Chapter 4 From word to text (1)
语言学教程练习 第4章
Chapter Four From Word to TextI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.of the following term does NOT mean the same as the relation of substitutabilityA. Associative relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Vertical relationD. Horizontal relation2. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjuncts clauses and _______.A. relative clausesB. adverbial clausesC. coordinate clausesD. subordinate clauses3. Names of the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT ______.A. subjects and objectsB. objects and predicatorsC. modifiers and complementsD. endocentric and exocentric4. In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of perception and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT _______.A. inflectionB. following a prepositionC. word orderD. vertical relation5. In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by _____ and ____.A. subject; objectB. subject; predicateC. predicate; objectD. object; predicate6. Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Which of the following is NOT among the three basic ways to classify languages in the worldA. Word orderB. Genetic classificationC. Areal classificationD. Social classification8. The head of the phrase the city Rome is ______.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase on the shelf belongs to ______ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves is a _____ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The relation of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.2.One property coordination reveals is that there is a limit on the numberof coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.3.According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, deep structure contain allthe information necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.4.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to wordorder and by inflections of pronouns.5.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.ually noun phrases, verb phrases and adverbial phrases belong toendocentric types of constriction.7.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.8.In the exocentric construction John kicked the ball, neitherconstituent stands for the verb-object sequence.9.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.10.In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur asdaughters and co-heads of a higher S.III. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given.1.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the Heads andconsequently, they can be called m____________.2.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman). The partin the bracket is a c_________ clause.3.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, wehave another two terms, p____________ and n__________.4.There is a tendency to make a distinction between phrase and w_______,which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.5.Recursiveness, together with o_______, is generally regarded as thecore of creativity of language.6.Traditionally, p_________ is seen as part of a structural hierarchy,positioned between clause and word.7.The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identitythe s______ relationship between words in a sentence.8.Clause can be classifies into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the latterincluding the traditional infinitive phrase, p__________, and gerundial phrase.9.Gender displays such contrasts as masculine: feminine: n_______.10.English gender contrast can only be observed in g__________ and a smallnumber of l__________ and they are mainly of the natural gender type.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Relation of co-occurrence4.Category5.RecursivenessVI. Answer the following question.1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction2.What are the basic functional terms in syntaxVII. Essay question.1.Explain an comment on the following sentence a and b.a.John is easy to please.b.John is eager to please.ment on the statement, “Linguistic structure is hiearchical”I. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but they arecapable of yielding an infinite number of sentences.2.Although, a single word can also be uttered as a sentence, normallya sentence consists of at least a subject, its predicate and an object.\3.The sentences are linearly structured, so they are composed of sequenceof words arranged in a simple linear order.4. his upon an idea.idea hit upon John.In the above sentences, the subject and object constituent by the sentences switch their position. Although sentence b is absurd, it is still grammatical, because John and an idea are of the same phrasal category.5.Though they are of a small number, the combinational rules are powerfulenough to yield all the possible sentences and rule out the impossible ones.6.In a sentence like Mary likes flowers, both Mary and flowers are notonly Nouns, but also Noun Phrases.7.The recursive property can basically be discussed in a category-basedgrammar, but not in a word-based grammar.8.An XP must contain an X which is called the phrasal head.9.In the phrase this very tall girl, tall girl is an obligatory elementand the head of the phrase.10.a. The man beat the child. b. The child was beaten by the man.In the above sentences, the movement of the child from its original place to a new place is a WH- movement.11.Tense and aspect, the two important categories of the verb, nowadaysare viewed as separate notions in grammar.12.The structuralists regard linguistic units as isolated bits in astructure (or system).13.IC analysis can help us to see the internal structure of a sentenceclearly and it can also distinguish the ambiguity of a sentence. 14.Structural linguists hold that a sentence does only have a linearstructure, but it has a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups.15.In Saussure’s view, the linguist cannot attempt to explain individualsigns in a piecemeal fashion. Instead he must try to find the value of a sign from its relation to others, or rather, its position in the system.16.The theme-rheme order is the usual one in unemotional narration, whichis a subjective order.17.What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functionsof language to its structure.18.Sentence is a basic unit of structure in functional grammar.19.The interpersonal function of language refers to the idea held byHalliday that language serves ot establish and maintain social relations.20.Finite is a function in the clause as a representation, both therepresentation of outer experience and inner experience.21.The relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.22.According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able togenerate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language.23.In English, the subject of a sentence is said to be the doer of anaction, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.Therefore, the subject is always an agent and the patient is always the object.24.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to wordorder and by inflections of pronouns.25.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.26.The syntactic rules of a language are finite in number, and there area limited number of sentences which can be produced.27.Structuralism views language as both linearly and hierarchicallystructured.28.Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntacticcategories are formed and sentences generated.29.UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specificgift which exists in the mind of a normal human being.30.Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and theywere separated in traditional grammar.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s). 1.As is required by the ______, a noun phrase must have case and caseis assigned by verb, or preposition to the _________ position or by auxiliary to the ________ position.2.Adjacency condition states that a case _________ and a case _______should stay adjacent to each other.3.The general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of anyconstituent movement is called __________.4.The phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generatesentences at the level of _________.5.The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromthe level of ________ to that of ______.6.In English there are two major types of movement, one involving themovement of an NP is called __________ movement and the other a WH-word is called _________movement.7.a. The boy ate the apple.c.The apple was eaten by the boy.In Sentence b, the boy and the apple are moved from their original positions in Sentence a to new positions, with the boy _________ to the right and the man ________ to the left.8.In the sentence the man was bitten by a dog, the man is both the _______subject and the ___________ object.9.The decision on where to make the cuts in IC analysis relies on ________:whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same.10.IC Analysis is different from the traditional parsing in that ICemphasizes the function of the _________ level-word group, seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence as well.11.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head andconsequently, they can be called __________.12.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman).The part in the bracket is a __________ clause.13.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, wehave another two terms, ________ and _________.14.English gender contrast can only be observed in ________ and a smallnumber of _______ and they are mainly of the natural gender type. 15.There is tendency to make a distinction between phrase and ________,which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.16.Recursiveness, together with _________, is generally regarded as thecore of creativity of language.17.Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicatewhich contains a ________ verb or a verb phrase.18.The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structureof a sentence is ________.19.The starting point of an utterance which is known in the givensituation and from which the speaker proceeds is named ________. 20.___________ structure can become the sole responsible structure forsemantic interpretation by the introduction of the trace theory.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.sentence John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history is a _______ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. complexD. relational2. In the sentence Mary told Jane that John liked linguistics the introductory word that is called _______.A. coordinating conjunctionB. conjunctionC. subordinatorD. embedded word3. The student The above segmentation truthfully reveals the _______ nature of sentence structure.A. hierarchicalB. linearC. horizontalD. parallel4. The sentence The tall man and women left can be illustrated by tree diagram _____.A.(1)B.(2)C. both (1) and (2)D. neitherto the following three diagram, V can only be replaced by ____.A. satB. broughtC. pushedD. nonewas linguistics that John liked the mostWhich of the following statements about the two sentences (a and b) given above is NOT trueA. In both sentence a and sentence b, John is the logical subject.B. In structural concept, John is the structural subject of asentence.C. It in sentence b is the structural subject of the matrix clause.D. John is the structural subject in both a and b.conclusion that a set of principles or rules govern language use is based on the observation that _________.make acceptability judgment about sentences they have never heard before.is a habit-structure.accounts for language acquisition.information must form part of syntactic movement.symbol N indicates a/an ________.category categorycategory D. lexical insertion rulethe following combination possibilities, ______ can NOT be generated from the following rule: NP →(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S).A. NP →N →Det Adj S →Det N →Det Adj N PPS.advantage of X-bar syntax over phrase structure syntax is that X-bar. a ploliferation of redundant intermediate categories.us to identify indefinitely long embedded sentences.C. allows as to postulate categories other than lexical and phrasal.D. forces us to conclude that the ambiguity of phrases like the EnglishKing is lexical rather than structural.11. Which set of rules generates the following tree structuresA. S →NP VPB. NP → VPNP→ N PP NP→ NP NP PPVP→ V NP VP→ V NP PPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→ N NP →NVP VP D, S NP VPNP→ (NP/PP) NP →NP (NP /PP)VP →V NP VP →V NPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→ N NP →Nseems they are quite fit for the job.b. They seem quite fit for the job.Sentence b is a result of ______ movement.. D. None13. The head of the phrase underneath the open window is _______.following statements are in accordance with Hallliday’s opinion on language EXCEPT _______.use of language involves a network of systems of choices.B. Language is never used as a mere mirror of reflected thought.is a system of abstract forms and signs.functions as a piece of human behavior.is more concerned with ____ relations in his approach to syntax.is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in Certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.C. BindingD. Co-command17. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjunct clauses and _____.clauses clausesclauses clausesof the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT_____.and objects and predicatorsand complements D. endocentric and exocentricEnglish, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT ______.a preposition order relation20. Clauses can be classified into finite and non-finite clauses, _____ including the traditional infinitive phrases, participial phrase and gerundial phrase.A. the formerB. the latter D. neitheris the _______ on case assignment that states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.A. Case Condition ConditionCondition Parameter.analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phrase…d. sentenceof the following italic parts is NOT an idiomA. How to you doB. How did you doC. He went to it hammer and tongs.D. They kept tabs on the Russian spy.we say that we can change the second word in the sentence she is singing in the room with another word or phrase, we are talking about ______.A. governmentB. linear relationsC. syntactic relationsD. paradigmatic relationsthe phrase structure rule S→NP VP, the arrow can be read as ______.A. hasB. generatesC. consists ofD. is equal toIV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.1.The following two sentences are ambiguous. Show the two readings ofeach by drawing its respective tree diagrams.(1)The ball man and woman left(2) Visiting professor can be interestinge an example to show what a tree diagram is (as it is used inTransformational-Generative Grammar).e an example to show what IC analysis is.4.What are the three general functions of language according to Halliday5.What distinguishes the structural approach to syntax from thetraditional one6.Some grammar books say there are three basic tenses in English-thepresent, the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses –the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.。
语言学总复习
Origin of language
Divine- origin theory 神授说 Bow-wow theory 汪汪理论 摹声说 Pooh-pooh theory 噗噗理论 感叹说 Yo-he-ho theory 呦嘿吼理论 劳动叫喊说
Functions of language
The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔)
Table
2.1 A chart of English consonants
English vowels(RP)
Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
The classification of word 词的分类
1 variable and invariable words可变词与不 变词 2 grammatical (functional) and lexical (content) words词汇词和语法词 3 closed-class and open-class words 封闭 类词和开放类词 4 word class词类
Important distinctions in linguistics
语言学纲要(徐通锵版)第四章讲义
Chapter FourGrammar—From Word to TextContents1.Grammatical Introduction2.Syntagmatic rules3.Paradigmatic rules4.Transformation5.Linguistic Type in Structurerules•The use of language,like games,has its own rules.To play the games well,you should know the rules.•Words,word groups and phrases,and clauses cannot occur at random,they have to follow certain rules of ordering.1.Grammatical Introduction1.1Syntax•Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.•On the level of syntax,we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.-The external syntax of a construction refers to anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts.-The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction's"make-up",with the terms such as"subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun".语法概说根据研究的需要，从不同角度对语法现象进行切分1.词法和句法(morphology&syntax)这是传统语法学提出的一种切分方法。
语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案
Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is nolimit to the number of sentencesnative speakers of that languageare able to produce and comprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase,infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization of Englishsentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s _________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same timestructurally alone is known as an f _____________ clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phraseand which says something about the subject is grammaticallycalled p ___________________ .4. A c __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e ________ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.7. G ________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence8. A a __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s ___________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, questionor command.10. A s ___________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4.complex 5. embedded6. open7. grammatical8. simple9.sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement :1 The head of the phrase “ the city Rome ” is __________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city andRome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have ______A. recursiveproperties.B. grammaticalD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understandA.how words and phrases form sentences. B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words C.how people produce and recognize possible sentences D. All of the above.5 The phrase “ on the half ” belongs to ________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact thatA.noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B.noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsC. sociD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is _______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are _____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The _______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not toexposethemselves ” is a___________ s entenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate con stitue nts -word groups (phrases), which are in turn an alyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups wordsinto structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complexsentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which isincorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of itsconstituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head.The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is definednegatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3. 略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
语言学教程Chapter 4. From Word to Text
• The boy kicked the ball
NP1
NP2
Subject
Object
.
4
• Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
– If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world:
– SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
.
3
1.1 Relations of Position
• For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.
.
6
• Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
Chapter4-2(11-16)from word to text
Chapter FourFrom Word to Text(To be continued)The traditional approachThe structural approachThe tansformational-generative approachprescriptiveModern linguistics owes a large debt to traditional grammartraditional approach or traditonal grammarconstituent and construction成分结构The girl ate the apple. (S)the girl (NP) ate the apple (VP)the, girl, ate, the, appleThe structural approach句子不是成分，句子以内的单位都是成分；最终成分不是结构，最终成分以上的单位都是结构；成分有最终成分、中间成分和直接成分之分6the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reachedIC analysis is the segmentation of a sentence into immediate constituents by using binary cuttings until obtaining its ultimate constituents.LINGUISTICSIMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)Tree diagramThe girl ate the appleUsing linesThe// girl /ate //the ///appleBracketing(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))[[[The] [girl]] [[ate] [[the] [apple]]]]ThegirlatetheappleThe girl ate the applethe appleAdvantages of IC Analysis1）To demonstrate the internal structure of a sentence clearly揭示语句的内部构件或结构2）To reveal the structural ambiguities从结构上解释歧义leave the book on the shelfsynthetic buffalo hidesold men and womenmore modern musicLeave the book on the shelfLeave the book on the shelfDisadvantage语言分析光考虑结构意义是不够的。
七年级英语上册《Chapter4 The world of numbers》教案 牛津版
《Chapter4 The world of numbers》The first period: word s preparationTeaching aims:1.Introduce the words of different kinds of numbers2.To read out all kinds of numbers and symbolsTeaching Difficulties:How to read out the different kinds of numbers correctly and tell them by listening Teaching focuses:1.Help students to master the new words.2.Help the students to know something about the language of numbersTeaching aids: some paper with different groups of numbers, a tape recorder and multi-media.Teaching procedures:Step1 Lead-in and revision：Encourage students to speak out at least three things that can be understood by all human beings with different language: music , painting, food ,numbersA ctivity1: ask all the students to stand up and count the numbers one by one. Eachstudent has a chance to say “pass” and “backwards”.A ctivity2: the teacher say :”Page X”, all the students find that page aas quicklyas possible. Then the students work in groups of four.Step2: word studyTask 1:Teach new vocabulary of numbers by showing students some groups of numbers and ask them to find out the rulesCardinal numbers and ordinal numbersOdd numbers and even numbersNumbers showing degreesDecimalsFractionsPercentagesSymbolsTask 2: page 44 A Match the words with the signs and numbersTask 3: Teach students to read out Numbers showing degrees, Decimals, Fractions , PercentagesSymbolsStep3 : ListeningPage 48 AStep 4: Teach the way of saying “＋,－, ×,÷”Task 1: say the followings in English: 7＋8=155×7=3529－17=1280÷4=20Task 2: choose any to pieces from the cards, ask the students to make the result 10 by using “＋,－, ×,÷”. (the cards J, Q, K are “0”) HomeworkExercise book :vocabulary ABCThe second period: VocabularyTeaching aims:Master all the new words in this unit.Teaching difficulties:The spelling of new words.Teaching aids:The multimedia and the blackboardTeaching proceduresStep 1: write down “0” on the blackboard,talk about it and present: ancient numbers, consist of , Indian, develop, invent, invention...show pictures of an abacus and an electronic calculator and a computerTalk about them and present the new words:invent invention abacus calculator accurate ...Step 2: Ask the students to finish Part C1,PartC2PartC3.Part DPart EComplete each task individually first and then discuss in groups then in the class.Step3. Further study.Learn more expressions about dif ferent usage of numbers.1.房号： 1103 ---- Room 11032.班级、年级－－ Class 6, Grade 9/Form Three3.时间： 6：50－－ six fifty; ten to seven4.年、月、日： 1986/12/6--- December the sixth, nineteen eighty-six5.温度：36°C－－thirty-six Celsius degree6.序数： 12th－－ twelfth 14th——fourteenthStep4: More activitiesActivity1; work in groups of four, one student say some numbers from 1 to 1oo quickly, the others write them down as quickly as possible. Activity2; work in groups of four, one student say some numbers from 1 to 1oo quickly, the others circle them on a piece of paper which is full of differentnumbers as quickly as possible.Activity3; fill in the blanks with appropriate numbers.two，five，eight，eleven，fourteen，______ , twentytwo，four，seven，eleven，sixteen，______ , twenty-ninethree , four, seven, eleven, _______four , nine, ______ twenty-fiveHomework:Exercise book :vocabulary DThe third period: readingTeaching Aims:1.Learn about numbers from the old world to the present world2.Train the stu dents’ reading ability.Teaching Important Point:1.Improve the students’ reading ability.2.Develop the students’ creative, comprehensive and consolidating abilities. Teaching Difficult Point:1.How to improve the students’ reading ability.2. The use of some useful expressions about numbersTeaching Methods:Individual, pair or group work to make every student work in class.Teaching Aids:The multimedia and the blackboardTeaching Procedures:Step 1 Presentation1．Ask students how much they know about the world of numbers.2．Show some pictures of different kinds of calculating machines to the students to arouse their interest.Step 2 Look and thinkRead the title, its subtitle, the headings and the pictures. Then on the list below, tick the tings you think the article may tell you.Step 3 Reading1.Give the students some questions about the text.1.How many kinds of calculating machines are there in the text?2.What are they?3.Who first invented and developed the system 1 to 9 system?4.Was Zero invented first?5.Step 4. Find out the fact in Part D & E1.Li: Everyone knows it.May : Knows what?Li: The language of numbers.2.Li: ______________.3. Li: ______ ________4. Li:____________5. Li:____________6. Li:______________________.7. Li:____________8. Li:____________Step 5 Consolidation and homework:1.Read the whole article after the tape.2.Copy the new words in the article 4 times for each. And memorize them by heart.Step 6 homeworkExercise Book : ReadingThe fourth period: languageTeaching Aims:1. Learn about giving orders or instructions.2. Train the students’ language ability to use cardinal and ordinal numbersTeaching Important Points:1. Improve the s tudents’ language ability2. Enable the students to master the words and grammar3. Develop the students’ creative, comprehensive and consolidating abilities.Teaching difficult Points:1. How to improve the students’ language ability.2. How to use imperative sentencesTeaching Methods:1. Individual, pair or group work to make every student master the knowledge.Teaching Aids:The multimedia and the blackboard.Teaching Procedures:Step 1: Further study of the passage.Task 1: Work in pairs to find out the phrases from the passage.1.在古代 in ancient times2 以不同方式 in different ways3由…组成consist of4从…到… from …to5数字系统 system of numbers6计算机器 calculating machines7在算盘上 on the abacus8电子计算器 calculators9进行计算 do calculation10短时间内/迅速 in a flash11 能够 be able to do12 在你一生的时间里 in your whole life13下面的故事 the following story14解决问题 solve the problems15 够强大 powerful enoughStep 2:Explain some key sentences from the passage1.In ancient times, people wrote numbers in different ways.2.However they nearly all counted in tens.3.The system of numbers today consist of the number from 1 to 9and 0.4.Abacus are so fast and accurate that people still use it today.5. A computer can so a calculation in a flash.6.She has an amazing brain and can calculate like lightening.Step 3 Practice reading1.Ask the students to read the key sentences above after the teacher.2.Ask the students to read the whole passage after the tape and then together.Step 4 Language祈使句 : 是表示请求、命令、建议等句子，通常称为“无主句”。
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Horizontal relation
Associative/ Vertical / Choice relation
• Summary of Syntactic Relations
– Positional relation demonstrates the syntagmatic relation. – Relation of substitution demonstrates the relation of paradigmatic relation. – Relation of co-occurrence is partially syntagmatic and partially paradigmatic.
–I gave Tracy the book.
• A word may be said to have Syntagmatic relations with other words occurring in the same sentence.
• The word has Paradigmatic Relation （聚合 关系） with words that could be substituted for it in a sentence. e.g. •
Next Period
• Category（范畴） • Recursiveness（递归性） – Number (数) – Conjoining（连接） – Gender（性） – Embedding（嵌套） • Beyond the sentence – Case（格） – Sentential connection – Agreement (一致关系) • Phrase, clause and – Cohesion （衔接） sentence – Phrase – Clause （小句） – Sentence（句子）
Chapter Four From Word to Text
1
Review Production, transmission, and perception of sounds
Rules of sound patterning Rules of word formation ???
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Interdisciplinary…
Production, transmission, and perception of sounds Rules of sound pattern Rules of word formation Rules of word and word groups in combining sentences ???
Questions hitting on you
• What is syntax?
– Syntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences, or the study of the relationships between elements in sentence structures.
Relation of substitutability（替代关系） • Firstly, it refers to class or sets of words substituted for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. • Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word or a particular set. • The _____ smiles. • Man • Boy • Girl • The smiles. • strong man • Tallest boy • Pretty girl • He went there ____________. yesterday Last week The day before
• (preceded by)
– A pretty – The – The Asian
A
NP
girl boy man
B
(followed by)
smiles. sings. cries.
C
• 同现关系：小句中不同集合的词语允许或 要求和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成 句子或句子的某一特定部分。
Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic
Part II
Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents
• Construction (构式): any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. on the level of syntax, we distinguish: – External syntax: property of the construction as a whole. – Internal syntax: description of the construction’s make-up. • Constituent（成分）is a linguistic unit (usu. in sentence analysis) which is part of a larger construction.
• Syntagmatic Relation (组合关系) is the relationship that linguistic units (words, clauses, etc.) have with other units, because they may occur together in a sequence. It was proposed by Saussure.
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Interdisciplinary…
Question 2
What is this chapteyntactic relations（句法关系） – Positional relation（位置关系） – Relation of substitutability （替代性关系） – Relation of co-occurrence（同现关系） • Grammatical Construction （语法结构） – Grammatical construction – Immediate Constituents（直接成分） – Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions（向心结构和离 心结构） – Coordination and Subordination（并列关系和从属关系） • Syntactic Function （句法功能） – Subject （主语） – Predicate（谓语） – Object（宾语） – Relation between classes and functions
• 句法结构：语言中被赋予一种或多种功能 的任何句法建构，包括语言学上该建构所 拥有的常规意义和用法。 • 结构的外部句法特征指整体结构所具有的 特征。说话者所知道的在更大的句法上下 文中与此结构有关的方方面面。如小句类 型、短语类型、分别被赋予不同的结构特 征。 • 结构的内部句法特征即对结构组成成分的 描述。
Syntactic Relations(句法关系)
• Positional relation（位置关系） • The boy kicked the ball. • NP NP
(subject) (Direct Object)
• Position relation, or WORD ORDER（词序）, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. • Violation of positional relation –*Boy the ball kicked that. Ungrammatical Nonsense –*The ball kicked the boy. – The teacher saw the students. Grammatical but different in meaning – The students saw the teacher.
• 替代关系： • 首先，在相同结构的句子中，语法上可以 相互替代的词类或者语词的集合 • 其次，由多个词组成的词组，语法上代替 特定集合中的某个语词。
Relation of co-occurrence （同现关系） • The words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.