术语学与语言学的关系

术语学与语言学的关系
术语学与语言学的关系

《中国科技术语》,2007年第三期(2007 No.3, Vol.9)

“术语学”读书札记一:

术语学与语言学的关系

冯志伟1

(教育部语言文字应用研究所)

最近我认真地阅读了现代术语学的创始人欧根·维斯特(Eugen Wüster)的《普通术语学和术语词典编纂学导论》2(Einführung in die allgemeine Terminologie und terminologische Lexikographie)的德文版第三版(1991年在波恩出版)。此书是国际术语学界公认的经典著作,确实应当认真阅读。

我自己虽然在德国特里尔大学担任过几年的教授,对于德语还比较熟悉,但是,由于《普通术语学和术语词典编纂学导论》这本术语学的经典著作涉及面广,博大精深,在阅读过程中,我尽量做到逐字逐句地推敲德文原文的含义,仍然难免有理解不正确的地方。朋友们劝说道,你何不把你的读书心得一一写出来,公之于众,让广大读者来评说你的理解是否正确?朋友们的建议是很有道理的。在朋友们的热情鼓励下,我把自己的读书心得写出来,算做是我的“术语学”读书札记,请广大读者提出批评指正。

此书的第二版于1979年在维也纳、纽约出版,于1985年在哥本哈根出版。在第二版出版之后,本书就成为了一本经典性的术语学手册,在专业领域中的名声越来越大。本文是此书序言部分的读书札记。

维斯特的这本著作,远远不只是一本为未来的术语学家们准备的入门读物;它是对术语学原则性问题的科学论述,同时,它也系统地描述了(尽管人们从书名中猜测不出来)术语这种相对年轻的语言表现形式所独具的特色。术语这种年轻的语言表现形式,尽管在当今许多语言和文化的共同体中扮演着一个重要角色,然而,总体来说,对于它们的实施,目前还缺乏前提条件。

1冯志伟是全国科学技术名词审定委员会委员。

2Eugen Wüster, Einführung in die allgemeine Terminologie und terminologische Lexikographie, 3. Auflage, Bonn: Romanistischer Verlag, 1991.

维斯特这本著作的这种独特之处,正是在于它研究了人们在自身变化着的语言背景下有意识要去关注的术语问题,对于术语这种语言的表现形式的特色进行了深入的研究。

本书的序言讨论了“口头语言(Gesprochene Sprache)”,“书面语言(Schriftsprache)”和“术语(Terminologie)”的差别以及它们和术语学术研究的关系。

一口头语言

对于语言学来说,直到几年以前,在本质上,还只存在着一种语言表现形式,这就是“Sprache”(语言)。在科学发展的历史上,“口头语言”远远地是先于“书面语言”的,在“口头语言”和“书面语言”之间的本质差别开始变得明显之前,大块的时间已经在历史的长河中流逝。这是众所周知的事实。

如果人们想到,自从浪漫主义时期以来,我们考察的对象“语言”的形成是以这样的“假设”(Annahmen)为前提条件的,这个“假设”具有公理的特性。这种“假设”认识的基础是:在德语中,语言(Sprache)和说话(sprechen)是一样的,它们可以相提并论,这容易使人们想到它们都是名称(Bezeichnungen)的形式;从根本上来看,语言就是说话。在威廉·冯·洪堡(Wilhelm von Humbolt) 1836年关于语言学研究的一部巨作中,对“语言”的经典论述如下:“语言,如果从它真正的本质上理解的话,则是某种稳定的、在每一个时刻又是暂时的东西。甚至其通过文字的保存,也一直是一种不完善的、如同木乃伊似的收藏,人们仍然还是需要为此寻找有意义的生机勃勃的演讲。语言本身绝不是产品(Ergon),而是一种创造活动(Energeia)。所以,语言的真正定义可能只是一种发生学上的定义(seyn)。也就是说,语言是一种永恒的、不间断的、精神上的重复性工作,它能够使清晰发出的声音表达出人们的思想。从直接和严格的意义上说,这是对于每一次说话(sprechen)所做的定义;但是,从真正和本质的意义上看,人们还可以把说话的总体看成是语言(Sprache)”。

威廉·冯·洪堡的那个时期是哲学研究全面新开创的时代,人们对语言的理解,从最严格的意义上说,是与口头语言的天然特性的展示紧密相连的;仅仅是在民众

自发进行的日常交谈中,语言的这种名副其实的、真正的本质就已经得到了充分的展示。雅各布· 格林(Jacob Grimm)的《德语语法(Deutschen Grammatik)》(1819年)第一卷中的几行字,就表达了对这种理解的认识,他的这种理解给人一种独立的和绝对可靠的印象:“语言如同所有自然的和有教养的事物一样,是一个未被记载下来的、未被人们意识到的秘密,这个秘密,在我们的青年时期就已经开始培植,它决定了我们本民族特有的语言的音调、变格变位、习惯用语以及语音的硬、软特性等所制定的语言工具的形成。现在,谁能相信,一个如此精深建造的、依据自然法则进行明智取舍的蓬勃发展的语言,是在那些语言专家们所制订的缺乏说服力的、失策的法则的引导下形成的呢? 六百年前,每一个普通的农民就已经知道德语这种语言的完美无暇和精致美妙,也就是说,他们天天都在练习说话,今天最好的语言教师也很难做到这一点。每一个德国人,不管他说的德语是标准的还是糟糕的,也就是说,不管他是否受过教育,(我们根据一个法国人的恰当表述来说):他都被允许使用一种他自己独创的、富有生命力的语法来说话,他能够别具一格地驾驭所有语言专家所制订的语法规则”。与理解口头形式的语言的自然性相关的问题是,很多学者(包括威廉·冯·洪堡)认为,书面语言是反自然的, 这种观点听起来是令人信服的,在当时也比较盛行。

对于语言的这种本质概念的理解难以避免地导致了把文字从语言学研究的兴趣中心驱逐了出去。与“自然性”相对的书面语言,描述的只是某种人造的、因而是次要的东西,这种理解,使人们想起一种传统,它可以追溯到柏拉图(Platon)时代。它的使人信服的能力成为这样的理解继续存在下去的标志,这种能力再次被权威人士的影响力所激活,变得更加活跃。首先在人们对浪漫主义语言着手研究之前,通过让·雅克(Jean-Jacque)时代的法国启蒙主义哲学家卢梭(Rousseau)的影响,再通过约翰·乔治·哈曼(Johann Georg Hamann)和约翰·戈特弗里德·赫德尔(Johann Gottfried Herder),后来在19世纪70和80年代,通过德国历史比较语言学中所谓的“青年语法学派”(Junggrammatiker)的倡导,最后,自从瑞士著名语言学家索绪尔(De Saussure)出版了他的《普通语言学教程》(Cours de linguistique générale) (1916年)之后,主要是通过结构主义者的影响,把这种对于语言的理解进一步发扬光大了。他们声明:“写出来的东西不是语言”。下面是这种声明的一个例子:这里引用的是美国语言学家伦纳德·布龙菲尔德(Leonard

Bloomfield)划时代的著作《语言(Language)》 (1933年)中的一段论述:“书面写作仅仅是借助于可视标记的一种记录语言的方式”,语言首要的表现形式是话语:“所有的语言,在它们几乎全部的历史上,是被不会读或者不会写的人们使用(说)的;这些人们所说的语言,是和有教养的民族的语言一样稳定、有规律和丰富的”。法国语言学家安德烈·马尔丁内(André Martinet)也表达了完全类似的意思;在他的《普通语言学基础》(Eléments de linguistique générale)(1960年)一书的开始,在“语言的语音特征”这个主题之下,他写到:“人类语言的符号,首先是语音类型的,在过去千百万年的时间里,它仅仅是以语音这种形式存在,即使在今天,大多数人还是能够在不会阅读的情况下,把语言用口头形式表达出来,从而使人们能够说话,进行交流”;“人们总是在学习说话”。他继续阐述到,“在人们学习阅读之前,文字的使用是事后才补充到语言上的,从来就没有过出现过‘反其道而行之’的情况”。对书面文字的考察研究,形成了一个与语言学相对的特殊学科,如果说得实际一些,这个学科只是对语言学的补充。所以,语言学家基本上不考虑文字的情形。

这里随便提一下在这种关系中的一种矛盾。这种矛盾存在于这样的事实当中:尽管有这样或者那样的基础性解释,尽管在观点和方法论上一再对人们进行引导,研究的实践还是没能和书写语言相脱离。浪漫主义时期的语言研究,是以书写形式的符号出现的,就和青年语法学派和结构语言学派所处时代的情况一样。后者研究的对象,一般来说,是以音标符号形式出现的借用书写语言。也就是说,这种语言,它的形式是受文字影响的或者被文字打上烙印的。从50年代初以来,当机械化的记载和或多或少自发形成的口头语言的复述技术成为可能以后,这种语言的书面特性才以增长的态势被人们所意识到。口头形式的语言,正如对它的研究所表明的,它描述的只是“语言”基本表现形式中的一种;除了口头语言之外,在语言和文化的共同体中,还表现出书面语言的传统,书面语言是语言的第二种基本表现形式。

二书面语言

对于一门融入了现实环境或者是依赖于一种场景的口头形式的语言而言,对

其特性掌握得越好,对语言和文化共同体中语言使用情况的细微知识越是了解(这个语言和文化的共同体不具有书写语言的传统),人们越能对通过文字表现出来的语言现象有一个更适当的评估。书面语言是“语言” 的第二种表现形式,它描述了一种在“手写文字文化”时代开始的、以图书印刷符号加以表示的语言形式。书面语言是矢志不移地向前推动的有意识的“语言完形化”(Sprachgestaltung)的第一个结果。这里所谓的“语言完形化”,就是语言以书面形式得以保存并完善其客观实体的过程。

书面语言以文字为媒介物来实现,它以文字为基础;把它产生的言论用文字“固定”下来,从而使语言成为客观的实体,并与此相伴随而使语言实现它的完形化。

作为一流文化技术的有意识的语言完形化,完全是以规范的符号形式出现的,其目的是为了连续地形成一种以文本为基础的文化传统,并为这种文化传统的连续性创造前提。书面语言可以在下列的存在物中找到它可见的表达方式:一种经过规范的拼写法(也就是“正字法”),具有标准化形式和精心定义过的使用规则(也就是“语法”),一张通过定义“精心制作的”单词表(也就是“词汇”)。一旦把书面语言作为形式,信息就被记录了下来了,而对于语言的系统化的编辑加工就可以进行了。由此我们可以看出,对语言进行标准化和规范化是有完全可能的;接着,一些不易控制的转变就会逐渐地出现,例如,语言的统一和语言相对的稳定。如果一种语言在一个语言文化共同体中达到了这个发展阶段,一般来说,就能开展语言的保养和爱护活动以及语言的文化活动,这些活动的目的在于保持和维护语言,并在传统的意义上进一步培育它。

在这样的背景下,对于语言的变化这种现象还可以按另外的方式来加以阐明。面向历史的语言学完全不考虑它本身是能够以文字形式固定的物质材料为依据来进行研究的。尽管历史语言学研究的是语音的变化,其目的在于找出语音变化的“规律性”。然而,历史语言学有它的不足,它对于在一个语言文化的共同体中,从某个特定时刻起,有意识的语言完形化的有效主动性的评价是不恰当的。由此得出的结论就是:因为语言学首先是研究文本(Text)和语言现象的,在这段时间里,还不存在“被规定” 了的书面语言,这段时间里,语言的各种各样的完形化所产生的成果,被人们当成“标准”来加以理解和掌握。在一定程度上可以

说,人们从中证明了这样一条广为流传的公理:“语言是在不断变化中被人们理解的”。因此,在当时并没有提出这样的问题:在一个语言文化共同体中,一种统一的、标准的、文学化的和具有文字形式的语言,是在什么时候,以什么方式被发展起来的?。事实上,在许多语言和文化的共同体中,以文字为导向的“统一语言”得到了进一步的发展。有意识的语言完形化技术也被发展起来了,并且将会持续不断地进一步得到发展。其结果就是一种新类型的语言表达形式的产生。可惜的是,在当时人们对于这样的事实习焉不察,它们至多只是在未被觉察的状态下存在的。

三术语

语言的规范化充实了拼写法、口头表达、词法和词汇材料,语言规范化所描述的只是有意识的语言完形化的一种传统情形,这是主要的完形化;语言规范化的结果,形成了一种被全面改进的、对于语言完善过程中各个不同的方面都适合的、统一的、标准的共同语言。自从18世纪后50年以来,又出现了另外一种有意识的语言完形化的情形,这是次要的完形化;这种完形化的愿望是将标准语的共同语言改造成一种“精密的工具”(Pr?zisionsinstrument)。在主要的和次要的语言完形化之间,允许存在适当的差别。

次要的语言完形化的对象,不是词法也不是句法,因为次要的语言完形化的形式和构成原则,大多是从标准语(Gemeinsprache)中接收过来的;这种次要的语言完形化的最根本的对象是词汇。这些词汇主要是为科学和技术服务的,所以,它们经历了一个特殊的完形化过程,这样的词汇被称为“术语”(Terminologie)。欧根·维斯特对“术语”的理解是:“术语是一个专业领域的概念指称系统,它包括了所有的专业表达,这些表达是一般的、常见的”;这种专业表达的显著特点是:它们具有“固定的、被概括到一个定义中去的效果”。

由标准语向术语形成的过程,首先是从个别的科学和技术的原则出发着手进行,并由此向前推进的。欧根·维斯特是第一个以专家身份对专业学科语言进行系统考察的人。他从一个新的视角,研究了电子技术领域内的“语言”。

他从形式和与功能(专业)相关的视角出发,对于电子技术领域内的术语

进行了分析,通过这样的分析,使他不仅弄清楚了什么是“术语”的特性和特征,而且还弄明白了术语的结构原则和功能方法究竟是什么;由于在国际和国家水平上术语研究的持续发展以及对于术语的标准化和规范化问题的探讨,他从中获取的不仅是某一个专业领域内特有的“战略”方面的知识,还有与此相应的带有原则性的和一般性的知识。在欧根·维斯特具有划时代意义的专题论著《在技术,特别是电子技术中的国际语言标准(Internationale Sprachnormung in der Technik,besonders in der Elektrotechnik)》(1931年)中,在纲领性的小主题“民族语言标准和它的一般化(Die nationale Sprachnormung und ihre Verallgemeinerung)”下,他对于所有的基础性问题都做了专题的讨论,这些问题成为了以后进一步展开讨论的大量论文所探讨的对象。

这项工作的结果,导致了一门新学科的诞生,这门新的学科,叫做“普通术语学”(Allgemeinen Terminologielehre)。欧根·维斯特对这门学科进行了如下的刻画:“普通术语学是语言学中一门重实效的学科,它在国际水平上,通过对概念、意义形式和拼写法的相互适应(Angleichung),从而使各民族的专业语言之间得到协调......。”“从目标设定的角度来看,普通术语学的任务是为术语语言研究和术语词典编纂制订基本的原则”。

欧根·维斯特的这本著作,描述的是对普通术语学这门学科的入门介绍(导论)。它的产生要归功于维斯特从1972年到1974年在维也纳大学语言学学院所作的讲座。这些讲座,是维斯特在全面占有对其一生经验总结的知识的基础上,在承担“词汇学和词典编纂学(尤其着重于术语学)和语言规范化”这门课程的教学任务的背景下形成的。赫尔穆特·费尔伯(Helmut Felber)的功劳在于,他把维斯特拟订的讲座的原稿,为了出版的目的作了修改。但是,这本“导论”涉及的不仅是为解决实际问题(标准化和规范化,术语学的改造和发展,语言内以及语言间的翻译,术语材料的整理利用和加工处理)而进行的科技交流的特点和特殊功能的探讨,与此同时,它还涉及到为科技服务的现存表达形式的所有基本方面,以及与此相联系的信息加工和信息存储、(信息)分类和资料汇编的现存(基本)原则。维斯特最后的著作,使人们对次要的语言完形化这个复合过程的各种各样的表现形式的认识更加深入了,从而,也深化了人们对技术时代在使用语言的过

英语语言学名词

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