Chapter 7 Meaning and Context
英语文体学-Chapter-7-The-English-of-Conversation
Chapter 7 The English of Conversation
WANG Yao @ SDUT
Contents
7.1 Necessity of Studying Speech 7.3 Object of Study 7.5 A Sample Text of Casual
4) Simple nominal and verbal group structure
Nominal groups tend to be “Det+(Adj)+Noun”; with not much postmodification or adjective sequence
Relative clauses omit an optional relative pronoun and the prep. is put at the end
Saussure emphasized speech over writing
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
People talk and they communicate their thoughts and feelings by means of oral sounds.
A teacher, for instance, will talk with his wife at home, with his colleagues at school, with his students in the classroom, with shop assistants when shopping, with friends on the phone, etc. He is likely to engage in monologue as well
语言学简明教程Chapter 7
11
Polysemy
Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean: A piece of furniture All the people seated at a table The food that is put on a table Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc. …… (The word ‘table’ here is polysemous.)
15
My son saw that gasoline can explode.
My son saw that
Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Superordinate(上义词): the word which is more general in meaning. Hyponyms(下义词): the word which is more specific in meaning. Co-hyponyms(同级下义词): hyponyms of the same superordinate. E.g. Superordinate: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, … Superordinate: furniture 14 Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …
英语词汇学试题汇编
英语词汇学试题汇编Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Words and Vocabulary1. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?A. The English language is noted for its modest borrowings.B. Loan words only refer to those borrowings in form.C. Loan words are all unrecognizable as being foreign in origin.D. Loan words can be grouped according to manner of borrowing.2. The term "vocabulary "is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that_____.A. it can refer to the common core of a languageB. it can refer to the total number of the words in a languageC. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical periodD. it can stand for words in a given dialect or field3. A word is a symbol that________.A. is used by the same speech communityB. represents something else in the worldC. is both simple and complex in natureD. shows different ideas in different sounds4. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because theyA. are complex words.B. are technical wordC. refer to the commonest things in life.D. denote the most important concepts.5. The basic word stock forms the common____of the language.6. The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary or____. 7．Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but have limited_____________概念：jargonChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1. __is considered to be a highly-inflected language.A Old English B. Middle EnglishC. Early Modem EnglishD. Late Modem English2. The introduction of______ at the end of the'-6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. printing, B Christianity C. French words D. all the above3. Though still at work today, ___can hardly compare with what it was inthe past.A. word-formationB. borrowingC. derivationD. conversion4. Early Modern English refers to the language spokenA. from 1066 to 1500B. from 1150 to 1500C. from 1500 to 1700D. from 1600 to 18005. Old English has a vocabulary of about_______words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B. 50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D. 80,000 to 90,0006. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of___in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB. Danish originC. Latin originD. Greek origin概念：Germanic，Old English简答：Is it true that archaic and obsolete words in English will remainfor ever out of use?Chapter 3 Word Formation I1. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is thought to be----- .A. affixationalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound2. Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationshipsare known as____A. bound rootsB. free morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. derivational affixes3. ______are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separatewords.A. RootsB. StemsC. Affixes D, Compounds4. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and____5. Almost all affixes are_____________ morphemes because few can be usedas independent words.概念：morphs，allomorph，morpheme简答：1。
Meaning & context
Elimination of ambiguity
Chinese ambiguity “ 他想起来了。” “ 这个人好说话。” “ 十二岁就一米三。” “ 我讲不好。”
Referents
Deictic words Now / then Here / there I / you / she / he This / that These / those
Non-linguistic context
Peasant Liberalism Weekend
Culture
Roles of context
Ambiguity
Referents Inference
Elimination of ambiguity
1. Lexical ambiguity:
homonyms
I met him at the bank. He is not that kind. Please make her dress fast.
different class of words
Elimination of ambiguity
2. Structural ambiguity
• different levels
“old man and woman” • grammatical relations “Flying planes can be dangerous.” • semantic relations “the shooting of the hunters” • scale of cohesion “John and Mary are married.” • semantic scope and focus “George doesn’t come because of Mary.”
Meaning and Context
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context8.1 Types of ContextTypes of context: extra-linguistic context (non-linguistic context)非言语and linguistic context (verbal context)言语.Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context refers to the physical situation(自然语境）, embracing the people, time, place and even the whole cultural background. Extra-linguistic context is of great importance to pin down the meanings of the words and phrases. Look at the following examples (quick; look out; trade union; landlord and weekend).Linguistic context (verbal context) refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. Sometimes linguistic context may cover a paragraph, a chapter and even the entire book.Subdivision of linguistic context: lexical context and grammatical context.A . lexical context (词汇语境) refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring words. For instance, “head” has quite a few meanings in the dictionary, yet in each of the following contexts, it conveys only one sense.from head to foot(从头到脚) a head of state (国家元首) a head of cabbage (一棵白菜) a department head(一个部门的主任) to count heads (点人数) one hundred head of sheep (一百头羊) at the head of the list (在名单的开头) to discuss the question under five heads（分五个小组讨论问题）to lose one’s head (丧命) to use your head (动动脑筋) Two heads are better than one (两人智慧胜一人)hard: hard work, hard blow, hard discipline, hard winter, hard heartpaper: a sheet of paper, a white paper（白皮书），a term paper, today’s paper, examination paperdo: do a sum, do one’s teeth, do the flowers, do fish（烹饪鱼）, do a city/country（到访一个城市）A car can do 160 miles an hour.I will do you if you do not stop.B. grammatical context (语法语境): In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. For instance, “make” can be used in different sentence patterns, its meanings will be different.SVO) God made the country, man made the town. (创造) SVOC) The bad news made everybody depressed. (使得……)SVC) She will make a good teacher. (成为……)SVOO) He is going to make us a report. (给……作……)8.2 Role of verbal or linguistic context1. Elimination of ambiguityAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with more than one meaning is used in inadequate contexts, it creates ambiguity.e.g. 1) Are you engaged? ---Are you busy?---Are you betrothed?2)This door is unlockable.---This door is not able to be locked.---This door is able to be unlocked.3) She is an ′English teacher. --- She is a teacher who teaches English.She is an English ′ teacher --- She is a teacher with British nationality.He is a hard businessman. (hardworking/ difficult)He ran an interesting game. (participate/organize)They saw her duck. (a kind of poultry/ lower ones ′ body quickly)The ball was attractive. (dancing party/ a round object to play in a game)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.e.g. 1) Jack and Jane are married.--- Jack is married to Jane. Or: Jack and Jane are married to each other.---Jack is married and so is Jane.2) a married man and woman. --- a married man and a married woman--- a married man and a woman.The fish is ready to eat. (The fish is ready to eat things/ The fish is cooked or served, so ready for people to eat.)I like Xiao Li better than Zhang Tong. (I like Xiao Li better than I like Zhang Tong./ I like Xiao Li better than Zhang Tong likes Xiao Li. )2. Indication of ReferentsEnglish has a large number of words such as now/then, here/there, I / you, this/that, these/those, which are often used to refer directly to people, time, place, etc. without clear contexts, the referent can be very confusing. e.g. city/town, afternoon/ evening, evening/night,forest/wood, etc. Their referents are very vague.3. Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In a piece of writing, the author generally gives hints which help readers to understand the idea or grasp the concept. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:1)Definition. We often find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term.Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics , the study of body movement, was suggested by Prof. Birdwhistell.2)Explanation. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words.It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors—those tiny parts of a computer commonly known as “silicon chips”.3)Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term.Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Mary, for example, speaks five languages.4)Synonymy同义. The author often uses synonyms or synonymous expressions to explain new words.Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.5)Antonymy反义. The author frequently uses contrasting words or statements to explain unknown words.As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadir.Unlike her gregarious sister, Jane is a shy, unsociable person.6)Hyponymy上下义关系. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue.The village had most of the usual amenities: a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medical centre, and a school.7)Relevant details. In some contexts, the author provides details relating to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent.In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearing sou’westers, the storm was so heavy that they were wet through.8)Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words.Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the geocentric theory.8.3 questionsState the vital roles of context in determination of word meaning.Context is a vital clue in determining word meaning. Namely, it can eliminate ambiguity, indicate referents, and provide clues for inferring word meaning.First, a word or even a sentence without adequate context can be quite ambiguous. So it is hard to determine the exact meaning especially when the word is polysemous or the sentence structure has a difference in interpretation. Second, some referents like pronouns, nouns, may refer to anything or anybody. As for a pronoun or a noun, if we know what its exact meaning or referent is, we have to know it from its context. Third, context provides important clues in understanding unknown words or inexact meanings.The clues can be: 1) definition, 2) explanation, 3) example, 4) synonymy, 5) antonymy, 6) hyponymy, 7) relevant details, 8) word structure.。
语言学第七章chapter-7-1Meaning ppt
connotative meaning: 内涵意义
• Connotative refers to some additional, especially emotive meaning. • Woman: housewife, cry, fragile…… • Pig: fat, lazy, dirty, greedy……. • The difference between politician and statesman, for example, is connotative in that the former is derogatory while the latter is favorable.
reflecWhat is communicated through association with an other sense of the same expression.
• Comforter ( 圣灵，安慰者) [comfort] • Intercourse, cock • Bottom up
collocative meaning: 搭配意义
What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.
Color terms 绿色食品，绿色通道，白色恋歌，红色旅游 猫步，秋波，
• Word – thing
• Many words in the language have no referents in the real world. • Abstract entities • Imagined entities • Entities not at now and here
Chapter8Meaningand__Context
Chapter8Meaningand__ContextChapter 8 Meaning and ContextContext refers to the words around a word, phrase etc. often used for helping to explain the meaning of the word, phrase, etc. Context is of paramount importance for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the whole speech situation as well. Meaning lives in context and the context throws light on meaning.8.1 Types of ContextContext is used in different senses. In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context or co-text, which may extend to embrace a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation where a word is employed. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, covering the participants (addresser and addressee), time, place, and even the whole cultural background.8.1.1 Extra-linguistic ContextThe non-linguistic situation can often exercise greater influence on the meaning of words than we realize, e.g. look out; trade union; landlord.8.1.2 Linguistic ContextLinguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.1) Lexical ContextThis refers to the lexemes that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring lexemes. For instance, paper has a number of meanings in the dictionary, yet in each of the following context,it conveys only one concept.(1)a sheet of paper (thin flat sheets of substance for writing, printing, decoratingwalls, etc.)(2)a white paper (government document)(3)a term paper (essay written at the end of the term)(4)today’s paper (newspaper)(5)examination paper (a set of questions used as an examination)2) Grammatical ContextIn some cases, the meanings of a polysemant may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. Let us consider the verb become for example.(1)become + adj. /n (used as predictive), meaning ‘begin to be’, e.g.Daydreams have become realities.She became increasingly anxious about her husband’s strange behavior.(2)become + pron. /n (used as object), meanin g ‘suit, befit’, e.g.This sort of behavior hardly becomes a person in your position.Sarcasm doesn’t become you.(3)become + of, meaning ‘happen to , often in a bad way’,e.g.(4)I don’t know what will become of us if the company goes bankrupt.8.2 The Role of Context8.2.1 Elimination of AmbiguityAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity, e.g. He is a hard businessman.Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as two separate lexemes share the same form, e.g.(1)They saw her duck.(2)The ball was attractive.Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity, e.g.(1)The fish is ready to eat.(2)I like Mary better than Jean.8.2.2 Indication of ReferentsEnglish has a large number of deictic words such as now/then, here/there, I/you, this/that, which are often used to refer directly to the personal, temporal or locational characteristics of the situation. Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing, e.g. now.8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inference of Word-meaningContext may prove exceptionally valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In many cases, when a new word appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints, which might help the readers to grasp the concept or comprehend the idea. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:1) DefinitionOften we may find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term, e.g.Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics, the study of body movement, was suggested by Professor Birdwhistell.2) ExplanationSometimes the author might explain the idea in simple words. That is, he might make a restatement in known words, e.g.It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors―t hose tiny parts of a computer commonly known as ‘silicon chips’.3) ExemplificationIn some cases, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term, e.g.Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Ms Mary, for example, speaks five languages.4) SynonymySynonyms or synonymous expressions are frequently employed by authors to explain new words, e.g.Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.5) AntonymyContrasting words or statements are also commonly used to explain unknown words, e.g.As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadir.6) HyponymySuperordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue, e.g The village had most of the usual amenities: a pub, a library,a post office, a village hall, a medical centre, and a school..7) Relevant DetailsIn some cases, the author provides details in context which are related to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent, e.g.In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearingsou’westers, the stor m was so heavy that they were wet through.8) Schematic KnowledgeThere are cases where the key words and structures provided in the context help activate the reader’s schematic knowledge of the word to make sense of the unknown word, e.g.The fortune-teller was unable to prognosticate the events of the following week.9)Finally, the morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words, e.g.Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the geocentric theory.。
(完整word版)英语词汇学试题汇编
英语词汇学试题汇编Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Words and Vocabulary1. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?A. The English language is noted for its modest borrowings.B. Loan words only refer to those borrowings in form.C. Loan words are all unrecognizable as being foreign in origin.D. Loan words can be grouped according to manner of borrowing.2. The term "vocabulary "is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that_____.A. it can refer to the common core of a languageB. it can refer to the total number of the words in a languageC. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical periodD. it can stand for words in a given dialect or field3. A word is a symbol that________.A. is used by the same speech communityB. represents something else in the worldC. is both simple and complex in natureD. shows different ideas in different sounds4. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because theyA. are complex words.B. are technical wordC. refer to the commonest things in life.D. denote the most important concepts.5. The basic word stock forms the common____of the language.6. The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary or____.7．Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but havelimited_____________概念：jargonChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1. __is considered to be a highly-inflected language.A Old English B. Middle EnglishC. Early Modem EnglishD. Late Modem English2. The introduction of______ at the end of the'-6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. printing, B Christianity C. French words D. all the above3. Though still at work today, ___can hardly compare with what it was in the past.A. word-formationB. borrowingC. derivationD. conversion4. Early Modern English refers to the language spokenA. from 1066 to 1500B. from 1150 to 1500C. from 1500 to 1700D. from 1600 to 18005. Old English has a vocabulary of about_______words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B. 50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D. 80,000 to 90,0006. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of___in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB. Danish originC. Latin originD. Greek origin概念：Germanic，Old English简答：Is it true that archaic and obsolete words in English will remain for ever out of use?Chapter 3 Word Formation I1. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is thought to be----- .A. affixationalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound2. Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as____A. bound rootsB. free morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. derivational affixes3. ______are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. Affixes D, Compounds4. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and____5. Almost all affixes are_____________ morphemes because few can be used as independent words.概念：morphs，allomorph，morpheme简答：1。
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Chapter 7 Meaning and Context
I. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.
B1. Linguistic context may cover the following except ________
A. a paragraph
B. participants
C. a whole chapter
D. the entire book D2. Extra—linguistic context excludes ________.
A. people
B. time
C. place
D. clauses
C3. Linguistic context can be subdivided into _______ and ______
A. lexical context
B. grammatical context
C. both of the above
D. neither of the above
A4. Lexical context refers to the meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the ____
A. neighboring words
B. structure
C. physical situation
D. grammar
B5. “Do” in “do a museum” means “_______”
A. study
B. visit
C. arrange
D. clean
B6. The meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs, which is called_____
A. lexical context
B. grammatical context
C. linguistic context
D. non-linguistic context
D7. The function of context don’t include _______
A. elimination of ambiguity
B. indication of referents
C. provision of clues for inferring word—meaning
D. leading to ambiguity
D8. ________ often lead to ambiguity.
A. Polysemy
B. Homonymy
C. Grammatical structure
D. All the above
D9. When a word with _____ meaning is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.
A. same
B. single
C. one
D. multiple
C10. “I like Mary better than Jean.” In this sentence, ______ leads to ambiguity.
A. polysemy
B. homonymy
C. grammatical structure
D. none of the above
II. Fill in the blanks according to first letter that has been given.
1.Context can fall into l______ and non-linguistic context. linguistic
2. Linguistic context can be grouped into l______ and grammatical context. lexical
III. Study the following sentences and improve them if necessary.
1. Flying plane is dangerous.
Ambiguity caused by the grammatical structure.
a. It is dangerous to fly a plane.
b. A plane that is flying is dangerous.
2. Rose ran the badminton game.
Ambiguity caused by polysemy.
a. Rose ran the badminton game and won the first place.
b. Rose ran the badminton game and was regarded as the best organizer.
3. The boy ran after the girl with the flowers. Ambiguity caused by the structure.
a. The boy who carried the flowers ran after the girl.
b. The boy ran after the girl who carried the flowers.
4. The shooting of the hunters occurred at dawn.
a. The hunters did the shooting at dawn.
b. The hunters were shot at dawn.。