4.a.固态成像器件-I-sup2
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固体成像器件成像原理
固体成像器件成像原理固体成像器件（Solid-state imaging devices）是一种用于光学成像的器件，常见的例子是CCD（电荷耦合器件）和CMOS（互补金属氧化物半导体）图像传感器。
它们广泛应用于数码相机、摄像机、手机摄像头、微控制器等各种成像设备中。
首先，光电转换是指光信号的转换为电信号的过程。
当光照射到固体成像器件表面时，光子会激发器件中的电子，使其跃迁到导带能级上，形成载流体。
绝大部分固体成像器件使用半导体材料作为光电转换材料，其中CCD使用的是硅材料，CMOS传感器则使用的是互补金属氧化物半导体。
当光照强度越大时，激发的电子数目就越多，形成的电荷量也就越大。
在信号读出完成后，固体成像器件会将电荷信号转换为电压信号并进行放大。
在CCD传感器中，电荷通过电荷耦合器件的串行传输结构进行传递，然后通过放大电路进行放大。
而在CMOS传感器中，每个像素都有自己的放大电路，电荷经过感光器件转换为电流信号，再通过放大电路转换为电压信号进行输出。
固体成像器件的成像质量受到颗粒度、量子效率、动态范围等因素的影响。
颗粒度是指图像分辨率，也就是器件的像素数量。
量子效率是指每个像素对光的敏感程度，即光电转换效率。
动态范围是指器件能够处理的最大和最小信号差距。
在实际应用中，固体成像器件还会受到暗电流、暗噪声、像素非均匀性、幅值非线性和读出速度等因素的影响。
暗电流是指没有光照射时器件本身自带的电子产生的电流。
暗噪声是指没有光照射时由于热激励导致的电子和缺陷态的产生的电荷噪声。
像素非均匀性是指不同像素对光的响应程度不均匀。
幅值非线性是指光信号与输出电压之间的关系不是线性的。
读出速度是指将信号读出并进行处理的速度，对于高速成像来说，读出速度尤为重要。
总而言之，固体成像器件使用光电转换和信号读出两个过程进行图像成像。
通过调整材料、器件结构和电路设计等方面的参数，可以改善成像质量，并满足不同应用领域对成像器件的要求。
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100%：对比度最好； 100%：对比度最好； 2%： 2%： 在特别的条件下才可见；
一般认为，可分辨线对相当于MTF 5%-2%； 一般认为，可分辨线对相当于MTF 5%-2%；
MTF of film Fuji Provia 100F
Film imaging systems： systems： lens, film, developer, scanner, lens, film, developer, scanner, image editor, and editor, printer (for digital prints) or lens, film, developer, lens, film, developer, enlarging lens, and paper (for lens, traditional darkroom prints). Digital camera-based imaging systems： camerasystems： lens, lens, digital image sensor, de-mosaicing program, sensor, deprogram, image editor, and printer editor,
All this leads many seasoned photographers and practitioners to the question: is MTF really trustworthy? Optics designers will be quick to answer "Yes, it is!". They are the ones who can really interpret MTF curves. They have the professional background and additional information helping them to draw the right conclusions from these curves. They do know, for instance, that MTF curves can be influenced significantly, if the spectral energy distribution of the light used for measuring or assumed in calculation changes a bit. So MTF curves of the same lens coming from different sources may vary, even when "white light" is specified with all these curves. Even "white light" is not necessarily the exact same thing unless all the weighing factors for the different sections of the spectrum are made sure to be the same.
About MTF
起源，用 lp/mm 来衡量成像系统的分辨率，如 usaf 1951
需要人工判读与解释，一致性不好； 定量化，可精确测量工具MTF的引入； 定量化，可精确测量工具MTF的引入； MTF是成像系统或器件的空间频率响应； MTF是成像系统或器件的空间频率响归一化的对比度
Carl Zeiss MTF curves are measured – not just calculated
he Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) is nowadays widely used throughout the optical industry as the objective way to clearly represent and evaluate the performance of optical systems, like camera lenses for example.
Carl Zeiss lens designers may, in a similar case, tend to rather aim for 93% instead of 98 % in order to actually get 90% MTF out of production – with very narrow tolerance bands. The MTF curves that Carl Zeiss publishes, are all measured curves of the first units actually built – not just calculated plots without information about how well they may be executed by the manufacturer. As far as we can see today Carl Zeiss is still the only manufacturer to print MTF curves which are measured, which measured, describe lenses that can actually be purchased, not just calculated curves of highly ambitious designs which may exceed the manufacturer's capability of turning them into reality.
Lens designers also know that there can be a huge difference between a lens performance designed on a computer and the actual performance of the real lens once in series production. This difference is not simply a fixed amount of loss, something like: "You design for 95% MTF and you lose 10%, thus getting 85% out of the production. So aim a little higher on the design computer and you will get a little more." Experienced optics manufacturers know that the opposite is usually true: If you aim for very high MTF values on the computer you create an optical system that is extremely sensitive in manufacturing. It will most likely force you to lower the MTF specification for final acceptance significantly to escape excessive scrapping costs. Thus you may have aimed for 98% MTF and get only 70% on average out of production. At least these lenses show very impressive MTF curves in the catalogues…
Trying to trace the usage of MTF in the optical industry we find first roots dating back as far as the year 1940. At that time an early version of MTF was first applied at Carl Zeiss in the Jena factory. Ever since Carl Zeiss pioneered the usage of this method, being convinced that Zeiss optics compared well by any means, MTF included. Other companies in the inindustry followed decades later. Many refused to publish MTF data of their lenses arguing that it is not as easy as it appears to correctly interpret MTF curves. Today, with the majority of lens manufacturers and many photo magazines publishing MTF curves or similar representations to demonstrate the performance level of camera lenses, we often encounter cases where the curves are misinterpreted by enthusiasts quite grossly.
一般认为，可分辨线对相当于MTF 5%-2%； 一般认为，可分辨线对相当于MTF 5%-2%；
MTF of film Fuji Provia 100F
Film imaging systems： systems： lens, film, developer, scanner, lens, film, developer, scanner, image editor, and editor, printer (for digital prints) or lens, film, developer, lens, film, developer, enlarging lens, and paper (for lens, traditional darkroom prints). Digital camera-based imaging systems： camerasystems： lens, lens, digital image sensor, de-mosaicing program, sensor, deprogram, image editor, and printer editor,
All this leads many seasoned photographers and practitioners to the question: is MTF really trustworthy? Optics designers will be quick to answer "Yes, it is!". They are the ones who can really interpret MTF curves. They have the professional background and additional information helping them to draw the right conclusions from these curves. They do know, for instance, that MTF curves can be influenced significantly, if the spectral energy distribution of the light used for measuring or assumed in calculation changes a bit. So MTF curves of the same lens coming from different sources may vary, even when "white light" is specified with all these curves. Even "white light" is not necessarily the exact same thing unless all the weighing factors for the different sections of the spectrum are made sure to be the same.
About MTF
起源，用 lp/mm 来衡量成像系统的分辨率，如 usaf 1951
需要人工判读与解释，一致性不好； 定量化，可精确测量工具MTF的引入； 定量化，可精确测量工具MTF的引入； MTF是成像系统或器件的空间频率响应； MTF是成像系统或器件的空间频率响归一化的对比度
Carl Zeiss MTF curves are measured – not just calculated
he Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) is nowadays widely used throughout the optical industry as the objective way to clearly represent and evaluate the performance of optical systems, like camera lenses for example.
Carl Zeiss lens designers may, in a similar case, tend to rather aim for 93% instead of 98 % in order to actually get 90% MTF out of production – with very narrow tolerance bands. The MTF curves that Carl Zeiss publishes, are all measured curves of the first units actually built – not just calculated plots without information about how well they may be executed by the manufacturer. As far as we can see today Carl Zeiss is still the only manufacturer to print MTF curves which are measured, which measured, describe lenses that can actually be purchased, not just calculated curves of highly ambitious designs which may exceed the manufacturer's capability of turning them into reality.
Lens designers also know that there can be a huge difference between a lens performance designed on a computer and the actual performance of the real lens once in series production. This difference is not simply a fixed amount of loss, something like: "You design for 95% MTF and you lose 10%, thus getting 85% out of the production. So aim a little higher on the design computer and you will get a little more." Experienced optics manufacturers know that the opposite is usually true: If you aim for very high MTF values on the computer you create an optical system that is extremely sensitive in manufacturing. It will most likely force you to lower the MTF specification for final acceptance significantly to escape excessive scrapping costs. Thus you may have aimed for 98% MTF and get only 70% on average out of production. At least these lenses show very impressive MTF curves in the catalogues…
Trying to trace the usage of MTF in the optical industry we find first roots dating back as far as the year 1940. At that time an early version of MTF was first applied at Carl Zeiss in the Jena factory. Ever since Carl Zeiss pioneered the usage of this method, being convinced that Zeiss optics compared well by any means, MTF included. Other companies in the inindustry followed decades later. Many refused to publish MTF data of their lenses arguing that it is not as easy as it appears to correctly interpret MTF curves. Today, with the majority of lens manufacturers and many photo magazines publishing MTF curves or similar representations to demonstrate the performance level of camera lenses, we often encounter cases where the curves are misinterpreted by enthusiasts quite grossly.