城市规划专业英语阅读

Kyungrock YE, Jun-hua ZHANG, Takeshi KINOSHITA, Xing-yan WANG

Recently it is frequently discussed on the Eastern Asia Community. This is still mainly focused on the economy, but in environmental aspect we also have some common serious problems ,e.g.sustainable development, bio-diversity, outstanding landscape/nature conservation, balanced development of town and country, cultural assets conservation/utilization and several environmental problems. In order to settle these subjects, it is important not only to challenge by each country but also to prepare a common framework for comprehensive spatial planning covering whole eastern Asia..

This study was done to clarify the similarities and differences of national territory planning system of Japan, China and Korea as a first step to discuss on the subjects and possibilities of comprehensive Eastern Asian spatial planning. Until now the national territory planning system of Japan and Korea have already been studied , but the comparative study between three countries including China from the viewpoint of spatial planning has never seen before. We used mainly related literatures on planning system and government's official websites of each country to clarify the purposes of this study. And we classified each country's major spatial plans into four categories,national, regional, urban area and non- urban area, and discussed on the vertical and horizontal relation between them.

1 National Territory Planning System of Japan

The Comprehensive National Development Act(1950), Land Use Planning Act(1974) and City Planning Act (1968) support Japanese major spatial planning (Table 1). These are all under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Land, infrastructure and Transport. The CNDP provides tong-range visions on nation-wide land use, development and conservation, social overhead capital, and a traffic policy. According this plan, the CPDP and MLP are to be prepared. The Plans provided by Land Use Planning Act includes NLP and PLP on the perspective of effective national land use and LUMP that classified prefectural land use into five areas (town, agriculture, forest, natural park and natural conservation area). Fig. 1 shows that there are main two spatial plans by two acts at national and regional level, but the relation and a role sharing between the acts and plans.Representative plans of urban area and non-urban area are the MLP by Land Use Planning Act and the CP by City Planning Act, but the relation between the two is not clear and actually the only CP plays a key role to control land use. it is clear that the Japanese national territory planning is divided into NLP and CP and the role of regional planning is relatively small. Therefore the area that is closely covered by main three acts is only 'city planning area', the other non-urban area is depended on other related acts (Fig.1). The area classification by LUMP supports competent ministries and acts, and separate plans are applied to each area. In other words, one may say that the Japanese national territory planning stresses the urban areas' plans and in non-urban areas there is no comprehensive plan that unifies the related plans (Fig. 1) and a frame/role of regional planning is relatively weak.

2.National Territory Planning System of China

The Land Management Act (1986), City Planning Act (1989), and the Village and Country Planning Regulations (1993) support Chinese major spatial planning. The competent ministries are classified into the Ministry of Land and Resources , the Ministry of Construction , and the National Development and Reform Commission. Under the Land Management Act the administrative authorities (upper level of prefecture) prepare the CNLUP to classify the future

land use and control, to regulate net volume of construction site, and to protect farmlands. Under the City Planning Act, the NTCP provides a long-range hierarchy of cities' population size and city planning area in the whole national territory from the comprehensive strategic viewpoint of economical and social development in harmony with resources and ecological environment. The CP is constituted with ComP (indicates the future development direction and land use of administrative units upper level of prefecture), DP (which is prepared in the district area), and DeP (provides other detail items). The VCP provides village and country's development direction and placement plan of production and life facilities such as transport, disaster prevention, commerce and greening, etc., enhancing local identity. The RP is a wide area planning of an economic community covering plural administrative units to harmonize economical development and resources management like as 'The Yangtze River Delta Area Plan'. This plan has possibility to play a role of wide area (theoretically whole national area) adjustment beyond a wall between administrative areas targeting a plan of city size, transport networking, utilization, development and conservation of resources, etc., but it is said the power and management base as a spatial plan are relatively weak 。

By the way in the letter of each act it is prescribed that the VCP has to adjust itself to CP and CLUP, and the CF has to adjust itself to the CLUP and RP, but actually false setting has occurred frequently because of a difficulties of planning adjustment between different ministries and unclear share of the role between these plans. On the other hand, the administrative authorities upper level of prefecture has a responsibility to prepare each plan, thus it is said that there is much repetition of a plan，however, the almost whole national territory (both urban areas and non-urban areas) is closely covered by these CP and VCP (Table 1).

As a result, in the national territory.planning there are similar planning concepts as much as the number of competent ministries, possibility to become a repetition plan is high. This planning system make covering both town and country area has already been established, but each plan is tend to be bound to an administrative authority, therefore a general idea such as RP is need to spread, that can adjust the matters in wide area covering some provinces and in medium area covering some cities and prefectures.

3 National Territory Planning System of Korea

The Korean system is simpler than the Japanese and the Chinese one, reflecting small national territory. Major spatial planning related acts are the Framework Act of National Territory(2002) and the Act on Planning and Use of National Territory (2002) ，and the competent authority is the Ministry of Construction and Transport only. Plans provided by these two acts completely share in responsibility. The CNTP provides fundamental and long-range policies on the nation/ region/municipality's development direction and future image, utilization and management of land resources,disaster prevention and environmental conservation and improvement, etc. The RP (provided by the Act on Planning and Use of National Territory), which is comprehensive plan covering wide area (that is set if necessary) to extend to several cities and counties, aims to share in responsibility of urban functions at wide scale, open space planning, environmental planning, and landscape planning. The CP (covering urban areas) and the CoP (covering non-urban of areas) are the long-range comprehensive spatial planning, and both plans consist of a master plan and a management plan. The CMP and COMP provide direction and aims of land use,development and conservation and the CMaF and the CoMaP conduct a management of them. Consistency between plans is high because of a Strlct top and bottom

relation. The relation between the CoP and other related acts (by other ministries) are clear, too. In addition the CP and CoP are in the higher position of spatial planning system in competent administrative area, and they function as an integrated planning in a city or a county. As a small country Korea, to applying different planning system to town side and countryside rather brought an environment or landscape impoverishment in non-urban areas, thus it became possible to apply technique of city planning to a non-urban area under establishment of new acts of 2002.

As a result the Korean planning system became simple structure, but the strict relation Between a higher plan and a lower plan may bring standardization and stiffening of planning.therefore it become basic subjects how to surpass the simple way of thinking of city planning system, how to apply other related plans and local and national identity into plans, and how to integrate/use effectively ministries' viewpoints.

4 Conclusions

(1)Acts and competent ministries related national territory plan: One may say that Japan and China have similar planning system, as .showing (Fig.l) when there is plural acts that support national territory plan, the relation between plans and a role of each ministry should be made clear.

(2)Vertical relation of plans: China and Korea has comparatively clear vertical relation between plans because they both have strong nature to transmit planning policy from top to bottom. However, an each plan of China was strictly bound to administrative unit and in Japan the role of semi-wide area planning is relatively weak. In the future, setting wide-area planning beyond single administrative unit would be possible to connect effectively the higher plans and the lower plans,according to economic, cultural and natural conditions.

(3)Spatial area covered by national territory plan: In Japan the area covered by a certain comprehensive plan is actually limited to city planning area (CPA). Spatial planning does not cover almost non-CPA area; therefore comprehensive environmental or landscape improvement from a viewpoint of multi-directions is possibly difficult.

(4)Weight of planning: We might say Japan puts the weight of planning to urban area, and Korea, theoretically, puts the weight to both urban and rural area equally. In China, nowadays the weight of planning is particularly on tile urban area with high economic growth. However it is important tasks to establish non-urban area's comprehensive planning in three countries, in other words, to conserve their own nature, culture and landscapes of non-urban area, strengthening local identity and originality.

Through this study, we can refer that there is a big relation between the size of national territory and a character of the planning system. Wider national territory has more multistage administrative unit, and the planning phase also tends to become more complicated. If we assumed the Eastern Asian Spatial Planning as one community, the subjects would be wider regional tasks like nature/environment/biosphere/cultural area conservation, economical and social interchange, and strategic traffic route,’etc. Considering these themes, it will be needed in the future to collect information about Eastern Asia to study possibility of a wide area zoning across the country borders.

最近东亚共同体经常被讨论，主要关注仍然是经济问题,但在环保方面我们也有一些常见的严重问题需要解决,如可持续发展、生物多样性、优秀景观、自然保护、城乡协调发展、文化遗产保护、环境问题等。解决这些问题,重要的不仅是对每个国家的挑战,而是需要准备一个常见的全面覆盖整个亚洲的空间规划的框架。

本研究之目的：第一步是明确日本、中国和韩国的国土规划体系的异同,讨论综合东亚空间规划的课题和可能性。迄今为止,日本和韩国的国土规划体系已经进行了比较研究阶段,但从空间规划的角度对三个国家的比较研究还未进行。我们主要在每一个国家的规划系统的相关文献、政府的官方网站上阐明了本篇研究的目的。我们按照整个大空间规划把每个国家分为国家、地区、城市区域和非城市区域四类,讨论垂直和水平的关系。

一、日本的国土规划系统

综合国家发展行动(1950年)、土地利用总体规划(1974年)和城市规划条例(1968)都支持日本主要的空间规划(表1)。这些都是其管辖下的土地、基础设施、运输。CNDP提供在全国土地利用、保护和发展、社会资本,交通政策的概念规划。根据该规划,CPDP和MLP 已经开始准备。这个能提供土地利用总体规划的计划包括对国家土地利用分类的PLP和NLP和对县级土地利用分成五类(镇、农、林、天然公园和自然保护区)的LUMP。图1显示了两个在国家和地区的水平上主要的空间计划的行为,但这种关系和角色被行为和计划分享，市区和非市区域的代表计划是由土地利用总体规划的的MLP和城市规划的CP,但二者之间的关系尚不清楚,其实只有CP扮演着关键的角色来控制土地使用。很明显,日本国土规划分为NLP和CP，而区域规划的影响是较小的。因此,市区主要由三个行为控制,而其他的非市区是依靠其它相关的行为。LUMP对这个地区的分类支持主管部门和行为,并单独应用于各区域计划中。换句话说,日本国土规划强调城市地区的计划和非地区并没有全面结合相关计划,区域规划还相对薄弱。

二、中国的国土规划体系

土地管理行为(1986)、城市规划条例(1989)、村庄和国家规划法规(1993)支持中国主要的空间规划。主管部门分为国土资源部、建设部、国家发展和改革委员会。根据土地管理法的行政当局（县上级）拟订CNLUP分类未来的土地利用和控制、规范施工现场的净体积、保护农田。根据城市规划法，NTCP提供了城市的远期层次的人口规模,从整个城市的综合经济、社会与资源和生态环境协调发展的战略高度规划国土面积。CP是由ComP（指出今后的发展方向和土地使用单位的行政上级县），DP（这是该区面积编写），和DEP（提供其他细节项目）。VCP提供乡村和国家的发展方向和安置计划的生产和生活设施，如交通，灾害预防，商业和绿化等，加强地方认同。RP是一个涵盖了经济社会的广泛多元的行政区划区规划，协调经济发展和资源管理，就好像'长江三角洲地区计划'。这个计划的可能性，以发挥广域（理论上整个国民经济领域中的作用）超出目标之间的城市规模，交通网络，利用、开发和资源保护等规划调整行政区域，但作为一个空间计划，力度和管理基础相对薄弱。

另外，每一个字母的方式行为是受到规定的，VCP必须调整自己CP和CLUP，并且CF要调整自己的CLUP和RP，但实际上错误经常发生，因为经常筹划困难调整各部委之间和它们之间的共享计划的作用尚不清楚。另一方面，行政当局县上层有责任准备每个计划，因此有人说，有很多重复的计划，但是，几乎整个国家领土（包括城市地区和非城市地区）密切受这些CP和VCP的影响（表1）。

因此，在国家国土规划上有类似的规划概念跟主管部门的数目一样多，从而重复的计划也变得非常高。这个系统使规划覆盖城市和农村地区都已经建立，但每个计划往往被绑定到一个行政机关，因此，一个总体思路如RP是发扬的，可以调整包括一些省在内的大区域，和包括一个区域及市的区域。

三、韩国国土规划体系

韩国系统要比日本和中国的简单些，反映了小国家的领土。主要空间规划的有关行为，是国家领土（2002年）和规划与国家领土（2002年），而主管机关仅仅是建筑部和交通运输部。这两个计划所提供的行为完全分担责任。CNTP利用土地资源、预防灾害和环境的保护和改善等，对国家、地区、直辖市的发展方向和未来的形象提供根本和长远政策，RP（由规划和使用法规定管理的国土）是个全面计划，涵盖广泛的区域（如果有必要即设置）扩大到好几个城市和县，旨在大规模地在城市功能分担责任，开放空间规划、环境规划、景观规划。CP（包括市区）和COP（包括非地区的城市）是长期提供全面的空间规划，两个计划包括一个总体规划和管理计划. CMP 和COMP提供指导和土地利用，开发和保护以及CMaF 和COMAP是他们的目标进行管理。计划之间的一致性，就像顶部和底部的关系。COP和其他部委的关系是明确的。此外，CP和CoP作为主管行政区域空间规划体系较高的位置对一个城市甚至国家进行综合规划。韩国作为一个小国，对城镇和农村的采用不同的规划制度，以带来的非城市地区的环境或景观发展，因此它使得2002年运用城市规划下建立新的行为非市区成为可能。

因此，韩国计划体制成为结构简单，但严格意义上，较高和较低的计划可能带来的标准化，因此基本问题是如何超越了城市规划体系，思考如何适用其他相关的计划和地方、国家计划，以及如何简单方法整合、使用部委的观点。

4结论：

（1）行为和国家有关部委主管领土的计划：可以说，日本和中国有类似的规划体系。如（Fig.l）显示，当有计划支持国家领土复数行为，每个部门的关系和作用应该明确。

（2）垂直关系的计划：中国和韩国之间的计划纵向关系比较明确，因为它们都具有很强的性质，规划政策从上倒下贯穿。但是，在中国每个行政部门的计划被严格约束而在日本的规划的作用相对较弱。今后，根据经济、文化和自然条件有可能设置超出单一的行政单元规划来有效地连接近远计划。

（3）空间面积覆盖全国领土的计划：在日本某地区综合计划实际上是仅限于城市规划区（注册会计师）。空间规划不包括几乎非注册会计师地区，因此从多方向角度的改善全面的环境或景观可能是困难的。

（4）规划重点：我们可以说，日本提出了在城市规划区内的重点，韩国理论上提出了同等重视城市和农村地区。在中国，现在的重点是规划与城市经济高增长相协调。然而，它的重要任务是建立在三个国家的非城市地区的综合规划，换句话说，要保护自己的自然、文化和非市区景观，加强地方认同和独创性。

通过这项研究，我们可以参考，一个国家领土之间的大小和规划体系的特点有很大关系。更广泛的国家领土上有更多的多级行政单位和规划阶段，也往往使其变得更加复杂。如果我们假定东亚空间规划为一个社会，则环境、生物圈、文化保护区，经济和社会交流，交通路线和战略等学科将会有更广泛的任务。考虑到这些主题，这将是今后需要收集有关资料，以研究跨越国家边界地带东亚地区。

What is Urban Form?

Before discussion on the definition of urban form, it is necessary as a starting point to think about “how is a city formed”. Undoubtedly, people are makers of the city, and their basic intention for building a city is to meet various human needs, for example, settlement, working, transport and recreation. In order to satisfy these needs, a city is built and formed when people construct flats for settlement, shops and factories for working, roads and bridges for transportation, and open spaces for recreation.

在讨论城市形态定义之前，有必要以思考“城市是如何形成的”这一问题为切入点开始。毫无疑问的，人们是城市的建设者，并且其建设城市的主要目的是满足人类的多种需求，例如，居住、工作、交通和娱乐。为了满足这些需求，城市被建造和形成起来。人们为居住需求建造的公寓，为工作需求建造了商店和工厂，为交通需求建造了公路和桥梁，以及为娱乐需求建造了公共空间。

Urban form, including size, density, configuration, layout, mix of uses and building types，can make a significant impact on sustainability. Built form affects how people live in cities, how resources are used and how the economic life of a city functions.

城市形态，包括规模、密度、建筑物组合、布局、混合用途和建筑形式，都能给可持续性带来重要影响。建筑形态影响到人们如何在城市始中生活，资源如何被使用以及城市经济生活如何起作用。

At the same time, except for individual buildings, various spaces are created between two or a group of buildings, skylines are formed by edges of buildings and mountains, townscapes are developed by the appearance

environment, which is an external environment but not a natural environment. Urban form is a term[a1] to depict[a2] the urban built environment.

[a1]术语[a2]描写，描述

同时，除了单体建筑，在两栋建筑及一个组群建筑之间的多样空间也被创造出来，由此，由建筑及山体的边缘所构成的城市天际线也形成起来，城镇风景也由于建筑和空间的出现而形成起来。/ 所有这些都被称作城市建造环境，它是一种外部环境但不是自然环境。城市形态就是描述城市建造环境的术语。

The Elements of Urban Form

There are different perspectives[a1] for perceiving[a2] the elements of urban form.

从功能角度归纳城市形态的组成元素：

[a1]角度[a2]理解

From a functional [a1] aspect, Shirvani laid down eight elements of urban form in his book Urban Design Process (1985, pp.6-48). They are: (1) land use; (2) building form and massing; (3) circulation and parking; (4) open spaces; (5) pedestrian ways; (6) activity support; (7) signage; and (8)

preservation. Apart from Shirvani, Jacobs, Appleyard and Barnett are also advocates [a2] for this school of thought.

从功能的角度来看，shirvani在他的《城市设计过程》这本著作里列出了8个城市形态的组成元素，它们是：（1）土地使用，（2）建筑形式体量外观和建筑群的组合，（3）交通流线和停车，（4）开敞空间，（5）人行道，（6）活动支持，（7）户外广告与路标，（8）古迹保护。除shirvani以外，jacobs,appleyard和barnett 也支持这一思想流派。

[a1]功能的[a2]主张

From a visual and aesthetic perspective, Lynch, in his book The Image of the City (1960), identified five types of elements. They are:

Paths, which may be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads

Edges, which include shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls

Districts, which are recognizable with same common character.

Nodes, which may be centers of activities, like a shopping center, major junctions[a1] ,

places of break in transportation

Landmarks, which are usually a rather defined physical object such as building, sign, mountain or monument.

从视觉和美学的角度来看，凯文林奇在他的著作《城市意象》中，定义了5种元素，它们是：（1）通道：是道路、人行道、车行道、水道，铁路等等；（2）边缘：包括河岸、铁路交叉口、开发区边缘、墙等；（3）区域，是具有相同性质的地区；（4）节点：它也许是活动中心，像是商业中心、主要的交叉口、交通集散点等；（5）地标：它通常是一个明显的物质性的建筑物，像是大厦、标志物、山体或者纪念碑等。

[a1]主要交叉口

Apart from that, Alexander (1977, pp.xxi) suggested that the urban form can also be understood at different scales: from “the very largest for regions and towns”to “neighborhood, clusters of [a1] buildings, buildings, rooms and alcoves[a2] , ending finally with details of construction”.

除以上观点外，alexander认为城市形态能够以不同的尺度来理解，从“最宏观的区域和城镇”尺度到“邻里、建筑群、建筑、房屋和小室的尺度，最终以建设细节的尺度结束。”

[a1]一群[a2]小室

The above perspectives have their own advantages and disadvantages for perceiving the elements of urban form. / The functional perspective is more related to the functions of a city, which can be easily understood from the view of urban planning. It also is easy for practice because it embodies[a1] the concrete[a2] elements that are easy to quantify[a3] and measure in a comparatively[a4] objective[a5] way. However, the functional perspective overlooks[a6] the visual and aesthetic aspect of urban form.

[a1]体现[a2]具体的[a3]量化a4]相当的 [a5]客观的[a6]忽视

以上几种角度在描述城市形态的构成元素上都有其优势和劣势。/ 功能角度更关注的是城市的功能，这一观点就城市规划来说是易于理解的，它也易于实践，因为它体现的是具体的，以一种相当客观的方式，易被量化和测量的元素。然而，由功能角度出发的这一观点忽视了城市形态的视觉和美学方面。

The aesthetic perspective is more related to the image of a city, but it is difficult for practice because the five elements are difficult in quantifying and involved subjective evaluation. / Furthermore, understanding urban form from scale provides a new perspective that urban form should be treated from large scale to detailed scale, but it also failed to provide concrete elements for practice.

美学方面更关注的是城市的形象，但它不易于实践，因为这五个元素不易于量化。/ 再来，从尺度角度理解城市形态，提供了一个新的视角，认为城市形态应该从宏观尺度到细节尺度来考虑，但它依旧不能提供可用于实际操作的具体元素。

Urban form plays an important role in[a1] people’s daily life: the accessibility of open spaces may affect how people enjoy their leisure times, the connections between two places may affect the convenience of movement, the arrangement of building form and massing may give identity to people, the landmarks may give people the sense of belonging Above all, urban form contributes to the quality of life.

城市形态在人们的日常生活中扮演了一个重要的角色：开敞空间的可达性也许会影响到人们如何享受它们的休闲时光；两地之间的联系状况也许会影响到交通的舒适性；建筑形式体量的安排组合也许会给人们带来识别性；地标也许会给人们带来归属感。总之，城市形态对生活质量有重要的影响作用。

[a1]扮演重要角色

Urban Design: An Approach for Dealing with[a1] Urban Form

Taking care of [a2] the urban form, urban design is an approach to create a quality built environment to satisfy and sustain human needs on functional, aesthetic, social, economic and environmental aspects. It focuses on how to deal with the elements of urban physical form –from city structure, building form and massing, to signage. That means the elements of urban form are the elements that urban design needs to deal with (see Figure 8.1).

城市设计是一种创造建成环境质量以满足和使人们在功能、美学、社会、经济和环境各方面的需求可持续的方法，它关注的是城市的形态。它将焦点放在了如何处理城市的物质环境元素方面——从城市结构、建筑形式体量和组合到路标。那意味着城市形态是城市设计所需要处理的元素。

[a1]处理，论述

[a2]照料、保管

When dealing with the elements of urban physical form, urban design concerns “the connections between people and places, movement and urban form, nature and the built fabric, and process for ensuring successful villages, towns and cities”(DETR, 2000, pp.8). During the development of a city, urban design is a process to create harmonious and diversified [a1] built environment to sustain and support human activities. In this sense[a2] , it is an art of making places.

当处理城市物质形态元素时，城市设计关注于“人们与空间之间的联系，运动连贯性以及城市形态，自然和建成肌理，以及确保形成优良村庄的过程，城镇与城市”。在一个城市发展的过程中，城市设计是一个创造和谐及多样化建成环境以维持和支持人类活动的过程，从这一方面来说，它是创造空间的一门艺术。

[a1]多样化

[a2]在这一方面来说

As an art of making places, urban design stands at the joint point of planning and architecture. It injects[a1] a three-dimensional[a2] design concept with city context[a3] considerations into

urban planning while imposing[a4] holistic control to integrate[a5] individual landscape and architecture design. Although the urban design concept was evolved from[a6] architectural aesthetic effect, its considerations have become far broader than only the aesthetic aspect.

作为创造空间的艺术，城市设计处于城市规划与建筑设计之间，它引入了三维的设计理念，将对城市现状的考虑放入了城市规划，同时，将历史性的控制与单独的景观设计和建筑设计结合起来。尽管城市设计构想是由建筑美学影响发展而来，它的考虑范围已远远超越了仅仅的美学范畴。

[a1]引入[a2]三维的[a3]情况，状况 [a4]强使[a5]与…结合起来[a6]由…发展而来Urban design is still an evolving field. In order to achieve sustainable development, ecological[a1] /environmental considerations have recently been added into urban design, which require modern urban design to consider the relationship between natural resources and the artificial[a2] environment. Hence[a3] , urban design should protect natural resources when creating places for people to work, live and relax.

城市设计同样也是（由其他学科）发展而来的领域。为了完成可持续发展，生态学及环境学方面的思考最近也被添加进城市设计中来，这使得现代城市设计在为人们的工作、生活和休闲创造空间的时候要考虑自然资源的因素。

[a1]生态学的[a2]人造的，人建造的[a3]因此

Since urban form is changing with changing situations, urban design acts as a process for giving physical design directions to urban growth, conservation and change (Barnett, 1982, pp.12). Therefore, it is an important issue for urban development and redevelopment.

既然城市形态是随着变化着的形式而变化的，那么城市设计就扮演了一个为城市生长，维持和变化来提供物质设计方向的角色。所以，对城市发展和再开发来说，这是个非常重要的方面。

It considers how development fits into the urban social, economic and ecological context, how to handle the activities and flows[a1] of people and traffic, how to create pleasant spaces to foster[a2] diversified activities, and finally the aesthetic effect on cityscape and individual buildings. Therefore, the fundamental implication[a3] of urban design is to continue the development of city by integrating design issues into planning, landscape and architecture.

[a1]流动[a2]培养、引导[a3]暗示

它考虑的是如何使发展与城市、社会、经济和生态状况相宜；如何处理人们的活动和流动以及交通；如何创造宜人的空间来培养和引导多样化的活动；以及最终美学对城市景观和单体建筑的影响。所以，城市设计最基本的目的就是通过将规划、景观和建筑设计结合起来的方式使城市发展更具可持续性。

Above all, urban design is a significant approach that takes care of the urban built environment for creating a sustainable urban form.

最重要的是，城市设计是一个重要的方法，它处理的是城市建成环境的问题，以创造一个可持续的城市形态。

高考英语阅读理解基础练习题(29)

高考英语阅读理解基础练习题（29）阅读理解 When did you last visit a shopping mall? In many places, the answer would be"last weekend．" Some people go even more often．Why? Malls offer goods andservices all in one place: food, clothing, things for their houses, entertainment, evenmedical services．So, are they one of the highlights of modern civilization?Environmental activists would say no and would go even further, arguing thatconsumer behavior is causing a huge environmental disaster．They cause consumers' ignorance of the side effect of their shopping—urban sprawl （扩大）． Social scientists agree that patterns of development have changed the landscape alot．Before 1950, most people lived in towns or cities and either walked to work ortook public transportation．Only very wealthy people had automobiles．Farmers livedin rural areas or far-away villages and came into town only when they needed thingsthey couldn't produce themselves．If you stared at the landscape you would see townssurrounded by the countryside． Now automobiles become affordable and people are quick to make use of them．Ambitious workers could live in suburbs, just outside cities, which have started togrow rapidly．As long as there is lots of cheap land there, no one pays much attentionto the usage of that land．Malls, fast food restaurants, cinemas, and such spread out inlarge, flat buildings．These one-storey buildings and their parking lot take up too muchspace．Many farmers think they are better off selling their land than growing crops．Noone has realized once the land is built up in urban sprawl, the good farming land willbe ruined forever．There is no way to preserve （保护） it．Only in recent years have people come to miss the old way of life as they havelooked into the problems of unconditional growth．Now people realize that urbansprawl has come with serious environmental problems．The bad effects that sprawlbrings about include air and water pollution, loss of agricultural land, traffic jams, andso on．Many scholars think it's time to analyze the problems better so we can developproper policies to control further sprawl．Some think the best way to do is to educatecitizens．

大学英语阅读训练五篇

Passage 1 There are some very good things about open education. This way of teaching allows the students to grow as people develop their own interests in many subjects. Open education allows students to be responsible for their own education, as they are responsible for what they do in life. Some students do badly in a traditional classroom. The open classroom may allow them to enjoy learning. Some students will be happier in an open education school. They will not have to worry about grades or rules. For students who worry about these things a lot, it is a good idea to be in an open classroom. But many students will not do well in an open classroom. For some students, there are too few rules. These students will do little in school. They will not make good use of open education. Because open education is so different from traditional education, these students may have a problem getting used to making so many choices. For many students it is important to have some rules in the classroom. They worry about the rules even when there are no rules. Even a few rules will help this kind of student. The last point about open education is that some traditional teachers do not like it. Many teachers do not believe in open education. Teachers who want to have an open classroom may have many problems at their schools. You now know what open education is. Some of its good points and bad points have been explained. You may have your own opinion about open education. The writer thinks that open education is a good idea, but only in theory. In actual fact, it may not work very well in a real class or school. The writer believes that most students, but of course not all students, want some structure in their classes. They want to have rules. In some cases, they must be made to study some subjects. Many students are pleased to find subjects they have to study interesting. They would not study those subjects if they did not have to. 1.Open education allows the students to ____. A.grow as the educated B.be responsible for their future C.develop their own interests D.discover subjects outside class 2. Open education may be a good idea for the students who ____. A.enjoy learning B.worry about grades C.do well in a traditional classroom D.are responsible for what they do in life 3. Some students will do little in an open classroom because ____. A.there are too few rules B.they hate activities C.open education is similar to the traditional education D.they worry about the rules 4. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage?____ A.Some traditional teachers do not like it.

《分析化学》专业英语阅读材料03

《分析化学》阅读材料03 摘自Analytical Chemistry (FECS) ●In the Br?sted-Lowry theory, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor. Each acid is related to its conjugate base and vice versa: Acid = base + proton Therefore, the conjugate base of a strong acid must be a weak base and the conjugate base of a weak acid must be a strong base. Together they form a couple, and an acid without its conjugate base is a meaningless concept. In order to release a proton, the acid must find a base to accept it. In an aqueous solution, the proton, H+, having an extremely small ionic radius, cannot exist as such. It is hydrated, forming the hydronium ion H3O+ and higher hydrates. Thus, an acid-base equilibrium is not a simple dissociation equilibrium, but the result of a proton transfer reaction in which there are at least two reagents and two products. Such a process is also called protolysis. The overall reaction is expressed by: HX + H2O = H3O+ + X-. The overall equilibrium constant is K = [H3O+][X-]/[HX][H2O]. The acid dissociation constant Ka is given by: Ka = K[H2O] = [H3O+][X-]/[HX]. Ka reflects not only the acid strength of HX, but also the base strength of water. This why different acid dissociation constants are observed for the same acid in different solvent. ●Similar proton transfer reactions exist in all solvents possessing proton donor and acceptor properties. Proton transfer reactions are extremely fast. This makes them very suitable for analytical applications and acid-base reactions have found wide use in volumetric methods and other analytical techniques. ●The pH value is a measure for the acidity or basicity of a solution, aqueous or nonaqueous. ●Acid-base indicators are chemical substances with acid-base properties, having different colors in their protonated and deprotonated forms. ● A most important application of acid-base systems is related to the property of such a system to act as a buffer. Many chemical reactions produce protons (in aqueous solutions hydroniums) or hydroxide ions. If these products remain in the system, a corresponding pH change is observed. However, if a buffer is present in the solution it reacts with the liberated hydrogen or hydroxide ions so that only a relative small change of pH occurs. Buffer consist of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base. The most efficient buffer for a given pH consists of a 1:1 ratio of the protonated and deprotonated forms of a weak acid (with pKa = pH). This cannot always be achieved, but if we wish to prepare a solution of a certain pH, we select a weak acid with a pKa value close to the desired pH. Buffer solution resists changes in pH upon adding of strong acids or strong bases. Depending on the relative concentrations of the acid and base forms of the buffer, the system can resist small or large additions of strong acid or base. This buffer capacity is defined as the number of moles of strong acid of base required to change the pH of 1 L of buffer solution by one pH unit. Solutions with high or low pH values, formed as a result of dissolution of large quantities of a strong base or acid, are characterized by a large buffer capacity, although the electrolyte practically consists of only one of the conjugate forms (e.g., HCl or NaOH solutions). ● A general requirement for all volumetric methods is that the titration process is fast and that it proceeds in a definite stoichiometric ratio, the endpoint of the reaction must by easy to detect and the reaction should be specific and not influenced by other constituents of the solution, i.e., there should be no interference. Question: 1. A H3PO4 solution is brought to pH = 7.00 by the addition of NaOH. Calculate the concentration of the various forms of orthophosphate if the total phosphate concentration in buffer is 0.200 mol /L. pKa1 = 2.16, pKa2 = 7.21, pKa3 = 12.32. 2. A buffer solution is prepared from acid, HA, Ka = 5 10-5, and its salt. The concentration of HA in the buffer is 0.25 mol / L. To 100 mL of the buffer added 5.0 mmol of NaOH, and the pH of the resulting solution is 5.60. What was the pH of the original buffer? 3.It is desired to change the pH of 100 mL of 0.100 mol / L HCl from 1.00 to 4.40 by the addition of sodium acetate, CH3COONa3H2O. How much solid sodium acetate salt must be added in grams? Assume no volume change for the solution as the result of the addition. 4.What is the buffer capacity of a solution which is 0.100 mol / L of NH3 and 0.200 of NH4Cl? 5.Calculate the pH of each of the following solution: (a) Water in equilibrium with CO2 of the air; pKa1 = 6.38, pKa2 = 10.25. (b) Water as in part (a) brought to pH = 7.00 with NaOH and allowed to regain equilibrium with CO2. 6. Derive the following expression for the pH at the first stoichiometric point in the titration of a mixture of two weak acid: HA, the stronger, Ka1, concentration C1; HB, the weaker, Ka2, concentration C2: pH = 1/2 (pKa1 + pKa2) – 1/2 lg (C1/C2)

英语阅读材料

第六章阅读理解与阅读技能 2009-11-15 23:36:27| 分类：我的世界| 标签：|字号大中小订阅第六章阅读理解与阅读技能 P249（1）记叙文 Stephen Hawking was born in 1942. He’s a world famous scientist and expert on space and time. Stephen is trying to find the answers to some very big questions, such as: how did the universe being? How will it end? 斯蒂芬在1942年出生。他是研究空间和时间领域的一位举世闻名的科学家和专家。斯蒂芬设法发现一些非常大问题的答案，例如：宇宙未来会怎样？它会怎样结束？ Stephen was a student at Oxford University. He studied math and science. Then, at the age of twenty, he became very ill. He was so young, but the doctor said to his family, “He has only two years to live.” The doctors were wrong-he didn’t die. He can’t walk now but he uses a wheelchair. He talks with the help of a computer. After Oxford, Stephen went to Cambridge University. Three years later, in 1963, he became a doctor of philosophy. 斯蒂芬曾经是牛津大学的学生。他学习数学和科学。然而，在20岁时，他生病了。他是如此年轻，但医生告诉他的家人，“他只活两年。”医生是错误的，他没有死。他现在虽然不能走路，但他可以使用了轮椅。随着计算机的帮助，他可以通过计算机举行会谈。牛津大学毕业后，斯蒂芬前往剑桥大学学习。3 年后，在1963年，他成为哲学博士。 Because of his health problems, it was difficult for him to draw diagrams or to write. So he started to think in pictures. With this new way of thinking, he became one of the most famous scientists in the world. In 1981, he met Pope in Rome. They talked about his ideas. Then, in 1988, he wrote his first important book, A Brief History of Time. It sold more than 5.5 million copies in 33 different countries. 由于他的健康问题，出图或写作对于他是很难的。因此他在图片上开始思考。这种新的思维方式，使他在世界上成为了一位最著名的科学家。在1981年，他在罗马遇见了教皇。他们谈论了他的想法。然后，在1988年他写了他的第一本重要的书，《时间的简史》。它在33个不同国家卖了超过550万本。（2）说明文 One type of solar collector is not very expensive. It is put on the roof of a building. It is usually put on the sunny side of the roof. The sun is most direct in this side, and the unit will collect more heat. The surface is black because black collects more heat from the sun. Inside, there are pipes with water. The top is a piece of glass. The sun shines through the glass and air inside. It heats the water that is also inside. A pump, a machine to move the water, starts when water is warm enough. Then hot water goes into a storage tank. This tank stores or keeps the hot water. Then there is hot water to use for washing clothes or taking baths and showers.

大学英语四级考试阅读材料每日一练(十三)

最牛英语口语培训模式：躺在家里练口语，全程外教一对一，三个月畅谈无阻！洛基英语，免费体验全部在线一对一课程：https://www.360docs.net/doc/e913967978.html,/wenkxd.htm（报名网址）Passage 14 Attention to detail is something everyone can and should do-especially in a tight job market. Bob Crossley, a human-resources expert notices this in the job applications that come cross his desk every day. “It’s amazing how many candidates eliminate themselves,”he says. “Resumes arrive with stains. Some candidates don’t bother to spell the company’s name correctly. Once I see a mistake, I eliminate the candidate, ”Crossley concludes. If they cannot take of these details. “Why should we trust them with a job?” Can we pay too much attention to detail? Perfectionists struggle over little things at the cost of something larger they work toward. “To keep from losing the forest for the trees,”says Charles Garfield, associate professor at the University of California, San Francisco, “we must constantly ask ourselves how the details we’re working on fit into the larger picture they don’t, we should drop them and move to something else.” Garfield compares this process to his work as a computer scientist at NASA. “The Apollo II moon launch was slightly off-course 90 percent of the time,”says Garfield. “But a successful landing was still likely because we knew the exact coordinates of our goal. This allowed us to landing was still likely because we knew the exact coordinates of our goal. This allowed us to make adjustments as necessary.”Knowing where we want to go helps us judge the importance of every task we undertake. Too often we believe what accounts for other’s success is some special secret or a lucky break. But rarely is success so mysterious. Again and again, we see that by doing little things within our grasp well, large rewards follow. 66. According to the passage, some job applicants were rejected________ A) because of their carelessness as shown in their failure to present a clean copy of a resume B) because of their inadequate education as shown in their poor spelling in writing a resume C) because they failed to give a detailed description of their background in their applications D) because they eliminated their names from the applicants list themselves 67. The word “perfectionists”(Line 1, Para 3)refers to those who________ A) demand others to get everything absolutely right B) know how to adjust their goals according to the circumstances C) pay too much attention to details only to lose their major objectives D) are capable of achieving perfect results in whatever they do 68. Which of the following is the author’s advice to the reader? A) Although too much attention to details may be costly, they should not be overlooked B) Don’t forget details when drawing pictures

计算机专业英语阅读材料

计算机专业英语阅读材料计算机英语（1） Desktop Pattern In the graphical user interface of Microsoft Windows 98,a graphical pattern-called wallpaper-displayed on the desktop (the background "beneath" windows, icons, and dialog boxes). The pattern or picture in the screen background that can be chosen by the user. To change the desktop pattern, choose Display from the Control Panel. 桌面图案在Microsoft Windows 98的图形用户界面中,一种显示在桌面上称为壁纸(Wallpaper )的图形图案(窗口、图标和对话框后面的背景),屏幕背景可由用户选择图案样式或画面。要改变桌面图案时,从控制面板上选择显示方式。计算机英语（2） Federated Database In scientific networking ,a collaborative database (part of a collaborator) in which scientists pool their knowledge and discoveries .Federated databases are one proposed solution to the Grand Challenges——problems that are so complex that they far outstrip the capabilities of individual scientists ,or even individual research institutions ,to tackle them independently. 联合式数据库在科学联网中,科学家们汇集其知识和发现的一种合作数据库(合作的一部分)。联合数据库是对种种重大挑战问题(Grand Challenges)的一种建议性的解决方案——这些问题太复杂,以致于超出单个科学家的能力,甚至单个研究所都无法来单独解决它们。计算机英语（3） Collapse When creating an outline or viewing a directory tree (such as in the Windows Explorer ),the process of hiding all the outline levels or subdirectories below the selected outline heading or directory. 折叠当生成一个题纲或观察一个目录树(如在Windows资源管理器中)时,在选定的题纲标题或目录下隐藏所有的题纲层或子目录的过程。计算机英语（4） Collision In local area networks (LANs) ,a garbled transmission that results when two or more workstations transmit to the same network cable at exactly the same time . Networks have means of preventing collisions. 冲突在局域网(LANs)中,当两个或多个工作站恰好在同时向同一个网络线路上传送(数据)时产生的错乱传输。网络拥