《新编跨文化交际英语教程》复习资料U4

Unit 4 Language and Culture

Some Ideas Related to language and culture

1. Interrelationship between culture and language

Each culture has its own peculiarities and throws special influence on the language system. For example, referring to the same common domestic animal, English chooses the word “dog”, while Chinese has its own character “狗”; Chinese has the phrase “走狗” while English has the expression “running dog”, bu t the meanings attributed to the two expressions are completely different according to Chinese culture and Western culture respectively. To Westerners, “running dog” has a positive meaning since the word “dog”, in most cases, is associated with an image of an animal pet－the favorite friend, thus they have the phrases “lucky dog” (幸运儿), “top dog” (胜利者), “old dog” (老手), “gay dog” (快乐的人), and it is usually used to describe everyday life and behavior, as in “Love me, love my dog” (爱屋及乌)，“Every dog has its day” (凡人皆有得意日). But in Chinese “走狗” refers to a lackey, an obsequious person. Since Chinese associates derogatory meaning to the character “狗” depending on the cultural difference, Chinese has such expressions as “狗东西”，“狗腿子”，“狗仗人势”，“狗胆包天”，“狗嘴里吐不出象牙”，“狼心狗肺”，“痛打落水狗”，“狗急跳墙”.We can obviously see that the meaning attributed to language is cultural-specific. A great deal of cross-cultural misunderstanding occurs when the “meanings” of words in two languages are assumed to be the same, but actually reflect different cultural patterns. Some are humorous as when a Turkish visitor to the U.S. refused to eat a hot dog because it was against his beliefs to eat dog meat.

Some are much more serious as when a French couple on a trip to China took their pet poodle into a restaurant and requested some dog food. The dog was cooked and returned to their table on a platter!

We can summarize the relationship between culture and language as the following: language is a key component of culture. It is the primary medium for transmitting much of culture. Without language, culture would not be possible. Children learning their native language are learning their own culture; learning a second language also involves learning a second culture to varying degrees. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture. It reflects culture. Cultural differences are the most serious areas causing misunderstanding, unpleasantness and even conflict in cross-cultural communication.

2. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The Sapir-Whorf theory, named after the American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, is a mould theory of language. Writing in 1929, Sapir argued in a classic passage that:

Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of

language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the

“real world” is to a large extent unconsciously built upon the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir 1958 [1929], p. 69) This position was extended in the 1930s by his student Whorf, who, in another widely cited passage, declared that:

We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of

phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds —and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way —an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees. (Whorf 1940, pp. 213-14; his emphasis)

3. The Role of Words in Various Cultures

Words are inventive tools for communication, and the enjoyment of using this toolbox of symbols varies from culture to culture. In low-context cultures, the role of words is of informational; meaning is encoded explicitly.

Not to encode messages explicitly is to risk being misunderstood in those cultures. In high-context cultures the purpose of communication is often socially lubricative. That is, communication first has a role in sustaining relationships, and second only within the context of a relationship of transmitting information.

4. The contrasts between Chinese and Western writing in English.

Reading I

How Is Language Related to Culture Comprehension questions

1. What can we do to avoid attributing a very different meaning to the phrase or interpret it much more literally?

We have to be aware of the cultural implications of the phrase.

2. What are the other functions of using question forms apart from asking for information?

It serves as a lubricant to move the conversation forward. A question that has this function can be called a ―social question.

3. Why are those Germans getting stiffer and more reserved all the time when visiting Ingrid Zerbe?

They are confused about how to address her, for she introduces herself by first and last name rather than by last name and professional title.

4. How does the environment influence the use of language?

Language reflects the environment in which we live. We use language to label the things that are around us.

5. Does the author think there are exact equivalents in dictionaries that have the same meanings in different cultures?

No. According to the author, there are no such equivalents between languages; therefore, to communicate concepts effectively, cultural knowledge is as important as linguistic knowledge.

6. How does the language change over time?

Words and phrases that are used commonly at one time may be discontinued or their meaning may change over time.

7. Does the author think it is possible for countries such as France and Iceland to keep their language pure by implementing language policy to ensure the use of standardized language?

The author does not think so, because, for instance, the Academie Francaise may insist on certain rules, but other French-speaking groups may make their own rules and consider their Frenchjust as correct.

8. What are the possible language barriers in classroom teaching?

In some cases the professors actually may have a poor command of the language; however, in most cases the problem is not the language but different intonation patterns and different cultural signals. .

Reading II

Language-and-Culture, Two Sides of the Same Coin

Comprehension questions

1. What is the author?s view of the relationship between language and culture? Language and culture are clearly fused; one reflects the other.

2. In which ways does language reflect the culture?

Language embodies the products, perspectives, communities, and persons of a culture. Members of the culture have created the language to carry out all their cultural practices, to identify and organize all their cultural products, and to name the underlying cultural perspectives in all the various communities that comprise their culture.

3. How can we use the right language in the right way according to the author?

It is based on direct experience in the culture and interactions with members of the culture, in all the complexity this entails.

4. Is there any cultural product that consists entirely of language? Can you give an

example?

Many cultural products, such as literature, tax codes, telephone directories, operating instructions, passports, consist entirely of language. Another example is folklores.

5. What is the meaning of “language is a cultural product in and of itself”?

When spoken and written, language takes on tangible and perceptible forms. These tangible forms, as with any cultural product, can be described through language. We constantly use language to discuss language itself.

6. Can you give an example of how words lead to cultural perspectives?

For example, as we have already learned, the kinship terms specifically used in Chinese lead to a cultural perspective that is different from that of the

English-speaking people in this aspect.

7. What did the Chinese teacher find from her in-depth study of “the bumper sticker”? The perspectives are indeed embodied in words, phrases, and sentences, but they are not always immediately obvious, especially to outsiders.

8. Are there any particular norms made by different communities for their language use?

Yes, there are. Communities define norms for appropriate use of language. Within groups, roles, relationships, and other social factors influence who speaks, what they say, and how they say it. The language forms we use in one set of social circumstances with certain communities are not necessarily the ones we use in others. Case Study

Case 13

This example vividly illustrates that failures in intercultural translation may probably lead to very serious consequence, or even disasters to human beings. Definitely, translation is not such a simple process as rendering a word, a sentence or a text literally, but rather a far more complex one than most people assumed.

For example, once a Chinese cosmetic manufacturer wanted to promote their products into the international market. The slogan of the advertisement was: ―sweet as Jade, since in Chinese ―jade was always employed to compliment woman…s beauty; but unfortunately, it was not an appropriate word to describe the beauty of a lady in Western cultures. In English, ―jade in its use of referring a woman had the connotations such as vulgar, rude, immoral, or skittish. Undoubtedly, the sales in European countries were not satisfying.

The seeming equivalents between languages may have very different connotations in different cultures, thus the translator should be cautious in the process of doing the translation so as to avoid misunderstandings.

Case 14

“杨” refers to Yang Kaihui w h o w a s Mao Zedong…s deceased wife and ―柳‖ refers to Liu zhixun who was Li shuyi…s deceased husband. They can be translated in different ways, but it seems to be very difficult, if not impossible, to achieve equivalence in translating from Chinese into English.

Adopting the literal translation strategy, version 1 appears to be faithful to the original but may easily confuse the readers in the target language. Version 2 employs

the liberal translation strategy with an attempt to convey the original meaning as precisely as possible. However, the original poetic flavor is lost as the rhetoric device — pun — is not reproduced.

Case 15

The translation seems to be faithful to the original, but it may not be really good for the purpose of intercultural communication. Foreign readers of the translation may find it strange and inappropriate.

The following is what a friendly American journalist has commented on the translation:

My first reaction was unfortunately laughter because it is so full of mistakes. It omits some necessary information about the Dragon-Boat Festival, including its historical origins and when it actually takes place. These things are important… The copy seems to try to ―snow the reader with fanciful, overblown assertions about how terrific it all is, but in unintentionally hilarious language that leaves the reader laughing out uninformed… The b rochure also suffers from lack of background material, the taking-if-for-granted that the reader already is familiar with many aspects of Chinese history and culture… It doesn…t tell you where to go, how to get there, when things are open and closed, how much they cost, and so forth. All these are things people visiting an area want to know.

Why is it that many Chinese travel guides read basically the same, no matter what region is being written about, and are so packed with indiscriminate hyperbole? Less exaggeration would actually be more convincing.

Case 16

Comparing the two English versions, we can see that in Yang…s version more culturally-loaded meanings are conveyed from the original while Hawkes… version may be easier for English-speaking readers to comprehend.

Look at some of the differences between the two versions of this extract: 贾母The Lady Dowager / Grandmother Jia

老祖宗Old Ancestress / Granny dear

凤辣子Fiery Phoenix / Peppercorn Feng

二舅母王氏Lady Wang, her second uncle…s wife / her Uncle Zheng…s wife, Lady Wang

学名叫做王熙凤the school-room name His-feng / the somewhat

boyish-sounding name of Wang Xi-feng

黛玉忙赔笑见礼，以“嫂”呼之Tai-yu lost no time in greeting her with a smile as ―cousin.

Dai-yu accordingly smiled and curt-eyed, greeting her by her correct name as she did so.

竟不象老祖宗的外孙女儿She doesn…t take after her father, son-in-law of our Old Ancestress /

She doesn…t take after your side of the family, Ganny.

怨不得老祖宗天天嘴里心里放不下No wonder our Old Ancestress couldn…t put you out of her mind and was forever talking and thinking about you. / I don…t blame you for having gone on so about her during the past few days

现吃什么药？What medicine are you taking? / Not translated

And there are some culturally-loaded expressions in the text that seem to defy translation:

琏二嫂子

内侄女

以“嫂”呼之

外孙女儿

嫡亲的孙女儿

妹妹

By comparing different translations of the same text, we can achieve a better understanding of cultural gaps and differences and then learn to employ proper strategies to bridge those gaps in translating across languages for intercultural communication.