外文翻译--中国银行业的改革和盈利能力(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

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毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文

毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文

金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R.SemenovDepartment of Economics,University of Nijmegen,Nijmegen(荷兰内梅亨大学,经济学院)这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时,我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致,并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。

一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。

金融发展水平的差别(例如,相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度),在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中,企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。

然而,经济理论表明市场摩擦,诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵,并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素,例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性,共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料(可参考,例如Fazzari(1998)、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman(1996)、Samuel(1998)).大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。

这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。

很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本,减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置(参看Levine(1997)的评论文章)。

因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。

浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译

浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译

核准通过,归档资料。

未经允许,请勿外传!浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译The influence of political connections on the firm value of small and medium-sized enterprises in China政治关联在中国对中小型企业价值的影响1摘要中小型企业的价值受很多因素的影响,比如股东、现金流以及政治关联等.这篇文章调查的正是在中国政治关联对中小型企业价值的影响。

通过实验数据来分析政治关联对企业价值效益的影响.结果表明政府关联是关键的因素并且在中国对中小型企业的价值具有负面影响。

2重要内容翻译2。

1引言在商业界,有越来越多关于政治关联的影响的经济研究。

它们发现政治关联能够帮助企业确保有利的规章条件以及成功获得资源,比如能够最终提高企业价值或是提升绩效的银行贷款,这种政治关联的影响在不同的经济条件下呈现不同的效果。

在高腐败和法律制度薄弱的国家,政治关联对企业价值具有决定性因素1的作用.中国由高度集权的计划经济向市场经济转变,政府对市场具有较强的控制作用,而且有大量的上市企业具有政治关联。

中小型企业发展的很迅速,他们已经在全球经济环境中变得越来越重要。

从90年代起, 政治因素对中国的任何规模的企业来说都变得越来越重要,尤其是中小型企业的价值。

和其他的部门相比较,中小型企业只有较小的现金流,不稳定的现金流且高负债率.一方面,中小型企业改变更加灵活;另一方面,中小型企业在由于企业规模以及对银行来说没有可以抵押的资产,在筹资方面较为困难。

企业如何应对微观经济环境和政策去保证正常的企业活动,并且政治关联如何影响企业价值?这篇论文调查政治关联和企业价值之间的联系,并且试图去研究企业是否可以从政治关联中获利提升企业价值。

2.2定义这些中小型企业之所以叫中小型企业,是和管理规模有关。

对这些小企业来说,雇员很少,营业额较低,资金一般由较少的人提供,因此,通常由这些业主直接管理企业。

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文XXX has always been one of the XXX。

Capital structure is related to a company's funding costs。

financial risks。

and profitability。

and funding costs and financial risks XXX een a company's capital structure and profitability is not us。

but increasing a company's long-term debt-to-equity。

XXX.The funding costs of long-XXX taxes。

a company's actual capital cost is lower than the rate of return demanded by creditors。

The cost of debt capital is mainly determined by the company's financial structure。

debt repayment ability。

operating cash flow。

operating ability。

operating efficiency。

market interest rates。

and current market economic XXX nary effects。

and the return XXX。

Long-term debt has a greater impact on a company's operating XXX。

and long-term debt faces greater credit default risk。

中国汇率改革中英文对照外文翻译文献

中国汇率改革中英文对照外文翻译文献

中国汇率改革中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)China's exchange rate policy to the evaluationAbstract:this article from the four aspects of RMB exchange rate policy, that in the past five years, China's trade imbalances and exchange rate system is getting worse and worse, no sign of improvement; The existing international organization for its members though exchange rate policies are clearly defined, but have no enforcement; The current Chinese exchange rate policy, no matter to China, the United States, or any other country is bad; For China's exchange rate policy, at present there are generally an error, which greatly, rapid appreciation of the RMB not feasible, not suitable for; China should immediately be RMB exchange rate from the current level to rise by 10-15 percent.I. introduction and previewThank you Mr. Chairman gave me the opportunity to speak to me Chinese exchange rate policy's views. First of all, in the past five years, China's exchange ratepolicy reform in the slow progress; Secondly, I'd like to say why China's exchange rate reform statement to the Chinese economy will slow progress, the American economy, international monetary system, and the global trading system have an important impact on; Again, I mainly expounds the relevant Chinese exchange rate reform is slow excuse and can't convincing alibi and reasons; Fourth, about China's exchange-rate policy of several erroneous zone. At last, I in China in the next one to two years, in promoting exchange rate reform can and should take some action, I will take this a few problems initiates.First, in the past five years, China's trade imbalances and exchange rate system is getting worse and worse, no sign of improvement.In 2006, China's current-account surplus soared (soar) to 9% of GDP, at present the RMB against China's trade partners of the mean value at least 30% undervalued currency; Against the dollar, is at least 40% undervalued. From June 2005 to now, up 6.5% against the dollar, but relatively revaluation of the RMB against the dollar was not enough to suspend (halt) China's competitive power in the international market of cumulative rises, also did not reduce China's trade surplus.Second, the existing international organization for its members though exchange rate policies are clearly defined, but are not enforced.First look at the Chinese government, although China in the past four years have been engaged in a lot of, single direction of the foreign exchange market intervention, the Chinese authorities are still denied currency manipulation. Second look at the Treasury, although a lot of evidence showing China handle the truth in the foreign exchange market, but the Treasury still refused to China defined as "currency manipulator". Finally see the international monetary fund, although the IMF is one of the original intention was established to promote the development of all countries exchange rate policy, but now it looks, the IMF's senior officials have also would not for a dedicated to the IMF construction supervision and restraint world international coordinating mechanism of exchange rate policy.The third, and the slowness of the progress of China's exchange rate policy reform, no matter to China, the United States, or any other country isunfavorable.In China's case, the RMB is undervalued currency manipulation and serious fact behavior of China to the foreign trade from the balance and consumption Spill-over economic growth target, also on the China's monetary policy independence, also interfere with the reform of the Chinese banking system, and improve the international society to China in international currency and trade system inside become a "responsible stakeholder" in doubt. For America, the RMB is the modest rise not promote Asia the positive development of exchange rate system and the role of the U.S. trade deficit and no so and be able to improve and will not reduce the dollar crisis happened U.S. economy and the risk of a hard landing. If this situation continues, emerging market countries may follow China in succession, that will give the global currency system brings the serious influence, and even can be caused by the U.S., Europe, Japan and other countries of the backlash.Fourth , the Chinese exchange rate policy , the current prevalence of a misunderstanding, that the RMB is substantially rapid appreciation is not feasible , is not suitable .This understanding is incorrect. Large appreciation of the RMB will not give the economic development, employment and social stability in China have devastating effects. Take bolder action on RMB exchange rate in China's banking system is not broken, also there is no need to put in further reforms of the financial system. If the United States Treasury to China a currency manipulator, which will be conducive to China's exchange rate system reform.Fifth, China should immediately from the current level , the RMB exchange rate appreciated by 10-15percent.In view of the exchange rate of the RMB long underestimated, it the adverse effect is difficult to through the modest rise again to eliminate. Only the RMB exchange rate rise sharply to completely disposable, solve the problem. A small revaluation of the RMB against the dollar (such as rising 5% a year), to America, scant effect, because the united himself in the cut trade deficit will be difficult. In order to improve the social stability, China in promoting more bold exchange ratereform (Bolder exchange rate action) at the same time, should be increased government spending, adjust expenditure direction, so as to promote the construction of social security network, reduce the precautionary saving not high. The Treasury should explain to the Chinese government, and from now on the Treasury will have been to investigate China's current account balance, the change of actual and effective exchange rate changes every month and the Chinese government intervening in the foreign exchange market situation, assess external adjustment and reform of China's exchange rate effect. The Treasury should the urgent requirement of China's exchange rate issues in May 2007 as a china-us strategic economic dialogue on the agenda to pressure the government to China, until achieved effect so far. If the exchange rate of the RMB was not yet increase, in the Treasury report to congress in the material, it should be defined as China currency manipulator. Finally, the international monetary fund was established to promote global exchange rate is one of the development of the system, but the IMF the problem is it not only to the exchange rate system change provide guidelines, more should urges countries to exchange rate system to reform, this is all countries promote exchange rate system favorable development of effective way.II.four indicatorsLooking back on the past five years Beijing and Washington issued announcement, you might think that China is moving toward reduce external economic imbalance, adjust the exchange rate policy direction. Here I use four index rethinking about the question, will get a different conclusion.The first indicator: China's current-account surplus:In the past five years , China 's current account surplus has been growing , and 1% of GDP in 2001 , nearly 9 percent of GDP in 2006 . Calculated in U.S. dollars , China is the largest country in the world on a trade surplus ; the current account balance accounted for the proportion of economies of scale to measure China's trade surplus is more serious than the U.S. trade deficit . Compared with the same period in 2006, the first two months of 2007 , China's current account balance increased by 225% . Visible, the external equilibrium of the Chinese economy is even worse.The second indicator: China's actual effective exchange rate:Compared with the nominal exchange rate, actual and effective exchange rate is measured economic competitiveness of China's more appropriate index. In the past five, six years, against the dollar's actual and effective exchange rate increased 2%. Some people think that the RMB against the US dollar was 6.5%, from RMB 1 dollar to 8.28 to 1 dollar to 7.73 RMB (March 22, 2007), the effect is remarkable. In fact, the RMB is still undervalued, RMB against the Chinese trade partner of the mean value at least 30% undervalued currency; against the dollar, is at least 40% undervalued. And relative appreciation against the dollar does not help to reduce trade surplus.The third indicator: the RMB exchange rate of the market economy:In June 2005, the Chinese government announced on the RMB exchange rate system to reform, realize the exchange rate of the market economy. But in fact the RMB exchange rate and not out of the market economy. In order to maintain the currency relative stability, the Chinese government has been manipulating foreign exchange market, every month amount of intervention last year to $20 billion. This and announced that the RMB exchange rate reform of before the first half year of 2005 level is consistent. In the past three years, China's foreign exchange market intervention level of 10% of GDP. More seriously, a lot of intervention in the foreign exchange market at the same time, the central bank had a lot of "Write-off" operation, this kind of behavior circulation at the same time (the domestic money supply increased, inflation rate growth), foreign exchange reserves will continue to rise, otherwise, even if the RMB nominal exchange rate unchanged, the competitiveness of China can seriously reduce. In fact, the RMB exchange rate is still controlled prospective fixed rate.The fourth indicator: As a member of the IMF, to fulfill the commitment of the exchange rate policy:As one of the IMF member countries, China should fulfill its commitment to reform its exchange rate policy. A member of the IMF have promised not to "currency manipulation", the Chinese government also insisted that no manipulation of the foreign exchange market. One of the primary means of manipulating the exchange rate of China's monetary authorities, continued to intervene in the foreign exchange marketIII. the significance.At some point: the economy of China external disequilibrium state and RMB underestimated conditions improve, whether have improved speed and what is not important, but I don't think so.The significance of China: Obviously, China's exchange rate policy on China, is very important. Chinese authorities say they are willing to from investment and export-led growth strategy to consumption and domestic demand investment-driven growth change, also would like to turn to more independent monetary policy, and consolidate their banking systems. As China's economy in the world economy in the proportion of growth, China hopes to become a "responsible stakeholder".But, the RMB is undervalued and serious interest rate behavior led to the manipulation of the Chinese is difficult to achieve the goal. If not greatly raise interest rates, it is difficult to keep the existing Chinese investment levels, reduce the uncertainty of growth, because only then can attract a lot of speculative capital inflows, but also to the exchange rate reform brings great pressure. When the RMB is serious underestimate, export and trade surplus production capacity will be difficult to lower down, which show that the situation development is more and more disadvantage. China's commercial Banks are right now is: hand holding the central bank to write-off the operation, low yield of; Reserve rate are improving; RMB underestimated the headline foreign exchange reserve climbed, even if a large amount of write-off, part of foreign exchange reserves transformed into the fast growth the commercial bank loan; Many commercial bank loan object and the loan amount is designated by the central bank. Therefore, the reform of China's commercial banks is difficult. In addition, China's exports to the industrialized countries and attract foreign investment is difficult to maintain stability.IV. CountermeasuresAs mentioned above, not too much criticism of the Chinese exchange rate policy, then if the recent exchange rate system reform in China is not ideal , in order to avoid adverse impact on China's exchange rate policy to the parties in the next few years , China can take What measures ?China's urgent is the RMB appreciation from the current level of 10-15 percent. One way is to directly to RMB valuation, another method is to stop intervening in the foreign exchange market, let the RMB to rise. If China in 2003 and 2004 and the realization of the trade surplus reduced gradually, the RMB devalues gradually words, the situation will be better. Now the situation is: RMB underestimated badly, must carry on stage to RMB exchange rate adjustment. Should make clear of the RMB against the dollar is relatively slow appreciation can not solve the problem. The real effective exchange rate $assumptions in the next three years worth 15%-20%, even if the RMB against the dollar to rise by 5% a year, and its real effective exchange rate also won't have a big revaluation, that is, the real effective exchange rate by the influence of the dollar. Therefore, can't isolated see the name of the RMB against the dollar exchange rate is in appreciation. More seriously, when the slow appreciation in orbit, the market could expect the RMB has an unexpected rise sharply, this will cause of speculative capital inflows into China. To sum up, Nick Lardy and I've always thought the RMB to rise sharply, one-time is the right move, is RMB monetary system reform of the two-step first step.In bold the exchange rate adjustment at the same time, the Chinese government should adjust the direction of expansion of government spending, expenses, including medical, education and perfect pension system, social security system, decreased due to imperfect social security caused by the high savings rate. In addition, China should abandon the "RMB exchange rate is a national sovereignty" ideas, strict compliance with IMF members on the exchange rate policy of the treaty.Peterson institute for international economics, Morris Goldstein对中国汇率政策的评估摘要:本文从四个方面阐述了人民币汇率政策,即在过去的五年中,中国的贸易不平衡和汇率体系在不断恶化,没有好转的迹象;现有的国际组织虽然对其成员国的汇率政策有明确的规定,但都没有强制执行;目前的中国汇率政策无论对中国、美国,还是其他国家都是不利的;对于中国汇率政策,目前普遍存在着一个误区,即人民币大幅度、快速升值不可行、不适合;中国应该立即将人民币汇率从目前的水平上升值10%—15%。

统计学论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

统计学论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

中英文对照资料外文翻译文献Policies for Development of Iron and Steel IndustryThe iron and steel industry is an important basic industry of the national economy, a supporting industry for realizing the industrialization and an intensive industry in technologies, capital, resources and energy, and its development requires a comprehensive balancing of all kinds of external conditions. China is a big developing country with a comparatively big demand of iron and steel in the economic development for a long time to go. China's production capacity of iron and steel has ranked the first place in the world for many years. However, there is a large gap in terms of the technological level and material consumption of the iron and steel industry compared with the international advanced level, so the focus of development for the future shall be put on technical upgrading and structural adjustment. In order to enhance the whole technical level of the iron and steel industry, promote the structural adjustment, improve the industrial layout, develop a recycling economy, lower the consumption of materials and energy, pay attention to the environmental protection, raise the comprehensive competitive capacity of enterprises, realize the industrial upgrading, and develop the iron and steel industry into an industry with international competitive capacity that may basically satisfy the demand of the national economy and social development in terms of quantity, quality and varieties, we have formulated the policies for development of the iron and steel industry according to the relevant laws and regulations and the domestic and internationalsituations that the iron and steel industry faces so as to guide the sound development of the iron and steel industry.Chapter I Aim of the PolicyAccording to the requirement of our country's economic and social development and the situation of resources, energy and environmental protection, the production capacity of iron and steel shall maintain at a reasonable scale, which may be specifically resolved in the relevant planning. The comprehensive competitive capacity of iron and steel industry may reach to the international advanced level so that China may become a large country in iron and steel production and a great power country in world-wide competitive.By the year 2010, through the means of structural adjustment of products, the proportion of good iron and steel products shall be elevated considerably, the majority of products shall be basically satisfied the development requirements of most industries in the national economy such as construction, machinery, chemical industry, auto-mobiles, household appliances, vessels, traffic, railway, military industry and new industries.We may elevate the industrial concentration by means of organizational and structural adjustment of the iron and steel industry, and expand the scale of those backbone enterprise groups with comparative advantages by means of amalgamate and reorganization . By 2010, the number of iron and steel smelting enterprises shall be considerably reduced and the production capacity of the iron and the output of steel enterprise groups that rank top 10 in the domestic market shall be reached to 50 % and above of the national total production capacity; by 2020, the proportion shall bereached to 70% and above.By means of layout adjustment of the iron and steel industry, by 2010, the unreasonable layout shall be improved; by 2020, a comparatively reasonable industrial layout that complies with the supply of resources and energy, allocation of traffic and transportation, supply and demand of the market and environmental capacity shall be formed.According to the concept of sustainable development and recycling economy, we should elevate the comprehensive level of environmental protection and resource utilization, and should save energy and lower consumption. We should elevate the comprehensive utilization capacity of waste gases, water and rubbishes to the largest possible extent, strive for the goal of realizing "zero discharge" and establish iron and steel factories of the recycling type. The iron and steel enterprisesmust develop the business of generating power by using reclaimed heat and energy. An iron and steel associated enterprise with the production scale of more than 5 million tons shall strive for the goal of having more than enough power to support itself and providing the surplus to outsiders. By 2005, the comprehensive energy consumption for each ton of steel shall be lowered to 0.76 ton of standard coal, the comparable energy consumption for each ton of iron shall be lowered to 0.70 ton of standard coal and the water consumption for each ton of steel shall be lowered to less than 12 tons in the whole industry; by 2010, the corresponding index shall be lowered to 0.73 ton of standard coal, 0. 685 ton of standard coal and less than 8 tons of water, respectively; by 2020, the corresponding index shall be lowered to 0.7 ton of standard coal, 0.64 ton of standard coal and less than 6 tons of water, respectively. That is, in the coming 10 years, the iron and steel industry shall, on the precondition that the total consumption of water resources decreases and the total energy consumption increases by a small margin, and realize a proper development in total quantity.Before the end of 2005, all the wastes as discharged by iron and steel enterprisesshall have been met the standards of the state and local provisions, and the total discharge volume of major wastes shall have been met the controlling index as verified by the local environmental department.Chapter II Industrial Development PlanningThe state shall guide the iron and steel industry to develop in a sound, sustainable and harmonious manner through the development policies and the mid- and long-term development planning of the iron and steel industry. The mid- and long-term development planning of the iron and steel industry shall be formulated by the National Development and Reform Commission (hereinafter referred to the NDRC) in collaboration with other relevant departments.An enterprise group with a production capacity of more than 5 million tons in 2003 may, according to the state mid- and long-term development planning of the iron and steel industry and the overall planning of the city where it is located, formulate the planning of its own, which shall be implemented upon the approval of the State Council or the NDRC after making necessary cohesion and balancing efforts. The specific construction projects of the planning shall not be required to be subject to the examination and approval or verification of the NDRC, but shall be organized and implemented by the enterprise itself after such formalities for examination and approval of land, environmental protection, security and credit have been handled, and shall be reported to the NDRC for archival filing according to the relevant provisions.The development of any other iron and steel enterprise shall also meet the requirements of the development policies and mid- and long-term development planning of the iron and steel industry.Chapter III Adjustment of Industrial LayoutAdjustment of Industrial LayoutArticle 10For the adjustment of industrial layout, we should take such conditions as mineral resources, energy, water resources, traffic and transportation, environmental capacity, market allocation and overseas resources into account in a comprehensive manner. For the layout adjustment of the iron and steel industry, we shall not establish any new iron and steel associated enterprise alone, independent iron-smelting or steel-smelting factory as a general principle. It's not encouraged to establish any independent steel-rolling factory. We should, on the basis of those established enterprises that meet relevant conditions and in combination with merger and relocation, carry out reform and expansion in those regions with such comparative advantages as water resources, raw materials, transportation and market consumption. We should combine new increase of production capacity with elimination of backward production capacity and shall not, as a general rule, substantially expand the production capacity.In the important regions of environmental protection, the regions in serious short of water, the urban district of big cities, the iron and steel smelting and production capacity shall not be expanded any more. Those enterprises established within the districts shall, in combination of the adjustment of organizational structure, equipment structure and product structure, cut production and move to other places so as to meet the requirements of environmental protection and resource economization.Thinking over the bulk ores, energy, resources, water resources, transportation condition and the domestic and overseas market the large-scale iron and steel enterprises shall be mainly located along the coastal areas. The iron and steel enterprises in inland regions shall, in combination with the local market and bulk ore resources, determine their production according to the mines available, and shallregard the sustainable production as the main factor for consideration other than strive for any expansion of production scale.There are abundant resources of iron mines in the Anshan-Benxi region in north-east China, which is near the production bases of coal and has a certain condition of water resources. According to the development strategy of vitalizing the old north-east industrial base, the iron and steel enterprises in this region shall, according to the requirements of associated reorganization and establishing a top-quality production base, eliminate the backward production capacity so as to build up a large enterprise group with international competitive capacity. .As the region of North China is in short of water resources and the production capacity and level thereof is low and excessive, we should, according to the ecological requirements of environmental protection, put the focus on structural adjustment, carry out merger and reorganization, strictly control the continuous over-increase of production factories and expansion of production capacity. We should relocate the Capital Steel Corporation and the reorganize it with the iron and steel industry of Hebei Province.The steel material market in North China has a big potential. However, the layout of iron and steel enterprises thereof are over-intensified and thus, the large backbone enterprises with comparative advantages within this region may, in combination of the adjustment of organizational structure and product structure, elevate their production concentration and international competitive capacity .As the central-southern region has abundant water resources andconvenient water transportation, the south-east coastal regions shall make full use of the advantage of deep waters and good harbors to build up large iron and steel associated enterprises in combination with the industrial reorganization and the relocation of urban steel factories.There are abundant water resources in the west-south regions, and in thePanzhihua-Xichang area has a large storage capacity of iron mines and coal resources but with inconvenient transportation. The key backbone enterprises existed shall improve their equipments level, adjust the variety structure, develop high-value-added products, determine the production capacity according to the sustainable supplying capacity of bulk ores rather than blindly pursue the increase of quantity.As the west-north region is in short of bulk iron ores and water resources, the backbone enterprises existed shall put the focus on satisfying the requirement of local regional economic development other than pursue the expansion of production scale, and shall make good use of the mineral resources in neighboring countries actively.政策发展钢铁工业钢铁工业是国民经济的重要基础产业,是实现工业化和技术,资本密集型产业的支撑产业,资源和能源,以及它的发展需要各种外部条件的综合平衡。

中国银行业的改革和盈利能力毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

中国银行业的改革和盈利能力毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述China’s Banking Reform and Profitability1Erh-Cheng Hwa Yang Lei1. IntroductionThe World Bank (1997) once claimed that China’s financial sector was the soft-belly in the economy. Financial sector reform has long been argued as necessary to raise efficiency in the use of the capital and in rebalancing the economy toward consumption-based growth, without which the country’s growth sustainability is in jeopardy (see Lardy, 1998; Prasad, 2007).Indeed, not too long ago, China’s state banks were deemed “technically insolvent”and their survival hinged solely on the nation’s abundant liquidity.However, after the launching of banking reform, strong profitability has returned to state commercial banks recently. But it may be too early to declare a complete victory on banking reform as yet, since Chinese state banks have embarked on the path of reform not too long ago. In addition,their strong financial performance has ridden on the back of strong but unsustainable growth. As growth has begun to soften under the weight of a global recession in 2008, banks are expected to navigate in a more difficult economic terrain than hitherto. The aim of this paper is not to evaluate the effect of banking reform on bank performance, which is better tackled after the completion of a full credit cycle. Rather, our aim is to take stock of the progress in reforming China’s state banks by reviewing the banking reformstrategy and analyzing their recent strong post-reform financial performancewhich, however, cannot be entirely separated from reforms efforts1Review of Pacific Basin Financial Markets and PoliciesVol. 13, No. 2 (2010) 215–236©World Scientific Publishing Co.and Center for Pacific Basin Business, Economics and Finance ResearchDOI: 10.1142/S0219091510001925undertaken thus far.This paper has three sections. In Section 2, we review the reform strategy of China’s large state banks, which is the main thrust of China’s banking reform, as well as its implementation. The Section 3 analyzes 2007 financial performance focusing on the four largest state commercial banks that have floated shares in the market: Industrial Commercial Bank of China (ICBC),China Construction Bank (CCB), Bank of China (BOC), and Bank of Communications (BOCOM). The conspicuous exception is Agriculture Bank of China (ABC), which is still in the process of restructuring for market listing at an appropriate time later. Section 4 concludes with an assessment on bank performance.2. Bank Reform Strategy and Its Implementation2.1. Bank reform strategyBefore reform, state banks were solely owned by the State and served national economic policy goals.1 Since they were not wholly profit-making commercial entities, common commercial banking criteria for evaluating their financial performance do not apply strictly. Nevertheless, as soon as the country decided to embark upon the path of a socialist market economy in the October 1992 CCP Congress, commercialization of the state banks had become a foregone conclusion. The goal of banking reform is to turn state banks into commercial entities that are competitive in the marketplace and can provide efficient intermediation of the nation’s saving. Given their dominance in financial intermediation, the banks play a crucial role in the efficient allocation of capital.2.1.1. Creating the enabling environment for banking reformThe country’s market reform and opening program has greatly accelerated since 1992 when in October that year the 14th CCP Congress declared that the goal of reform and opening was to create a socialist market economy,which effectively ended the experimental nature of economic reform and opening program launched since the late 1970s. The firming up of market-oriented reforms has created an enabling environment for a host of reforms central to the socialist market economy construct including foremost the banking reform. In early 1994, in response to the inflation threat, the government launched macroeconomic reform encompassing central banking,exchange rate management, and fiscal policy and taxation. The macroeconomic reform permitted the central authorities to regain macroeconomiccontrol lost to local authorities in the decade of the 1980s under the decentralization policy of “fang quan rang li”.2 While decentralization ushered a period of rapid growth, it also generated significant macroeconomic instability.Indeed, the pursuit of macroeconomic reform significantly dampened macroeconomic cycles in the 1990s. Second, in the same year, the government created three policy banks —State Development Bank, Agriculture Development Bank, China ExportImport Bank —to relieve state commercial banks of their traditional policy mandates.Third, the government promulgated central banking and commercial banking laws in 1995 to provide the legal foundation for banking reform.Fourth, beginning from 1996 the government began to vigorously pursuit enterprise reform that paved the way for banking reform, even this resulted in large and painful layoffs of redundant state workers. Pursuingenterprise reform ahead of banking reform was necessary considering that state-owned enterprises were the main clients of state banks and hence their main source of non-performing loans NPLs, which was at the same time the contingent liability to the government. Hence, unless the reform of stateowned enterprises takes hold, any reform effort of the state banks would be in vain. On the other hand, as soon as the state-owned enterprise reform was pressed forward, the banking reform could no longer be postponed. This is because as state-owned enterprises were restructured, liquidated, merged, or bankrupted out of existence, the banks must start to recognize the hidden losses on their books. This, in turn, triggered the need to recapitalize the banks, as a large amount of non-performing loan was written-off.Fifth, the State Council in February 2002 decided to reform solely stateowned commercial banks into internationally competitive financial enterprises, transform them into state-controlled shareholding commercial banks,and encourage listing their shares in the market.Sixth, China Banking Supervisory Committee was created in 2003 to raise the regulatory capacity to supervise banks. Finally, adhering to the 2001 WTO accession agreement, the government uses the entry of foreign banks into the local banking market to inject competitive pressure to the local banking industry in order to gain efficiency. Beginning from the end of 2006, foreign banks can engage in local currency business.2.1.2. Reforming corporate governance and restructuringthe balance sheetThe country’s large state banks have followed several steps to undertake internal corporate reform. The first is to reform the corporate governance by inviting other investors to dilute the sole state ownership while still retaining its dominance. In particular, the banks have made an effort to seek foreign strategic partnership with the view to bringing in modern banking practices and technology. The broadening of ownership also entails selling a portion of bank shares to the equity market to make bank management accountable to the marketplace. To successfully woo outside investors, be it strategic partners or public investors, the banks must put forward a creditable inhouse reform plan and implement it credibly. No doubt, the better and more credible the internal reform plan is, the more likely it is for the banks to attract reputable outside partners and fetch a better deal with their counterparts or in the equity market.Hence, the first step the government undertook was to strengthen the balance sheet of state banks whose credit flows had been clogged up by inadequate capital and piles of bad debts accumulated under the previous economic planning regime. In 1998, the government issued RMB270 billion (US$32.6 billion) worth of 30-year fiscal bonds to recapitalize the balance sheets of the four largest state banks: ICBC, BOC, CCB, and ABC in order to comply with the international capital adequacy standards. Again, on December 30, 2003, the government provided US$22.5 billion each to CCB and BOC, with US$15 billion provided later in April 2005 to ICBC to support their respective listings in the Hong Kong stock exchange.Among the four largest state banks, CCB was the first to have its shares successfully listed in the Hong Kong stock exchange and thus the first to have its reform effort passed by the market test. In addition, as part of the scheme of recapitalization, the banks also issued subordinated debt to the local market:BOC, RMB60 billion; CCB, RMB40 billion; ICBC, RMB35 billion; and BOCOM, RMB12 billon.In 1999, the government created four asset management corporations AMCs, one for each of the “big four”: ICBC, CCB, BOC, and ABC, to manage RMB1.4 trillion of loans purchased from the books of the state banks at face value, of which 1.3 trillion were deemed non-performing (about 15% of GDP). The transaction was financed partly by central bank loan(RMB573 billion) and partly by treasury bonds (RMB820 billion). A second transferring of NPLs in the amount of RMB1.186 trillionto the AMCs took place during the period from June 2004 through June 2006.The banks also launched reform measures to improve internal management including strengthening the human resource base, introducing modern risk management practices, and moving up the standard of NPL classification to comply with the international standards.2.2. Implementation of reform2.2.1. Seeking diversification and attracting foreign strategic partners Following the blueprint of reform, the banks have successfully launched and implemented the reform strategy. ICBC, CCB, BOC, and BOCOM all have their full state stake in the company diluted to below 70% by incorporating non-state ownerships, which includes foreign ownership, domestic legal persons, and public ownership (publicly owned and traded shares). Among non-state owners, foreign strategic partnership usually has the highest stake in the company: ICBC, 7.2%, BOC, 13.9%, CCB, 10.3%, and BOCOM,18.7% (Table 1).The participation of foreign and domestic capital as well as public shares in state commercial banks has not only strengthened bank capital, but also exerted a positive influence on the corporate governance, in particular in the case of foreign participation, in so far as it stems the undue intrusion of government into the banking business. Second, all state commercial banks have installed modern corporate governance structure encompassing shareholders congress, corporate board plus outside directors and supervisors,supervisory board, and senior management structure. By the end of 2007, 33 foreign institutional investors have invested in twenty-five domestic banks, with a total capital injection of US$21.3 billion.These foreign strategic investors have entered in various strategic corporative agreements with domestic partners in widely diversified areas of banking,including retail banking, corporate governance and risk-management,trading, RMB derivatives and currency swaps, foreign exchange structured products, and trade and small-and-medium enterprises SME financing. In addition, domestic banks and their foreign partners share their networks and custom base for providing services and cross-selling financial products.Finally, human resource development program is a common feature in strategic corporative agreements, with training courses offered in SME management and financing, wealth management, fund trading, risk management, and implementation of the Basel Capital Agreements, etc.2.2.2. Successful public listingsAfter launching internal restructuring and successful attraction of reputable foreign strategic partners, state commercial banks were successful in listing their shares in the Hong Kong (H share) and Shanghai (A share) stock exchanges and hence for the first time subject to the market discipline:BOCOM, June 2005; CCB, October 2005; BOC, June 2006; ICBC, October 2006 (which was the first double listing in both the Hong Kong stock exchange and the Shanghai stock exchange). Public listing of bank shares together raised RMB445 billion (US$60 billion) in the open market, about 26% of combined net capital. In comparison, the funds raised through foreign strategic partners was US$15 billion. In 2007, two small shareholding banks were listed in the Shanghai stock exchange, bringing the total listed to seven among 12 shareholding banks. In addition, three city commercial banks based, respectively, in Beijing, Nanjing, and Ningbo were listed in the Shanghai A share market, paving the way for other city commercial banks to restructure and then seek listing in the stock exchange. Having benefited from rising share prices, ICBC, CCB, and BOC were, respectively, the first,second, and the fourth largest bank in the world by market capitalization at the end of 2007: US$338.9 billion, US$2202.5 billion, and US$197.8 billion.2.2.3. Strengthening capitalBy the end of 2007, nearly 80% of banks by asset have fulfilled capital adequacy standards. The capital adequacy ratio for the four listed state commercial banks was, respectively, 13% for ICBC; 13.3% for BOC; 12.6% for CCB; and 14.1 for BOCOM. The core capital adequacy ratio was, respectively, 11% for ICBC; 10.7% for BOC;10.4% for CCB; and 10.2% for BOCOM.2.2.4. Building risk management systemsSince 2006 CCB and other large state commercial banks have begun to introduce a vertical risk management system to consolidate risk management into the hands of the newly created chief risk officer. The reform has helped to stem undue interferences in the loan decision process at the local level. At the same time, by taking advantage of information technology, banks have begun to streamline and optimize the operational processes and procedures in order to reduce operational risks. Banks have also begun to use quantitative risk models to gauge and simulate various risk scenarios facing them such as stress test. The concept of economic/risk capital has been adopted to manage risk quotas, allocate bank resources, and pricing of products. Banks have alsostrengthened the analysis of market and liquidity risks while controlling operational risks through improved internal control procedures by employing quantitative tools and models. Last but not least, banks have taken steps to build a new risk or credit culture.2.2.5. Pursuing strategic transformation of the business modelChinese banks have traditionally focused on corporate businesses, the wholesale banking so to speak. However, as the local capital market gradually matures and the income and wealth of Chinese households continue to grow apace, the banks find growing business opportunities in consumer-oriented financial services such as mutual funds, mortgage financing, wealth management, and personal loans. These are also areas of financial services where the newly arrived foreign banks aim to capture with their competitive strength.Hence, both for seeking new sources of profit growth and achieving a more diversified and balanced revenue base, as well as for meeting the competition from foreign banks head on, the Chinese banks are compelled to seize the opportunity and meet the challenge to embark on the path of a strategic transformation of the traditional business model toward retailing banking.New thrusts of retail banking include credit card, personal loans, and wealth management, mutual fund, insurance products and other products generating fee-based income. Retail banking, in turn, has called for greater investment in information technology to develop efficient systems in processing personal loan, internet banking, and tele-banking, as well as improve the efficiency of retail networks to better serve the needs of retail rge state commercial banks like CCB have also initiated special programs to cater to the need of small and medium enterprises, SMEs. In addition, they have started to branch out into new areas of financial services, thus gradually and steadily moving toward universal banking encompassing investment banking, issuance, securities, private banking, and financial leasing.Banks have also started to grow overseas business either by establishing more new overseas branches or through merging and acquisitions of foreign financial entities.4. Conclusion: Assessment of Bank PerformanceThe strong financial performance of large state banks was carried into the first half of 2008 even as growth slowed by nearly 2 percentage points to 10.4% from the firsthalf of 2007 due to a combination of falling external demand and tighter credit policy. In the first half of 2008, net profit (profit after tax) grew, respectively, 71.3% for CCB, 56.8% for ICBC, and 36% for BOC over a year ago. Although the reduction of corporate income tax from 33% to 25% accounted for partly the increase in profit, but the key underlying factors driving profit growth remained the same as the last year. First,net interest income continued to benefit from rising interest margins as well as rapid asset growth and still is the main source of operating income, possibly for the foreseeable future. Second, fee and commission income again witnessed an explosive growth: CCB, 59.3%; BOCOM, 50%, ICBC, 48%;BOC, 45.1%, in spite of a sharply cooled stock market that has curtailed income derived from hot-selling market-based financial products of the previous year such as stock mutual funds. For large state commercial banks,the share of fee and commission income in total operating income reached a new record in the first half of 2008: CCB 14.9%; ICBC, 12.3%; BOC,31.4%. In the meantime, asset quality continued to improve as the NPL ratio continued to drop. By the end of June, the NPL ratio of ICBC and CCB were, respectively, 2.4% and 2.2%, representing a decline of 0.33 and 0.39 percentage points, respectively, from the end of 2007.Judged by record profit, much improved asset quality, and high ROE,the recent financial performance of the four large state commercial banks is nothing short of spectacular. Furthermore, as fee and commission income and more broadly retail banking revenue has taken off to become a strong source of profit growth, banks appear on track to realize their long-term strategic goal of diversifying into a more stable base of income generation that is less prone to business cycle risks. Thus, large state commercial banks appear to have come a long way in reforming themselves into a modern commercial bank. This outcome should be a surprise to some of earlier research findings that argue state commercial banks did not seem to have changed bank behavior fundamentally after launching banking reform. For instance,Podpiera (2006) shows that banks do not appear to make lending decision based on a commercial basis. Dobson and Kashyap (2006) assemble macroeconomic, microeconomic and anecdotal evidence suggesting that the pressure to make policy loans is continuing despite the reforms. However, the recent empirical work by Demetriades et al. (2008) seems to counter their findings by showing that bank loans is positively correlated with future value added and TFP growth during 1999–2005,even for state-owned enterprises. Moreover they find that firms with access to bank loans tend to grow faster in regions with greater banking sector development.Can this financial performance of banks be sustained? It appears that the good financial performance has been the result of two crucial factors,although it is not easy to delineate the two. First, a supportive macroeconomic environment —with a strong growth averaging 10.7% per annum over the period: 2003–2007 and a partially liberalized interest rate regime —helped to boost revenues. Second, banking reform has been instrumental in raising efficiency and holding down costs, both of which boost the return on capital.Compared to the impact of banking reform, the supportive macroeconomic environment exerts more a cyclical than fundamental impact on bank performance and is thus a less sustainable force. Indeed, the surging inflation as well as bubbles in the stock and real estate markets in 2007 already served as warning signals that the high growth in last several years is unsustainable. In 2008, the economic growth slowed sharply as a result of tightened money and credit policy and an unexpected large decline in external demand that sharply slowed down export growth. Although bank performance held up pretty well so far, a precipitous economic slowdown would sooner or later raise business risks and worsen asset quality for the banks. The immediate challenge of banks is how to skillfully navigate the more difficult economic water by properly controlling risks and staying on the course of restructuring and reform.If the successful public listing marked the end of the first phase of banking reform, it is clear that banks have entered a new phase of reform only a short while ago with much of the journey still lying ahead. Many of the recently launched corporate reforms: governance, internal control and operation procedures, risk management, and human resources are still work in progress and have not yet been brought to fruition. Banks are also in the early phase in adapting to the new business model mandating more attention being paid to retail customers and commission and fee-based incomes. Hence, they have to continue to be valiant on reform and learn to adapt to the vagaries of financial markets while catering to the evolving needs of customers as their demand for new financial services grow.While putting the bet on banking reform, there is no reason to be overly pessimistic on the short-term macroeconomic risks. China ran a budget surplus and had a lowgovernment debt of about 22% of GDP in 2007, as well as a relatively low urbanization ratio at around 44%. More importantly, Chinese banks have embarked on a reform path with healthy balance sheets and a strong capital base. Thus, China enjoys considerable flexibility to deploy a strong public sector investment program in order to strengthen domestic demand and mitigate the downside risks caused by the expected sharp decline in exports. The government unveiled such a public sector investment program with price tag of RMB4 trillion in mid-November 2008 (about 12% of GDP) that covered two years to last through 2010. The program complimented the expansionary money and credit policy that had been initiated a couple of months ago. If properly implemented and, in particular, in conjunction with structural rebalancing policies, the program should help to sustain strong growth in the short-run and even more important to regain macroeconomic balance over the medium-term.中国银行业的改革和盈利能力1概述世界银行(1997年)曾声称,中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文资本结构与企业盈利能力的关系一直是众多学者探讨的焦点问题之一。

资本结构关乎企业的资金成本、财务风险、盈利能力,而资金成本和财务风险都最终影响到企业的持续盈利能力。

本文主要从财务困境成本理论和代理成本理论来分析资本结构对企业盈利能力的影响。

企业的资本结构与盈利能力之间的相关性不明显,但是提高企业的长期资本负债率可以改善企业的权益资本净利率。

长期债务的资金成本主要体现为利息费用和筹资费用。

由于利息费用和筹资费用可以抵税,所以企业的实际资本成本要低于债权人索取的报酬率。

债务资本的成本主要由公司的财务结构、偿债能力、经营活动现金净流量、经营能力、经营效益、市场利率以及当前的市场经济状况决定。

长期负债通常面临更大的通货膨胀影响,投资者要求的报酬中必然会包含着通货膨胀的因素影响;长期负债由于使用期限更长而受企业经营不稳定性的影响就更大,长期债务面临更大的信贷违约风险,因此长期债务资本成本一般比短期资本的成本高。

本文以有效的资本市场为前提假设——债权人都是理性的,所以随着企业长期债务资本率的提高,债权人必然会索取越来越高的报酬率。

权益资本的成本包括机会成本。

企业的权益资本通常是无偿使用的,其不需要偿付本金,不是必须向所有者支付资金成本,但站在企业所有者的角度来看,企业所有者投入的资本以及在经营过程中积累的资本也应于使用后取得相应的报酬,也就是所谓的资金成本,权益资本成本隐含着一种机会成本。

权益资本成本是企业所有者要求的最低投资收益率。

目前资本资产定价模型是用来求权益资本成本的主要模型之一,但是资本资产定价模型只考虑了权益资本的机会成本而没有考虑到新股的发行费用,但笔者认为权益资本成本主要由使用股东权益的机会成本和新股的发行费用构成。

经过相关统计,新股的发行费用一般占到新股发行市价的5%-10%,也就是说发行10个亿大概有7500万的发行费用,对一个企业来说这是一笔非常大的支出,所以计算权益资本成本时必须要考虑新股的发行费用。

法学毕业论文法学外文翻译中英文对照

法学毕业论文法学外文翻译中英文对照

英文原文:How Real Is China’s Real Estate Bubble And WhatShould Be Done about ItThink U.S. housing prices havegone berserk?Try tho se in Shanghai and Beijing, where the cost ofhomes has been rising an estimated 25%annually in recent years。

Th at’stwice the jump in the median sale priceof existi ng U。

S. homes over the past year, and a sign thatCh ina’s real estate market is in the midst ofwhat some observers view as a potentially explosive bubble.The bubble is rooted insuch factors as China's strong economic growth since 1990 and investor bets that China’s currency, the yuan, will be revalued upward in the near future. But such speculation is helping push the price of homes beyond thereach of middle class citizens in key Chinese cities and raising the prospect ofasudden market collapsethat could threaten thecountry's shaky bank ing sector and wipe out thelife savings of manyfamilies。

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本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学(贸易方向)年级班别学号学生姓名指导教师目录1 外文文献译文(一)中国银行业的改革和盈利能力(第1、2、4部分) (1)2 外文文献原文(一)CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY(Part 1、2、4) (9)1概述世界银行(1997年)曾声称,中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。

当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候,金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要(Lardy,1998年,Prasad,2007年)。

事实上,不久前,中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”,它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。

但是,在银行改革开展以来,最近,强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。

但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路,它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。

此外,其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲,但不可持续增长。

随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化,银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。

本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响,这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。

相反,我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略,并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现,但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。

本文有三个部分。

在第二节中,我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略,以及其执行情况,这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。

第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行:中国工商银行(工商银行),中国建设银行(建行),对中国银行(中银)和交通银行(交通银行)。

引人注目的是中国农业银行,它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。

第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。

2 银行改革战略及其实施2.1 银行改革战略改革前,国有独资银行由国家拥有并服务于国家经济政策的目标。

由于他们并没有完全牟利的商业实体,评估其财务表现并不严格适用于普遍商业银行。

不过,一旦国家在1992年10月中共代表大会的决定着手进行社会主义市场经济,国有银行商业化已经成为定局。

银行业改革的目标是将国有银行转变成那些具有市场竞争力,可以提供高效的国家储蓄得中介。

发挥它们在金融中介的优势,银行在资金的有效配置中起着关键作用。

2.1.1 银行改革创造了有利环境自从国家在1992年十月的中共第14届中共代表大会宣布市场改革开放方案,目标是建立社会主义市场经济,从而有效地结束了自20世纪70年代末推出的实验性经济改革开放方案。

在坚定的市场化改革中创造了中央的改革与社会主义市场经济建立的有利环境,包括首先进行的银行改革。

1994年初,为了应对通货膨胀的威胁,政府推出包括中央银行宏观经济改革,汇率管理,财政政策和税收。

宏观经济改革政策允许中央政府恢复在20世纪80年代在“放权让利”政策下下放地方当局权力的宏观调控。

虽然权力下放迎来一个快速发展时期,但也产生了重大的宏观经济不稳定。

事实上,宏观经济改革的追求大大挫伤20世纪90年代的宏观经济周期。

其次,在同一年,政府设立了三个政策性银行——国家开发银行,农业发展银行,中国进出口银行——以减轻他们的传统政策对国有商业银行的要求。

第三,政府在1995年颁布的中央银行和商业银行法对银行改革提供了法律基础。

第四,从1996年开始,政府开始大力追求企业改革,为金融改革铺平了道路,即使这是大型国有企业职工的冗余和痛苦的裁员的结果。

在追求企业改革银行改革之前,有必要考虑到国有企业是国有银行的主要客户。

因此,他们的主要来源是不良贷款,在同一时间有负债给政府。

因此,除非国有企业改革的需要,任何国家银行的改革努力将是徒劳的。

另一方面,国有企业改革向前冲的时候,银行改革不能再拖延。

这是因为国有企业的改制,清算,合并,破产或不再存在,银行必须开始认识到他们的潜在亏损。

由于不良贷款的大量注销,这反过来又引发了银行进行注资的需要。

第五,国务院决定在2002年2月将仅有商业银行改造成具有国际竞争力的金融企业,转变为国家控股的股份制商业银行,鼓励他们在市场上上市的股票。

第六,中国银行业监督管理委员会成立于2003年,以提高监管能力,监管银行。

最后,坚持到2001年的入世协议,政府将使用外国银进入市场为竞争压力注入本地银行产业,以提高效率。

从2006年年底,外资银行可以从事人民币业务。

2.1.2 改革公司治理和结构调整的资产负债表该国最大的国有银行已按照几个步骤进行企业内部改革。

改革的第一步是通过邀请其他投资者来稀释唯一的国家所有权,但仍保持其主导地位来进行公司治理改革。

特别是,银行已在寻求外国战略伙伴和引进现代银行业务和技术方面作出努力。

所有权得扩大还需要销售部分银行股的股本市场的所有权,使银行管理负责到市场上。

为了成功地吸引外来投资者,无论是战略合作伙伴或公众投资者,银行必须提出可信的内训改革方案和贯彻落实可靠。

毫无疑问,更好,更可信的内部改革方案,越有可能是为银行吸引外部合作伙信誉伴和获取与他们的同行或在股票市场更好的待遇。

因此,政府承诺的第一步是根据以前的经济规划制度,加强对信用流动已经堵塞了的,资本累计不足和坏帐堆积如山的国有银行资产负债表的平衡。

1998年,政府发出四大国有银行的价值270,000,000亿美元(326亿美元)人民币的30年财政债券进行资本重组的资产负债表:工商银行,中国银行,建设银行和农业银行符合国际资本充足标准。

同样,12月30日,2003年,美国政府提供的建设银行和中国银行各225亿美元,和稍后在2005年4月将提供工商银行的150亿美元,以支持在香港联合交易所各自的清单。

其中四大国有银行,建设银行是第一个次拥有其改革努力,通过股市场的考验,在香港联合交易所成功上市的。

此外,作为对资本重组计划的一部分,银行发行的次级债券也面向当地市场:中国银行,人民币60亿元;商业罪案调查科,400亿元,工商银行,3500亿人民币交通银行,1200亿元人民币。

1999年,政府设立四家资产管理公司管理公司资产,为“四大银行”:工商银行,建设银行,中国银行和农业银行,管理1.4万亿元人民币的国有银行贷款购买书籍万亿,其中1.3万亿被视为不良贷款(约GDP的15%)。

本次交易的资金部分为部分国债(820亿元人民币)中央银行贷款(RMB573亿元人民币)。

第二个转移不良贷款的资产管理公司从2004年6月到006年6月期间转移了1.186万亿元。

银行还推出改革措施,完善内部管理,包括加强人力资源基础,引入现代风险管理做法,并提出了不良贷款的分类标准,以符合国际标准。

2.2 实施改革2.2.1 寻求多样化,吸引外国战略合作伙伴随着改革的蓝图,银行成功推出并实施的改革策略。

工行,建行,中行,交行得所有权都在稀释,纳入非国家所有制70%以下的公司,其中包括外资持股,国内法人和公有制(国有和公开交易的股票),全状态的股份。

在非国家所有,外国战略伙伴关系通常拥有公司的最高股份:工商银行,7.2%,中行,13.9%,建行,10.3%和交通银行,18.7%。

外国资本和国内资本,以及国有商业银行在社会公众股的参与下,不仅增强银行的资本,也产生了对公司治理的积极影响,特别是在外国参与的情况下,它源于银行业务进入政府得不当侵扰。

第二,所有的国有商业银行已经简历了现代公司治理结构包括股东大会,公司董事会以及外部董事,监事,监事会和高级管理结构。

到2007年底,有33个外国机构投资者投资于25年国内银行,共注资213亿美元。

这些外国战略投资者与国内合作伙伴已在广泛多元化的银行领域制定各战略合作协议,包括零售银行,公司治理和风险管理,贸易,人民币衍生工具和货币交换,外汇结构性产品,以及贸易和小和中小企业融资。

此外,国内银行与外国合作伙伴实行网络共享、提供服务和交叉销售金融产品。

最后,人力资源发展计划是战略法人共同协定的,在中小企业管理和融资,财富管理,基金交易,风险管理提供培训课程中予以提供,实施巴塞尔资本协定等。

2.2.2 成功的公开上市改革后的内部调整和信誉良好的战略合作伙伴吸引外资,国有商业银行成功上市在香港(H股)和上海(A股)上市交易的股票,从而第一次受到市场自律:交通银行,2005年6月,建设银行,2005年10月,中国银行,2006年6月,工商银行,2006年10月(这是首次在香港联合交易所和上海证券交易所共同上市)。

2007年,两个小股份制银行在上海证券交易所上市交易,使上市得股份制银行在12个总额中占了7个。

此外,在三个城市商业银行的基础上,北京,南京,宁波得商业银行在上海的A股市场上市,从而为其他城市商业银行进行重组提供方式,然后争取在股票交易所上市。

从上升的股价中收益,工行,建行和中行2007年底在世界上受益分别为第一,第二和第四大银行:3389亿美元,22025亿美元和1978亿美元。

2.2.3 强化资本到2007年底,有近80%的银行已经完成资本充足率标准。

四家上市国有商业银行的资本充足率分别为工商银行13%,中国银行13.3%,建设银行12.6%和交通银行14.1%。

核心资本充足率分别为工商银行11%,中国银行10.7%,建设银行10.4%和交通银行10.2%。

2.2.4 建立风险管理系统自2006年以来建行等大型国有商业银行已经开始引入一个垂直的风险管理制度,合并到新成立的首席风险官手中的风险管理。

这项改革有助于在地方一级在贷款决策过程中免去不必要的干扰。

在同一时间,通过利用信息技术的优势,各银行已开始简化和优化业务流程顺序和程序,以降低经营风险。

银行也开始使用定量风险评估模型和情景模拟他们所面临的各种风险,如压力测试。

经济/风险资本的概念已被采用到风险限额管理,分配银行资源和产品的价格。

银行还通过改善内部控制程序和采用定量控制的工具和操作风险模型加强了对市场和流动性风险分析。

最后但并非最不重要的,银行已经采取步骤,建立一个新的风险或信贷文化。

2.2.5 追求战略转型的经营模式中国银行传统上集中于公司业务,可以说是批发银行。

然而,由于本地资本市场的逐渐成熟,中国的家庭收入和财富继续急速增长,银行找到面向消费者的金融服务不断增长的业务机会,例如共同基金,抵押融资,理财,个人贷款。

这也是金融服务领域,即新来的外资银行的目的是捕捉他们的竞争力的领域。

因此,寻求新的利润增长源,实现了更加多样化和平衡的收入基础,以及为会议上向外国银行,中资银行被迫抓住机遇,迎接挑战,走上了向零售银行的传统经营模式的战略转型的道路。

新的零售银行业务推力包括信用卡,个人贷款,财富管理,共同基金,保险产品和其他产品的产生基于收费的收入。

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