 1991, during the war between America and Iraq, Arab Americans were called “sandsucker”, “towelhead”, “sand negro”, “camel jockey” and “raghead” by some Americans. Besides, American white people prone to say "Dead Indians are good Indians” to humiliate the natives in America ever before. T he fact that American Indians were nearly killed out by white people represents the dark side resulting from prejudice.

Avoid

People also show their prejudice when avoid contact with the disliked group. It is not only psychological avoidance, resulting from the differences of language systems, religious beliefs, and behaviors, excluding from certain kind of people, but also avoid contact in behaviors. For example, it is an inconceivable thing if you let Irish Catholics and Protestants work and have dinner together. These two religious groups, because of the different religious beliefs, have the feud for centuries. So, there are tragic things when they meet each other. In history, there were many examples of how one nation or group of people refused to attend an

important peace conference.

Discrimination

From verbal abuse to avoid, if prejudice developed, it becomes discrimination. Discrimination refers to treat other groups of people unfairly in behavior, including job opportunities, residential housing, political rights, educational opportunities, churches, hospitals and other type of social institution. There are three kinds of discrimination: ethnic discrimination, institutional discrimination, and total discrimination. Ethnic discrimination means that certain people undertake to exclude other members of the ethnic groups because of the ethnocentrism. Institutional discrimination refers to the rights of ethnic groups or individuals are deprived because of the limitation of social custom and the law. Total discrimination means the unfair treatment in the field of education and employment.

Physical Attack

The next level of expression is physical attacks. It often accelerates in hostility and intensity if it is left unchecked. For example, we can see the Ku Klux Klan?s atrocity to black people. In Germany, the neo -Nazi attacks the immigration. We also can see the burning churches, many of them in Black communities. From these we can conclude that physical attacks occur when minorities are the target of prejudiced activity.

2.5.3 Functions of Prejudice

A good way to understand the nature of prejudice is to examine its functions or uses. Prejudice serves at least four functions.

Utilitarian

The first function is the utilitarian or adjustment function. We should adjust to the complex world. If holding certain prejudiced attitudes helps them to adjust, then they will maintain those attitudes.

One reason that people hold prejudice is that it is rewarded in tangible and monetary ways. If jobs are scarce, prejudice may be a way to reduce competition for those jobs and, consequently, the valued resources they entail.

Ego-Defensive

This function is to p rotect people?s views of themselves. If some individuals want to think of themselves as good businesspeople even though they are not particularly successful, they may view those in another and more successful group as cheaters or schemers. This attitude pr otects the individuals? self-image and does not necessitate examination of their reasons for failure in the business world. Also, it protects a positive view of one?s in -group. People learn to value highly the viewpoints put forth by their in-group, and it is easier to reject out-groups than it is to admit that they may have their own worthwhile standards and points of view.

Value-Expressive

It is to project or demonstrate the individual?s self-image. For example, if people believe themselves to be standing up for the one true God through their religious attitudes, then other groups must be incorrect in some way. If one?s in-group has attained creature comforts through the use of valued high technology, then one may see out -group members who have no knowledge of this technology as backward. The value-expressive function of prejudice can complement the ego-defensive function. The former projects or shows an image to the world, whereas the latter protects that image through attitudes that shift the blame for difficulties to others.

Easy knowledge

The knowledge function of prejudice involves the way information is learned and organized. Some prejudiced attitudes serve to provide

knowledge about the world as seen by the in-group, such as the knowledge that certain out-group members are not desirable business parents or romantic companions. Such attitudes help people make decisions when faced with choices in the business world or in their personal lives. An important point for understanding prejudiced attitudes is that the acquisition of knowledge requires time and energy. Given this investment, people have a natural tendency to see others who have not acquired the same knowledge as undereducated or ignorant. Another important point is that, when interacting in other cultures, at least in one international context, sojourners will almost always be placed in the category of out-group members, although often the exact reasons may be unclear. The reasons for such placement will differ from culture to culture, and many of these reasons will be unfamiliar and thus strange to sojourners. If sojourners make an effort to understand the reasons, they may be able to behave in ways that will minimize the negative consequences of their out-group placement.

Ⅲ Solutions of Improving Intercultural Communication

Now we know that there are many barriers impairing intercultural communication. When confront these obstacles，what should we do? How to deal with them? This is an important thing. We should take knowledge，motivation and action into consideration.

3.1 Enough knowledge

First, people should know their own cultures, which can help them to understand another culture very well. Only by knowing our own way of thinking and behaviors can we notice the differences among cultures and can we choose appropriate interpretations to communicate.

Second, here, the knowledge refers to culture-general knowledge

and culture-specific information. The culture -general knowledge can give us insights into the intercultural communication process and sense of cultural practices. The culture-specific information is helpful in reaching the objective in a specific culture. Different patterns, components of intercultural communication and ways in one culture are all belong to the culture -general knowledge. When we know more about the kind of knowledge, we can do with intercultural communication more easily. Besides, what we should know also include culture-specific information. Knowledge of the uniqueness of predominant culture or particular customs in a country will enhance our intercultural interactions. It is important to grasp some culture-specific knowledge when we communicate with people with a specific custom.

3.2 Skilled Actions

Even though people have enough knowledge and suitable motivation, if lack of behavioral skills, we may fail to conduct an intercultural communication as we anticipate. So, appropriate and effective behavioral skills are necessary in the practice of intercultural communication. These skills include skills in explaining ourselves and our world clearly, skills in regulating conversations and skills in showing our understanding to others. Many students of English may think that they can communicate with English speakers successfully as they have good command of English, get some knowledge of the culture and positive motivation. But, eventually, they fail in successful intercultural communication because of the lack of necessary skills. So, we can see how important the skills are. Fortunately, all these skills can be acquired in our daily life.

Ⅳ Conclusion

As a subject covering a broad range of disciplines, intercultural

communication is now arousing more and more public attention. So, when people communicate with others from other cultures, unavoidably, they will meet some barriers. But the rate of progress varies in different cultural areas. There is a difference, and the difference itself is always changing. It is these differences that hinder their effective intercultural communications. In other words, there are potential obstacles where there are intercultural communications. In order to minimize the misunderstandings, people must know the cause of the potential barriers and find out the feasible countermeasures to overcome these barriers. Each region has its own customs due to the differences in living standards, developing seeds and civilization degrees. People develop different characters because of these different customs. When these differences occur together, we should know how to balance them.

Only when these barriers are overcome, the language can serve us efficiently. Therefore, they can improve their communication capacity with foreign languages despite many barriers in the communication.

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