Part II Definition 30
博士研究生英语综合教程第二版
新编研究生英语系列教程博士研究生英语综合教程（第二版/教师用书）北京市研究生英语教学研究会主编陈大明徐汝舟副主编刘宁王焱华许建平编者赵宏凌邹映辉杨凤珍来鲁宁张剑柳君丽曹莉郑辉中国人民大学出版社KEY TO THE EXERCISESUnit One ScienceText 1 Can We Really Understand Matter?I. Vocabulary1. A2. B3. A4. C5. D6. B7. B8. CII. Definition1. A priority2. Momentum3. An implication4. Polarization5. the distance that light travels in a year, about 5.88 trillion miles or 9.46 trillion km.6. a contradictory or absurd statement that expresses a possible truth7. a device that speeds up charged elementary particles or ions to high energiesIII. Mosaic1. The stress: (Omitted)Pronunciation rule: An English word ended with–tion or –sion has its stress on the last syllable but one.2. molecule3. A4. B5. C6. B7. A8. AIV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B.In September 1995, anti-hydrogen atom—an anti-matter atom—was successfullydeveloped in European Particle Physics Laboratory in Switzerland. After the startling news spread out, scientists in the West who were indulged in the research of anti-matter were greatly excited. While they were attempting to produce and store anti-matter as the energy for spacecraft, they raised a new question: Many of the mysterious nuclear explosions in the recent one hundred years are connected with anti-matter. That is to say, these hard-to-explain explosions are tricks played by anti-mat ter. They are the “destruction”phenomenon caused by the impact between matter and anti-matter.V. GroupingA.Uncertainty:what if, illusory, indescribable, puzzle, speculation, seemingly, in some mysterious wayB.Contrast:more daunting, the hardest of hard sciences, do little to discourage, from afar, close scrutiny, work amazingly wellC. Applications of Quantum mechanics:the momentum of a charging elephant, building improved gyroscopes1. probabilities2. illusory3. discourage4. scrutinyVI. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)WRITING•STRATEGY•DEFINITIONI. Complete the following definitions with the help of dictionaries.1. To bribe means to influence the behavior or judgment of others (usually in positions ofpower) unfairly or illegally by offering them favors or gifts.2. Gravity is defined as the natural force by which objects are attracted to each other,especially that by which a large mass pulls a smaller one to it.3. The millennium bug refers to the computer glitch that arises from an inability of thesoftware to deal correctly with dates of January 2000 or later.4. Globalization is understood as the development so as to make possible internationalinfluence or operation.II. Write a one-paragraph definition of the following words.1. hypothesisA hypothesis is an idea which is suggested as a possible way of explaining facts,proving an argument, etc. Through experiments, the hypothesis is either accepted as true (possibly with improvements) or cast off.2. scienceScience is defined as the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.3. superstitionSuperstition refers to a belief which is not based on reason or fact but on old ideas about luck, magic, etc. For example, it is a common superstition that black cats are unlucky.4. pessimismPessimism is a tendency to give more attention to the bad side of a situation or to expect the worst possible result. A person with pessimism is a pessimist who thinks that whatever happens is bad.5. individualismIndividualism is the idea that the rights and freedom of the individual are the most important rights in a society. It has a bad sense in that little attention is paid to the rights of the collective or a good one in that independence is emphasized rather than dependence on others.Text 2 Physics Awaits New Options as Standard Model IdlesI. Vocabulary1. C2. A3. B4. A5. C6. D7. D8. BII. Definition1. A refrain2. A spark3. A jingle4. Symmetry5. develops or studies theories or ideas about a particular subject.6. studies the origin and nature of the universe.7. studies the stars and planets using scientific equipment including telescopes.III. Mosaic1. gravity2. anti-/opposite3. D4. B5. A6. A7. B8.AIV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B.The Standard Model of particle physics is an unfinished poem. Most of the pieces are there,and even unfinished, it is arguably the most brilliant opus in the literature of physics. With great precision, it describes all known matter – all the subatomic particles such as quarks and leptons –as well as the forces by which those particles interact with one another.These forces are electromagnetism, which describes how charged objects feel each other’s influence: the weak force, which explains how particles can change their identities, and the strong force, which describes how quarks stick together to form protons and other composite particles. But as lovely as the Standard Model’s description is, it is in pieces, and some of those pieces – those that describe gravity – are missing. It is a few shards of beauty that hint at something greater, like a few lines of Sappho on a fragment of papyrus. V. GroupingA.Particle physics:supersymmetry, equation, superpartners, stringB.Strangeness:bizarre, beyond the ken ofC.Antonyms:gravity–antigravity1. novelty2. revelatory3. Symmetry4. gravityVII. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)WRITING • STRATEGY• EXEMPLIFICATION AN D ILLUSTRATION(Omitted)Text 3 Supporting ScienceI. Vocabulary1. D2. C3. A4. C5. C6. A7. B8. A9. C 10. D 11. B 12. AII. Definition1. A portfolio2. A vista3. Cryptography4. Paleontology5. a business or an undertaking that has recently begun operation6. a group of people having common interests7. a person with senior managerial responsibility in a business organizationIII. Rhetoric1. pouring money into2. column3. unbridled4. twilight5. blossomed intoIV. Mosaic1. phenomenon criterion datum medium(because these words originated from Latin and retain their Latin plural form)2. A3. A4. B5. B6. B7. C8. BV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B. The five scientists who won the 1996 Nobel Prize point out that the present prosperityand development are based on the fruits of basic scientific research and the negligence of basic scientific research will threaten human development of the 21st century.EU countries noticed that one of their weaknesses is “insufficient investment in research and development.” Korea and Singapore do not hesitate to pour money into research and development. The developed countries in the West have used most of the scientific and technological development resources for the research and development of new and high technology. This has become an obvious trend at present. It is evident from the experiences of various countries that new and high technology can create and form new industries, open up and set up new markets. The innovation of traditional industries with new and high technology is a key method to strengthen the competitive competency of an enterprise.VI. Grouping:A.Negligence of basic research:corporate breakups, cut back on research, ignore it, subject to a protracted dissection and review, second-guessing, dropped dramatically, subjected to a scrutiny, skirling our supportB.Significant examples of basic research:computing, biotechnology, the Internet, number theory, complex analysis, coding theory, cryptography, dinosaur paleontology, genetics research)C.Ways to intensify arguments:moved support for science from a “want to have” squarely into the “need to have”column1. resounding2. second-guessing3. downsized4. subjectedVII. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)WRITING • STRATEGY • COMPARISON, CONTRAST, AND ANALOGY (Omitted)Text 4 Why Must Scientists Become More Ethically Sensitive Than They Used to Be?I. Vocabulary1. B2. B3. A4. C5. B6. D7. D8. A9. D 10. B 11. B 12. DII. Definition1. A constraint2. Algorithm3. A prerequisite4. Ethics5. an important topic or problem for debate or discussion6. a person’s principles or standards of behaviour; one’s judgement of what is important inlife.7. a formal plan put forward for consideration to carry out a projectIII. Rhetoric1. brushed under the carpet2. smell3. hands and brains4. battle front5. module . . . moduleIV. Mosaic1. /z/ /s/ /s/ /z/ /s//s/ /iz/ /z/ /s/ /z//iz/ /z/ /s/ /z/ /z//z/ /s/ /s/ /z/ /z//s/ after voiceless consonants/z/ after voiced consonants/iz/ after a word ended with –es2. B3. D4. A5. D6. A7. CV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B. Scientists and medical ethicists advocate the prohibition of human cloning as a way toproduce life. They all agree that human cloning exerts severe threats on human dignity.Social critics point out that cloned children will lack personality and noumenon. G. Annas, professor of health laws in Boston university, points out that “human cloning should be banned because it may fundamentally alter the definition of ourselves.”VI. Grouping:A.The change of attitudes towards ethical consideration:occupy media slots and Sunday supplements, latest battle front, can no longer be swept aside, more sensitiveB.Academic science:a worldwide institutional web, peer review, respect for priority of discovery,comprehensive citation of the literature, meritocratic preferment, smuggle ethical considerations from private life, from politics, from religion, from sheer humanitariansympathyC.Industrial science:intimately involved in the business of daily lifeD.Post-academic science:a succession of “projects”, compound moral risks with financial risks, largely the work ofteams of scientists1. individualistic2. energized3. comprehensive4. heterogeneousVII. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)WRITING • STRATEGY • CAUSE AND EFFECT(Omitted)Text 5 Beauty, Charm, and Strangeness: Science as MetaphorI. Vocabulary1. B2. A3. C4. B5. C6. B7. A8. B9. A 10. CII. Rhetoric1. pitch2. landscape3. unblinking4. yawn5. wringsIII. Mosaic1.physical poetic political scientific optical atomic2. (Omitted)3. B4. B5. A6. C7. DIV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B. There are only two forms of human spiritual creation: science and poetry. The formergives us convenience; and the latter gives us comfort. In more common words, the former enables us to have food to eat when we are hungry; and the latter makes us aware that eating is something more than eating, and it is very interesting as well. To have science without poetry, atomic bomb will be detonated; to have poetry without science, poets will starve to death.Scientists should not despise poets; and poets should not remain isolated from scientists.If the two fields conflict each other, human beings would be on the way to doom. In fact, the greatest scientists like Newton, Einstein and Mrs. Currie were all endowed with poetic spirit.I assert that in observing the apple falling to the ground, Newton not only discovered thegravity of the earth, he also wrote a beautiful poem.V. GroupingA.Human reason:guilty of hubris, cramped imagination, commonsense logic, an ignorant manB.Differences between art and science:different in their methods and in their ends, a scientific hypothesis can be proven, new combinations of old materials, transform the ordinary into extraordinary, a practical extension into technology, the sense of an endingC.Similarities between art and science:in their origin, quest to reveal the world1. indistinguishable2. transform3. poetic4. extension5. subdueVI. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)WRITING • STRATEGY • DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATIONI. Organize the following words into groups.People: physician; driver; boxer; mother; teacherSchools: school; college; institute; kindergarten; universityColors: brown; purple; violet; black; yellowPrepositions: along; toward; upon; without; intoVerbs:listen; read; write; hear; lookII. Complete the following lists.1. College students can be classified according to:A.academic achievementB.attitude toward politics, friendship, etc.C.sexD.heightE.place of originF.value of lifeG.major2. Transportation means can be classified according to:A.speedB.sizeeD.fuelfortF.historyG.water, land, or airIII. Write a paragraph of classification on the books which you like to read.(Omitted)Text 6 Is Science Evil?I. Vocabulary1. C2. A3. D4. B5. B6.A7. C8. C9. D 10. AII. Definition1. Canon2. Validity3. A premise4. Disillusionment5. the process of establishing the truth, accuracy, or correctness of something6. a mode of thinking based on guessing rather than on knowledgeIII. Mosaic1. 1) / / illusion dis-=not -ment=noun ending2) / / science pseudo-=false3) / / conscious -ness=noun ending4) / / question -able=adjective ending5) / / extenuate -ation=noun ending6) / / indict -ment=noun ending7) / / rebut -al=noun ending8) / / perpetrate -ion=noun ending9) / / problem -ic=adjective ending10) / / dissolute -ion=noun ending2. Para. 13: Only when scientific criticism is crippled by making particulars absolute can aclosed view of the world pretend to scientific validity –and then it is a falsevalidity.Para.14: Out of dissatisfaction with all the separate bits of knowledge is born the desire to unite all knowledge.Para. 15: Only superficially do the modern and the ancient atomic theories seem to fit into the same theoretical mold.1) Para. 13: Only + adverbial clause of time + inverted orderPara. 14: Prepositional phrase + inverted orderPara. 15: Only + adverb + inverted order2) Inverted order is used to emphasize.3. C4. B5. A6. CIV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B. At present there exist two conflicting tendencies towards the development of science andtechnology. The opponents of science hold that the development of modern science has not brought blessings to human beings, instead it has brought human beings to the very edge of disaster and peril. On the other hand, the proponents of scientific and technological progress maintains that the crises facing human beings today—such as environmental pollution, ecological unbalance, natural resource exhaustion—are the natural consequences of the development of science, and the solution to which lies in the further development of science. Both of the above tendencies are reasonable in a sense with their respective one-sided view. If we view the development of modern science and technology from the point of view of our times and with dialectic viewpoints, we can find out that the problem facing modern science and technology is not how to understand the progress of modern science and technology, but how to find out the theoretical basis for the further development of science and technology in order to meet the needs of the times.V. GroupingA.Attitudes toward science:expect to be helped by science and only by science, the superstition of science, the hatred of science, the one great landmark on the road to truthB.Characteristics of science:powerful authority, solve all problems, thoroughly universalC.Scientific knowledge:a concrete totality, cannot supply us with the aims of life, cannot lead usD.Contrast between ancient and modern science:progress into the infinite, making particulars absolute, not as an end in itself but as a tool of inquiry1. corruption2. totality3. inquiry4. superstition5. landmarkVI. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)WRITING • STRATEGY • GENERALIZATION AND SPECIFICATIONWRITING • STRATEGY • COMBINATION OF WRITING STRATEGIES (Omitted)Unit Two EngineeringText 7 Engineers’ Dream of Practical Star FlightI. Vocabulary1. D2. C3. B4. D5. A6. C7.CII. Definition1. Annihilation2. A skeptic3. A cosmic ray4. Anti-matter5. A workshop6. the curved path in space that is followed by an object going around another larger object7. any one of the systems of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust, heldtogether by gravitational attractionIII. Mosaic1. 闭音节, 字母u 发/ / 的音，如A, C and D.2. (Omitted)3. (Omitted)4. C5. C6. B7. A8. BIV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B. Human beings have long been attempting sending unmanned devices, called interstellarprobes, into the outer space to understand the changes of climates, geological structures and the living beings on the stars and planets out there. A probe is usually sent into the orbit of the earth by “riding” a spacecraft or carrier rockets. After its orbital adjustments are made, the rocket engine is ignited and the probe continues its journey to the orbit of the other star or planet. With the rocket engine broken off, the probe immediately spreads its solar-cell sails and antenna, controlling its posture with sensors. When convinced that it is in the orbit of the targeted star, the probe starts its propeller and flies to the preset destination.V. GroupingA.Astronomical phenomena:interstellar medium, a wind of particles, galaxy, reserves of comets, the Kuiper Belt,orbit, Pluto, the Oort Cloud, the bombardment photonB.Space equipment:interstellar probe, gravitational lens, chemical rocket, thruster, reflective sailC.To explore the universe:scoop, bend, sampleD.Challenges and solutions in interstellar flights:carry its own supply of propellant, matter-antimatter, nuclear power1. gravitational2. propulsion3. probed4. interstellarVI. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)WRITING • RHETORIC • SIMILE AND METAPHORI. Complete the following similes with the words given, using one word once only.1. as drunk as a ___ bear 11. as cool as ___ cucumber______2. as faithful as a ___ dog_____ 12. as white as ____ snow ________3. as greedy as ____Jew_____ 13. as cunning as a ____ fox__________4. as rich as _____ king_____ 14. to fight like a ____ _lion_________5. as naked as a ___ frog_____ 15. to act like a stupid __ ass_________6. as red as a _ _lobster_ 16. to spend money like __ water_______7. as beautiful as a _ butterfly__ 17. to eat like a _ wolf________8. as busy as a ____ bee______ 18. to sleep like a _____ log ______9. as firm as a ____ rock _____ 19. to swim like a ____ fish________10. as rigid as a ___stone____ 20. to tremble like a _____ _ leaf_________II. Explain the following metaphors.1. Creaking doors hang the longest.creaking door: anything or anybody in a bad condition2. I could hardly put up with his acid comment.acid comment: bitter remark.3. Her eyes were blazing as she stormed at me.blazing: filled with angerstormed: shouted; screamed4. She burnt with love, as straw with fire flames.burnt with love: extremely excited with love5. The talk about raising taxes was a red flag to many voters.a red flag: a danger signal (that might stop the support of many voters)6. The charcoal fire glowed and dimmed rhythmically to the strokes of bellows.glowed and dimmed: became bright and gloomy7. The city is a jungle where nobody is safe after the dark.a jungle: a disorderly place8. To me he is power—he is the primitive, the wild wolf, the striking rattlesnake, thestinging centipede.the primitive, the wild wolf, the striking rattlesnake, and the stinging centipede: the most terrifying creatureText 8 Blinded By The LightI. Vocabulary1. A2. C3. A4. C5. D6. A7. BII. Rhetoric1. riveted2. pack3. pours4. creepsIII. Mosaic1. 开音节发字母读音, 如A, B and C.2. (Omitted)3. (Omitted)4. C5. D6. D7. C8. AIV. TranslationA.(Refer to the relevant part of the Chinese translation)B. The energy released from nuclear fusion is much more than that from nuclear fission, andthe radioactivity given out from fusion is only one hundredth of that from fission. The major fuel used for nuclear fusion is hydrogen and its isotopes, deuterium and tritium, among which deuterium could be directly extracted from sea water. The energy of deuterium contained in one liter of sea water is equal to 300 liters of petroleum. In the ocean there are about 35,000 billion tons of deuterium, which could be used for more than one billion years. Compared to the fission energy, the fusion energy on the earth is nearly limitless.V. GroupingA. Nuclear-fusion:the doughnut-shaped hollow, reactor, the Tokamak Fusion reactor, fusion, generate, consumeB. Verbs related to nuclear-fusion reaction:ignite, release, stickC. Excitement and cool-down:not a few tears, The experiment is an important milestone, but fusion power is still along way . . . , But no one knows for sure whether…, Even then it will take decades of engineering before…1. nuclear fusion2. repel3. blastVI. Topics for Discussion and Writing(Omitted)W RITING • R HETORIC • METONYMY AND SYNECDOCHEI. Study the uses of metonymy in the following sentences and then put them into Chinese.1.The election benched him in the district court.他在这次竞选中当上了地区法官。
2019年12月英语六级真题第2套
2019年12月六级第二套Part I Writing (30 minutes) Directions: For this part you are allowed 30 minutes to write an essay on the importance of having a sense of social responsibility. You should write at least 150 words but no more than 200 words. Part II Listening Comprehension (30 minutes) Section ADirections:In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of eachconversation, you will hear four questions. Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C),and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre. Questions 1 to 4 are based on the conversation you have just heard. 1. A) It focuses exclusively on jazz. B) It sponsors major jazz concerts.C) It has several branches in London. D) It displays albums by new music talents.It originated with cowboys. B) Its market has now shrunk.C) Its listeners are mostly young people. D) It remains as widespread as hip hop music.Its definition is varied and complicated. B) It is still going through experimentation.C) It is frequently accompanied by singing. D) Its style has remained largely unchanged.Learn to play them. B) Take music lessons.C) Listen to them yourself. D) Consul jazz musicians.Questions 5 to 8 are based on the conversation you have just heard.5. A) She paid her mortgage. B) She called on the man.C) She made a business plan. D) She went to the bank.6. A) Her previous debt hadn’t been cleared yet.B) Her credit history was considered poor.C) She had apparently asked for too much. D) She didn’t pay her mortgage in time.7. A) Pay a debt long overdue. B) Buy a piece of property.C) Start her own business. D) Check her credit history.8. A) Seek advice from an expert about fundraising. B) Ask for smaller loans from different lenders.C) Build up her own finances step by step. D) Revise her business proposal carefully.Section BDirections:In this section, you will hear two passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear three or four questions. Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A)，B)，C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre. Questions 9 to 11 are based on the passage you have just heard. It is profitable and environmentally friendly. B) It is well located and completely automated.C) It is small and unconventional. D) It is fertile and productive.Their urge to make farming more enjoyable. B) Their desire to improve farming equipment.C) Their hope to revitalize traditional farming. D) Their wish to set a new farming standard.It saves a lot of electricity. B) It needs little maintenance.C) It causes hardly any pollution. D) It loosens soil while weeding.Questions 12 to 15 are based on the passage you have just heard. It has turned certain insects into a new food source.B) It has started on expand business outside the UK.C) It has imported some exotic foods from overseas.D) It has joined hands with Sainsbury’s to sell pet insects. It was really unforgettable. B) It was a pleasant surprise.C) It hurts his throat slightly. D) It made him feel strange.They are more tasty than beef,chicken or pork.B) They are more nutritious than soups and salads.C) They contain more protein than conventional meats.D) They will soon gain popularity throughout the world.It is environmentally friendly. B) It is a promising industry.C) It requires new technology. D) It saves huge amount of labor.Section CDirections: In this section, you will hear three recordings of lectures or talks followed by three or four questions. The recordings will be played only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet1 with a single line through the centre.Questions 16 to 18 are based on the recording you have just heard. To categorize different types of learners.B) To find out what students prefer to learn.C) To understand the mechanism of the human brain.D) To see if they are inherent traits affecting learning.It was defective. B) It was misguided.C) It was original in design. D) It was thought-provoking.Auditory aids are as important as visual aids.B) Visual aids are helpful to all types of learners.C) Reading plain texts is more effective than viewing pictures.D) Scientific concepts are hard to understand without visual aids.Questions 19 to 22 are based on the recording you have just heard. Not playing a role in a workplace revolution.B) Not benefiting from free-market capitalism.C) Not earning enough money to provide for the family.D) Not spending enough time on family life and leisure.People would be working only fifteen hours a week now.B) The balance of power in the workplace would change.C) Technological advances would create many new jobs.D) Most workers could afford to have house of their own. Loss of workers’ personal dignity.B) Deprivation of workers’ creativity.C) Deterioration of workers’ mental health.D) Unequal distribution of working hours.Questions 22 to 25 are based on the recording you have just heard. It is the worst managed airport in German history.B) It is now the biggest and busiest airport in Europe.C) It has become something of a joke among Germans.D) It has become a typical symbol of German efficiency.The city’s airports are outdated.B) The city had just been reunified.C) The city wanted to boost its economy. D) The city wanted to attract more tourists.The municipal government kept changing hands.B) The construction firm breached the contract.C) Shortage of funding delayed its construction.D) Problems of different kinds kept popping up.Tourism industry in Berlin suffers. B) All kinds of equipment gets rusted.C) Huge maintenance costs accumulate. D) Complaintsby local residents increase.Part III Reading Comprehension (40 minutes)Section ADirections:In this section, there is a passage with ten blanks. You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage. Read the passage through carefully before making your choices. Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter. Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre. You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.The persistent haze over many of our cities is a reminder of the polluted air that we breathe. Over 80% of the world’s urban population is breathing air that fails to meet World Health Organization guidelines, and an estimated million people died 26 from outdoor air pollution in 2015.Globally, urban populations are expected to double in the next 40 years. An extra 2 billion people will need new places to live, services and ways to move around their cities. What is more important, the decisions that we make now about the design of our cities will 27 the everyday lives and health of the cominggenerations. So what would the components of a smog-free, or at least low-pollution, city be likeTraffic has become 28 with air pollution, and many countries intend to ban the sale of new petrol and diesel cars in the next two decades. But simply 29 to electric cars will not mean pollution-free cities. The level of emissions they cause will depend on how the electricity to run them is 30 , while brakes, tyres and roads all create tiny airborne 31 as they wear out.Across the developed world, car use is in decline as more people move to city centers, while young people especially are 32 for other means of travel. Researchers are already asking if motor vehicle use has reached its 33 and will decline, but transport planners have yet to catch up with this 34 , instead laying new roads to tackle traffic users of London’s orbital M25 motorway will know, new roads rapidly fill with more traffic. In the US, studies have shown that doubling the size of a road can 35 double the traffic, taking us back to the starting point.Section BDirections:In this section, you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it. Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs. Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived. You may choose a paragraph more than once. Each paragraph is marked with a letter. Answer the question by marking the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2.How Much Protein Do You Really Need?[A] The marketing is tempting: Get stronger muscles and healthier bodies with minimal effort by adding protein powder to your morning shake or juice drink. Or grab a protein bar at lunch or for a quick snack. Today, you can find protein supplements everywhere—online or at the pharmacy, grocery store or health food store. They come in powders, pills and more than $12 billion in sales this year, the industry is booming and, according to the market research company, Grand View Research, is on track to sell billions more by 2025. But do we really need all this supplemental proteinIt depends. There are pros, cons and some ho-hums to consider.[B] For starters, protein is critical for every cell in our body. It helps build nails, hair, bones and muscles. It can also help you feel fuller longer than eating foods without protein. And, unlike nutrients that are found only in a few foods, protein is present in all foods. “The typical American diet is a lot higher i n protein than a lot of us think,” says registered dietitian Angela Pipitone. “It’s in foods many of us expect, such as beef, chicken and other types of meat and dairy. But it’s also in foods that may not come immediately to mind like vegetables, fruit, be ans and grains.”[C] The . government’s recommended daily allowance (RDA) for the average adult is 50 to 60 grams of protein a day. This may sound like a lot, but Pipitone says: “We get bits of protein here and there and that really adds up throughout the day.”Take, for example, breakfast. If you ate two eggs topped with a little bit of cheese and an orange on the side, you already have 22 grams of protein. Each egg gives you 7 grams, the cheese gives you about 6 grams and the orange—about 2 grams. Add a lunch of chicken, rice and broccoli, and you are already over the recommended 50 grams. “You can get enough protein and meet the RDA before you even get to dinner,” says Pipitone.[D] So if it’s so easy to get your protein in food, why add more in the form of powders, snack bars or a boost at your local juice barNo need to, says Pipitone because, in fact, most of us already get enough protein in our diet.“Whole foods are always the best option rather than adding supplements,” she says, noting the FDA does not regulate supplements as rigorously as foods or there could be less protein, more sugar and some additives you wouldn’t expect, such as caffeine.[E] If you are considering a supplement, read the list of ingredients, she says, although this is not always reliable. “I’ve seen very expensive protein supplements that claim to be high quality but they might not really be beneficial for the average healthy adult,” she says. “It could just be a waste of money.”[F] But there are certain situations that do warrant extra protein. “Anytime you’re repairing or building muscle,” Pipitone says, such as if you’re an extreme endurance athlete, training for a marathon, or you’re a body you’re moderately exercising for 150 minutes a week, as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends, or less than that, you’re probably not an extreme athletes expend lots of energy breaking down andrepairing and building muscles. Protein can give them the edge they need to speed that process.[G] Vegans can benefit from protein supplements since they do not eat animal-based protein sources like meat, dairy or eggs. And, for someone always on-the-go who may not have time for a meal, a protein snack bar can be a good option for occasional meal , individuals recovering from surgery or an injury can also benefit from extra protein. So, too, can older people. At around age 60, “muscles really start to break down,” says Kathryn Starr, an aging researcher, “and because of that, the protein needs of an older adult actually increase s.”[H] In fact, along with her colleague Connie Bales, Starr recently conducted a small study that found that adding extra protein foods to the diet of obese older individuals who were trying to lose weight strengthened their muscles. Participants in the study were separated into two groups—one group was asked to eat 30 grams of protein per meal in the form of whole foods. That meant they were eating 90 grams of protein a day. The other group—the control group—was put on a typical low-calorie diet with about 50 to 60 grams of protein a six months, researchers found the high protein group had significantly improved their muscle function—almost twice as much as the control group.“They were able to walk faster,had improved balance, and were also able to get up out of a chair faster than the control group,” Starr 67 participants were over 60 years of age, and both groups lost about the same amount of weight.[I] Starr is now looking into whether high-protein diets also improve the quality of the muscle itself in seniors. She’s using CT scans to measure muscle size and fat, and comparing seniors on a high-protein diet to those on regular diets. She says her findings should be available in a couple of months.[J] In the meantime, 70-year-old Corliss Keith, who was in the high protein group in Starr’s latest study, says she feels a big difference. “I feel excellent,” she says. “I feel like I have a different body, I have more energy, I’m stronger.” She says she is able to take Zumba exercise classes three times a week, work out on the treadmill, and take long, brisk walks. Keith also lost more than 15 pounds. “I’m a fashionable person, so now I’m back in my 3-inch heels,” she says.[K] As people age, Starr says muscle strength is key to helping them stay strong and continue living on their own in their own home. “I feel very much alive now,” says Keith. “I feel like I could stay by myself until I’m 100.”[L] But can people overdo proteinPipitone says you do have to be careful. Other researchers say too much protein can cause nausea, headaches, and is also a risk when you eat too much protein. Pipitone says if you increase protein, you also have to increase your fluid intake. “I always tell people to make sure they’re drinking enough fluids,” which for the average person is 60 to 70 ounces a day, which translates into eight 8-ounce glasses of water or liquid per day.[M] There have been some indications that extra protein makes the kidneys work harder, which could be problematic for individuals with a history of kidney disease and for them, the supplements may increase the risk of kidney stones, she says.[N] Bottom line, if you think you need more protein in your diet, consider these questions: Are you are an extreme athlete; are you recovering from injury or surgery; or are you 60 years or older?If so, adding high protein foods like eggs and meat products to your diet can be , if you’re not sure, it is always a good idea to check with your primary care provider.36. It is quite easy for one to take in the recommended amount of protein.37. Pipitone claims that healthy adults need not spend money on protein supplements.38. The protein supplement business is found to be thriving.39. Protein can speed the repairing of damaged muscles.40. Protein supplements may overburden some internal organ, thus leading to its malfunctioning.41. Older adults need to take in more protein to keep their muscles strong.42. Protein is found in more foods than people might realize.43. Additional protein was found to help strengthen the muscles of overweight seniors seeking weight loss.44. Pipitone believes that whole foods provide the best source of protein.45. People are advised to drink more liquid when they take in more protein.Section CDirections:There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre.Passage OneQuestions 46 to 50 are based on the following passage.Last year, a child was born at ahospital in the UK with her heart outside her body. Few babies survive this rare condition, and those who do must endure numerous operations and are likely to have complex her mother was interviewed, three weeks after her daughter’s birth, she was asked if she was prepared for what might be a daunting task caring for her. She answered without hesitation that, as far as she was concerned, this w ould be a “privilege”.Rarely has there been a better example of the power of attitude, one of our most powerful psychological tools. Our attitudes allow us to turn mistakes into opportunities, and loss into the chance for new beginnings. An attitude is a settled way of thinking, feeling and/or behaving towards particular objects, people, events or ideologies. We use our attitudes to filter, interpret and react to the world around us. You weren’t born with attitudes. They’re all learned, and this happens in a number of ways.The most powerful influences occur during early childhood and include both what happened to you directly, and what those around you did and said in your presence. As you acquire adistinctive identity, your attitudes are further refined by the behaviors of those with whom you identify—your family, those of your gender and culture, and the people you admire, even though you may not know them personally. Friendships and other importantrelationships become increasingly important, particularly during that same time and throughout adulthood, the information you receive, especially when ideas are repeated in association with goals and achievements you find attractive, also refine your attitudes.Many people assume that our attitudes are internally consistent, that is, the way you think and feel about someone or something predicts your behavior towards them. However, many studies have found that feelings and thoughts don’t necessarily predict general, your attitudes will be internally consistent only when the behavior is easy, and when those around you hold similar beliefs. That’s why, for example, many say they believe in the benefits of recycling or exercise, but don’t behave in line with their views, because it takes awareness, effort and courage to go beyond merely stating you believe something is a good idea.One of the most effective ways to change an attitude is to start behaving as if you already feel and think the way you’d prefer to. Take some time to reflect on your attitudes, to think about what you believe and why. Is there anything you consider a burden rather than a privilege If so, start behaving—right now—as if that is the case.46. What do we learn from the passage about attitude?A) It shapes our beliefs and ideologies.B) It improves our psychological wellbeing.C) It determines how we respond to our immediate environment.D) It changes the way we think, feel and interact with one another.47. What can contribute to the refinement of one’s attitude, according to the passage?A) Their idols’ behaviors. B) Their educational level.C) Their contact with the opposite gender. D) Their interaction with different cultures.48. What do many studies find about people’s feelings and thoughts?A) They may not suggest how a person is going to behave.B) They are in a way consistent with a person s mentality.C) They may not find expression in interpersonal relations.D) They are in line with a person’s behavior no matter what.49. How come many people don’t do what they believe is good?A) They can’t afford the time. B) They have noidea how to.C) They are hypocritical. D) They lack willpower.50. What is proposed as a strategy to change attitude?A) Changing things that require one s immediate attention.B) Starting to act in a way that embodies one’s aspirations.C) Adjusting one’s behavior gradually over a period of time.D) Considering ways of reducing one’s psychological burdens. Passage TwoQuestions 51 to 55 are based on the following passage.Industrial fishing for krill in the unspoiled waters around Antarctica is threatening the future of one of the world’s last great wildernesses, according to a new report.The study by Greenpeace analyzed the movements of krill fishing vessels in the region and found they were increasingly operating “in the immediate vicinity of penguin colonies and whale feeding grounds”.It also highlights incidents of fishing boats being involved in groundings, oil spills and accidents, which it said posed a serious threat to the Antarctic ecosystem.The report, published on Tuesday, comes amid growing concern about the impact of fishing and climate change on the Antarctic.A global campaign has been launched to create a network of oceansanctuaries to protect the seas in the region and Greenpeace is calling for an immediate halt to fishing in areas being considered for sanctuary status.Frida Bengtsson from Greenpeace’s Protect the Antarctic campaign, said: “If the krill industry wants to show it’s a responsible player, then it should be voluntarily getting out of any area which is being proposed as an ocean sanctuary, and should instead be backing the protection of these huge tracts of the Antarctic.”A global campaign has been launched to turn a huge tract of Antarctic seas into ocean sanctuaries, protecting wildlife and banning all was created in the Ross Sea in 2016, another reserve is being proposed in a vast area of the Weddell Sea, and a third sanctuary is under consideration in the area west of the Antarctic peninsula—a key krill fishing area.The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)manages the seas around Antarctica. It will decide on the Weddell Sea sanctuary proposal at a conference in Australia in October, although a decision on the peninsula sanctuary is not expected until later.Keith Reid, a science manager at CCAMLR said the organization sought “a balance between protection, conservation andsustainable fishing in the Southern Ocean.”He said although more fishing was taking place nearer penguin colonies it was often happening later in the season when these colonies were empty.“The creation of a system of marine protected areas is a key part of ongoing scientific and policy discussions in CCAMLR,”he added, “Our long-term operation in the region depends on a healthy and thriving Antarctic marine ecosystem, which is why we have always had an open dialogue with the environmental NGOs. We strongly intend to continue this dialogue, including talks with Greenpeace, to discuss improvements based on the latest scientific data. We are not the ones to decide on establishment of marine protected areas, but we hope to contribute positively with our knowledge and experience.”51. What does Greenpeace’s study find about krill fishing?A) It caused a great many penguins and whales to migrate.B) It was depriving penguins and whales of their habitats.C) It was carried out too close to the habitats of penguins and whales.D) It posed an unprecedented threat to the wildlife around Antarctica.52. For what purpose has a global campaign been launched?A) To reduce the impact of climate change on Antarctica.B) To establish conservation areas in the Antarctic region.C) To regulate krill fishing operations in the Antarctic seas.D) To publicize the concern about the impact of krill fishing.53. What is Greenpeace’s recommendation to the krill industry?A) Opting to operate away from the suggested conservation areas.B) Volunteering to protect the endangered species in the Antarctic.C) Refraining from krill fishing throughout the breeding season.D) Showing its sense of responsibility by leading the global campaign.54. What did CCAMLR aim to do according to its science manager?A) Raise public awareness of the vulnerability of Antarctic species.B) Ban all commercial fishing operations in the Southern Ocean.C) Keep the penguin colonies from all fishing interference.D) Sustain fishing without damaging the Antarctic ecosystem.55. How does CCAMLR define its role in the conservation of the Antarctic environment?A) A coordinator in policy discussions. B) An authority on big data analysis.C) A provider of the needed expertise. D) An initiator of marine sanctuaries.Part IV Translation (30 minutes)Directions:For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to translate a passage from Chinese into English. You should write your answer on Answer Sheet 2.荷花是中国的名花之一，深受人们喜爱。
2018年12月四级英语听力真题(共两套,含答案及原文)(最新整理)
B) Heavy reliance on import. C) Widespread plant disease. D) Insufficient potato supply. 6. A) It intends to keep its traditional diet. B) It wants to expand its own farming. C) It is afraid of the spread of disease. D) It is worried about unfair competition. 7. A) Global warming. B) Ever-rising prices. C) Government regulation. D) Diminishing investment. Section B Conversation Directions: In this section,you will hear two long conversation.At the end of ea ch conversations you will hear four questions. Both the conversations and the questions will be spoken only once.After you hear a question.You must choose the be st answer from the four choices marked A,B, C, D. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line throu gh the center. Questions 8 to 11 are based on the conversation you have just heard. 8. A) Informative. B) Inspiring. C) Dull. D) Shallow. 9. A) She types on a keyboard. B) She does recording. C) She takes photos. D) She takes notes. 10. A) It keeps her mind active. B) It makes her stay awake. C) It enables her to think hard.
跨文化交际考试重点归纳
跨文化交际考试重点归纳work Information Technology Company.2020YEAR题型：part I, True or False,30% （提醒学生在答题时要正确的画A，错的画B）15x2 （除第八章）part II. Multiple Choices 20%, 20x1.(2,4,5细节)Part III. Cultural Puzzles 10% (与课后习题中的cultrual puzzles 类似，不过是四个选项，范围为课后习题中的cultural puzzles 和我们在每个单元划出的重点案例）5X2.Part IV. Term Matching 15%（名词解释，从备选的terms 中选择与其对应的definitions，要考到的terms 都已经发给大家） 15x1.Part V. Short-Answer Questions 15% (简答题，范围在我们划过的重点内） 5X3. Part VI. Case Study 10% (课外案例分析，阅读一个案例，回答三个小问题，题目不会超出课内讲解的内容）10 x1.要补充的重点为p114, （E. Discover the meaning of some common gestures in English), p129, (B. What are the characteristics of feminine talk and masculine talk respectively)另外让学生深入研究unit 5 和Unit 2，Unit 4(culturally-loaded words)，以及每单元的重点案例，以及单元后面的练习A, B(划过的问答题）,C (Euphemism Understanding), 以及E (cultural puzzles)TermsUnit 11. Economic globalization:经济全球化 the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.2. Global village:地球村 All the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the Internet.3. Melting pot:大熔炉a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities.4. Cultural Diversity:文化多样性the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong.5. Intercultural communication:跨文化交际communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.6. Culture:文化 a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.7. Enculturation:文化适应all the activities of learning one’s culture are called enculturation.8. Acculturation:文化传入 the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.9. Ethnocentrism:民族优越感the belief that your own cultural background is superior.munication:交际to share with or to make common, as in giving to anothera part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.（以下为components of communication)PS: what is the difference between encoding & decodingEncoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.Decoding is the process of assigning meaning to the symbols received.11. Source发送信息的人The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.12.Encoding编码Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans are not able to share thoughts directly. Your communication is in the form of a symbol representing the idea you desire to communicate. Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.13.Message信息The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process, the verb; the message is the resulting object.14.Channel渠道The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. The channel or medium, then, may be print, electronic, or the light and sound waves of the face-to-face communication. 15.Noise噪音The term noise technically refers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.16.Receiver接的人The receiver is the person who attends to the message.17.Decoding解码Decoding is the opposite process of encoding and just as much an active process. The receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received.18.Receiver response反馈The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Receiver response refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message.19.Feedback反馈Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning. 20.Context语境The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication.精讲案例Case 1 (p.1) case 2 (p.2)思考题1、what are the four trends that lead to the development of the global villageP8-9+简要说明convenient transportation systemsinnovative communication systemseconomic globalizationwidespread migrations2.What are the three ingredients of culture?Artifacts(the material and spiritual products people produce)Behavior(what they do)Concept(what they think)3.How to understand cultural iceberg? P7The aspects of culture that are explicit,visible,taught.The aspects of culture that are intangible and not taught directly.4.What are the characteristic of culture?Shared ,learned,dynamic,ethnocentric(文化中心主义），5.What are the characteristic of communication?Dynamic,irreversible,symbolic,systematic,transactional,contextualUnit 2-411. Pragmatics:语用学the study of the effect that language has on human perceptions and behavior.12. Semantics:语意 the study of the meaning of words.13. Denotation:字面意思 the literal meaning or definition of a word --- the explicit, particular, defined meaning.14. Connotation:弦外之音the suggestive meaning of a word --- all the values, judgments, and beliefs implied by a word, the historical and associative accretion of the unspoken significance behind the literal meaning.15. Taboo:禁忌语 some objects, words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons.16. Euphemism:委婉语 the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.精讲案例Case 1, case 2(p.17) case 4 (p. 19) Case 2 (p 43) case 3 (p.45) Case 1 (p.67) case 3 (p.69)思考题6. How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing? (p.33)The Americans tend to address only with given names while the Chinese may use the full name. Even when the full names are used in some formal occasions by the Americans,the given names would be placed before the surname while the Chinese would do the opposite.Chinese often extend kinship terms to people not related by blood or marriage while the Americans seldom do so.The Chinese tend to address the people with titles but in English only a few occupation or titles could be used.7. What are the social functions of compliments (p.60) (答案p50 第一段)Compliments have a series of social functions: creating or reinforcing solidarity, greeting people, expressing thanks or congratulations, encouraging people, softening criticism, starting a conversation, or even overcoming embarrassment. Unit 517. Chronemics:时间学 The study of how people perceive and use time.18. Monochronic time:一元时间概念paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.19. Polychronic time:多元时间概念being involved with many things at once.20. Proxemics:空间学the perception and use of space.21. Kinetics:身势学the study of body language22. Paralanguage:辅助语言involving sounds but not words and lying between verbal and nonverbal communication.精讲案例case 1 (p. 85) case 3 (p.87) case 5, 6 (p.90) case 7 (p.91)思考题8. What are the different features of M-time and P-time? (p97)M-time means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.M-time is noted for its emphasis on schedules, segmentation and promptness. It features one event at a time. Time is perceived as a linear structure and something concrete tangible.P-time means being involved with many things at once.P-time is less rigid and clock-bound. It features several activities at the same time. It is more flexible and human-centered.9. what is the meaning of common gestures in English P114 (答案P233-234)Unit 6精讲案例 case 1 (p.115) case 2 (p.116) p.124-126中的小案例思考题9. How is gender different from sex? （p.129） (答案P.119/120)10. What has influenced the gender socialization?There are two primary influences on gender socialization: family communication, particularly between mothers and children and recreational interaction among children.11.What are the six principles for effective cross-gender communication (p. 129) (答案127-128)Suspend judgement, recognize the validity of different communication styles, provide translation cues, enlarge your own communication style, suspend judgement.12.what are the characteristics of feminine talk and masculine talk respectively?P123Unit 7精讲案例case 1 (p.137) case 3 (p.139)13.Discuss the concepts of high context culture and low context culture (p153) (结合最后一个单元中ppt的讲解，了解high-context culture 和low-context culture 两个概念)A high-context communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. In high-context cultures, verbal messages have little meaning without the surrounding context, which includes the overall relationship between all thepeople engaged in communication. (沉默是金；一切尽在不言中；心有灵犀一点通)A low context communication is the just the opposite; i.e. the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code.High-context culture low-context cultureJapanese Chinese Korean American ………….. German German-SwissUnit 923. A planetary culture:行星文化a culture that integrates eastern mysticism with western science and rationalism.24. Intercultural person:跨文化的人 represents someone whose cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics are not limited but open to growth beyond the psychological parameters of his or her own culture.思考题13. What are the American/Chinese cultural values like in terms of Cultural Orientation put forward by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck?（ppt中的补充内容）As far as the human nature is concerned, American culture holds that it is evil but perfectible through hard work. As to the relation of man to nature, they think mankind can conquer nature. They also have a linear time concept and therefore they are future-oriented. They focus on doing and think that only actions can solve the problem. They are quite individualistic and therefore they focus less on the benefits of the group.As far as the human nature is concerned, Chinese culture holds that it is good but corruptible without proper education. As to the relation of man to nature, they think mankind can live in harmony with nature. They also have a cyclical time concept and therefore they are past-oriented. They have a being-and-becoming attitude towards activity and think that man should keep an inner peace as nothing is eternal. They are quite collective and therefore they focus more on the benefits of the group. 14. Identify the features of each of four Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and use them to analyze the cases (案例分析)。
literary terms' definition
•The Canterbury Tales: The masterpiece written by Geoffrey Chaucer, it is a great collection of 24 stories written in the way imitating that of Boccaccio’s Decameron. It holds a general prologue and 24 stories told by different people from all walks of life. This book displays a realistic picture of England of 14th century. So Geoffrey Chaucer is considered as father of English realism. •Dramatic monologue :A type of poem in which a character, at some specific and critical moment, addresses an identifiable but silent audience, thereby unintentionally revealing his or her essential temperament and personality.
Aesthetic Movement: The basic theory of the movement was “ art for art’s sake”. The first Englishman who wrote about the theory of aestheticism was Walter Pater. The chief representative of the movement in England was Oscar Wilde. The Aesthetic Movement places art above life, and holds that all artistic creation is absolutely subjective as opposed to objective. Art should be free from any influence of egoism. Only when art is for art’s sake can it be immortal. They believed that art should be unconcerned with controversial issues, such as politics and morality, and that it should be restricted to contributing beauty in a highly polished style. This was one of the reactions against the materialism and commercialism of the Victorian industrial era, as well as a reaction against the Victorian convention of art for morality’s sake, or art for money’s sake.
Handout
Part II. Definition of LiteratureThere are two columns below: one listing 11 definitions, the other listing 12 adjectives which describe 12 specific features of language. After you have read the definitions carefully, match the adjectives with the definitions in which such qualities are mentioned.List One:From dictionaries:1. a body of written information.2. a body of written words related by subject matter, by language, or by places of origin3. a body of work which deserves to be preservedFrom the literary works:4. The tragic poet is an imitator, and therefore, like all other imitators, he is thrice removed from the king and from the truth … (Plato, the 5 th century BC)5. Poesy therefore is an art of imitation … to speak metaphorically, a spe aking picture: with this end, to teach and delight. (Sir Philip Sidney, 1550)6. What oft was thought, but ne’er so well expressed. (Alexander Pope, 1711)7. The end of writing is to instruct; the end of poetry is to instruct by pleasing. (Samuel Johnson, 1765)8. … Poetry (is) the immediate offspring of a vigorous imagination and quick sensibility … the language of fancy and passion. (William Enfield, 1802)9. Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility. (William Wordsworth, 1802)10. Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds. (P. B. Sheley, 1827)11. … prose; words in their order; - poetry; the best words in the best order. (S. T. Coleridge, 1827)List Two:a)artisticb)beautifulc)emotionald)expressivee)imitatingf)imaginative g)informativeh)instructivei)pleasing j)passionate k)reflective l)valuableV. Classification of English and American Literature.1. Periods of English LiteratureThe list of the periods of English literature:450-1066: Old English (or Anglo-Saxon) Period1066-1500: Middle English Period1500-1660: The Renaissance (or Early Modern) Period1558-1603: Elizabethan Age1603-1625: Jacobean Age1625-1649: Caroline Age1649-1660: Commonwealth Period (or Puritan Interregnum)1660-1785: The Neoclassical Period1660-1700: The Restoration1700-1745: The Augustan Age (or Age of Pope)1745-1785: The Age of Sensibility (or Age of Johnson)1785-1830: The Romantic Period1832-1901: The Victorian Period (Critical Realism Period)1848-1860: The Pre-Raphaelites1880-1901: Aestheticism and Decadence1901-1914: The Edwardian Period1910-1936: The Georgian Period1914- : The Modern Period1945- : Postmodernism2. Periods of American LiteratureMany literary historians use the major wars to mark the significant changes in literature. Those wars are the Revolutionary War (1775-81), the Civil War (1861-65), World War I (1914-18), and World War II (1939-45).1607-1775: The Colonial Period.Writings were for the most part religious, practical or historical. Notable among those writers were William Bradford, John Winthrop, and the theologian Cotton Mather. They used journals and narratives to record the founding and early history of some of the colonies. Benjamin Franklin was a master of prose in the 18th century. Anne Bradstreet was the chief Colonial poet of secular and domestic as well as religious subjects.(1765-1790: sometimes is distinguished as The Revolutionary Age Political writings and pamphlets were very influential. Thomas Paine’s revolutionary tracts; Thomas Jefferson’s “Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom,”and “Declaration of Independence”; The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. )1775-1865: The Early National PeriodThe Early National Period ended with the triumph of Jacksonian democracy in 1828. This period signalized the emergence of a national imaginative literature, including the first American comedy, the earliest American novel, and the first enduring American magazine, The North American Review. Washington Irving achieved international fame with his essays and stories; James Fennimore Cooper launched his career of American first novelist; Edgar Allan Poe wrote poetry relatively independent of English precursors.1828-1865: The Romantic Period in America (The American Renaissance/ The Age of Transcendentalism)This period marks the full coming of a distinctively American literature. In all major literary genres except drama, American writers produced works of an originality and excellence not exceeded in later American history. Emerson, Thoreau, and the early feminist Margaret Fuller shaped the ideas, ideals, and literary aims of many contemporary and later American writers. It was the age not only of continuing writings by Washington Irving and James Fennimore Cooper, but also of the novels and short stories of Poe, Hawthorne, Melville, Harriet Beecher Stowe and the southern novelist William Gilmore Simms; of the poetry of Poe, John Greenleaf Whittier, Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and the most innovative and influential of all American poets, Walt Whitman; and of the beginning of distinguished American criticism in the essays of Poe, Simms, and James Russell Lowell.1865-1914: The Realistic PeriodThe bloody Civil War, the Reconstruction in the South after the war, and the industrialization and urbanization in the North profoundly altered the American sense of itself, and also American literary modes. Those writers in this period were Mark Twain, William Dean Howells, and Henry James, as well as John W DeForest, Harold Frederic and the African-American novelist Charles W. Chesnutt. These works, though diverse, are often labeled “realistic”in contrast to the “romances”of their predecessors in prose fiction, Poe, Hawthorne, and Melville. Some realistic authors grounded their fiction in a regional milieu. Kate Chopin in Louisiana has become prominent as an early and major feminist novelist. Whitman continued writing poetry up to the last decade of the century, and was joined by Emily Dickinson; although only seven of Dickinson’s more than a thousand short poems were published in her lifetime, she is now recognized as one of the most distinctive and eminent of American poets. Sidney Lanier published his experiments in versification based on the meters of music; the African-American author Paul Laurence Dunbar published both poems and novels between 1893 and 1905; and in the 1890s Stephen Crane published short poems in free verse that anticipate the experiments of Ezra Pound and the Imagists, and wrote also the brilliantly innovative short stories and short novels that look forward to two later narrative modes, naturalism and impressionism.(1900-1914: discriminated as The Naturalistic PeriodIt is called so in recognition of the powerful though sometimes crudely wrought novels by Frank Norris, Jack London, and Theodore Dreiser, which typically represent characters who are joint victims of their instinctual drives and of external sociological forces. )1914-1939: The Modern LiteratureThe modern literature in America reached an eminence rivaling that of the American Renaissance of the mid-nineteenth century; unlike most of the authors of that earlier period, however, the American modernists alsoachieved widespread international recognition and influence. Poetry magazine, founded in Chicago by Harriet Monroe in 1912, published many innovative authors. Among the notable poets were Robert Frost, Carl Sandburg, Wallace Stevens, William Carlos Williams, Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, and e. e. cummings –authors who wrote in an unexampled variety of poetic modes. These included the Imagism of Amy Lowell, the metric poems by Frost, and the free-verse poems by Williams in the American vernacular, the formal and typographic experiments of cummings, the poetic naturalism of Jeffers, and the assimilation to their own distinctive uses by Pound and Eliot of the forms and procedures of French symbolism, merged with the intellectual and figurative methods of the English metaphysical poets.Among the major writers of prose fiction were Edith Wharton, Sinclair Lewis, Ellen Glasgow, Willa Cather, Certrude Stein, Sherwood Anderson, John Dos Passos, F. Scott Fitzgerald, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Thomas Wolfe, and John Steinbeck. America produced in this period its first great dramatist in Eugene O’Neill, as well as a group of distinguished literary critics that included Van Wyck Brooks, Malcolm Cowley, T.S. Eliot, Edmund Wilson, and the irreverent and caustic H. L. Mencken.(The literary productions of this era are subdivided in a variety of ways. The pleasure-seeking 1920s are sometimes referred to as “the Jazz Age,” a title popularized by F. Scott Fitzgerald’s Tales of the Jazz Age (1922). The same decade was also the period of the Harlem Renaissance, which produced major writings in all the literary forms by Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, Jean Toomer, Zora Neale Hurston, and many other African-American writers.)Many prominent American writers of the decade following the end of World War I, disillusioned by their war experiences and alienated by what they perceived as the crassness of American culture and it’s “puritanical”repressions, are often tagged as the Lost Generation. Some of them moved to either London or Paris in quest for a richer literary and artistic milieu and a free way of life. Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein, and E.S. Eliot lived out their lives abroad, but most of the younger “expiles” came back to America in the 1930s. 1939 to Present: The Contemporary PeriodImportant American writers after World War II include,in prose fiction, Vladimir Nabokov (who emigrated to America in 1940), Saul Bellow, Mary McCarthy, Norman Mailer, John Updike, Thomas Pynchon, and others;in poetry, Marianne Moore, Robert Penn Warren, Allen Ginsberg, Sylvia Plath, and John Ashberry;and in drama Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee and a number of recent playwrights.This is the era of the notable African-American novelists and essayists Ralph Ellison, James Baldwin, Toni Morrison.The contemporary literary scene in America is crowded and varied.VI. The Outline of This CourseThis course will be conducted along the lines of the genre. In other words, this course will be conducted in three sections: poetry, fiction, and drama. Poetry: 5–6 sessions / Fiction: 7–8 sessions / Drama: 2–3 sessions GradingFinal exam: 70 per centTwo papers: 20 per centIn-class: 10 per centBeing absent twice is unacceptable, and won’t be tolerated.Papers not submitted on time won’t be graded.Poems:I. English Renaissance1. William Shakespeare- Sonnet 18II. The Romantic Age2. William Blake- The Chimney Sweeper3. Robert Burns- My Heart’s in the Highlands- A Red, Red Rose- Auld Lang Syne4. William Wordsworth- (Preface to Lyrical Ballads)- Tintern Abbey- I Wondered Lonely As a Cloud- The Solitary ReaperIII. Victorian Age (Critical Realism)5. Robert Browning- My Last DuchessIV. Modern Poetry6. W.B. Yeats- Among School Children- Down by the Salley Gardens7. T.S. Eliot- The Love Song of J. Alfred FrufrockAmerican PoemsI. Romanticism1. Edgar Allen Poe- The Raven- Annabel Lee- To Helen- (The Philosophy of Composition)- (The Poetic Principle)2. Walt Whitman- I Hear America Sing- I Sit and Look Out3. Emily Dickinson- Because I Could not Stop For Death- Success- I’m Nobody! Who Are You?- I Heard a Fly buzz – when I died –II. Modern Poetry4. Robert Frost- Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening- The Road Not Taken- Mending Wall5. Langston Hughes- Dreams- The Negro Speaks of Rivers6. Ezra Pound- In a Station of the Metro- A Pact- The River Merchant’s Wife: A Letter2. William Blake- The Chimney SweeperWhen my mother died I was very young,And my father sold me while yet my tongueCould scarcely cry " 'weep! 'weep! 'weep! 'weep!"So your chimneys I sweep & in soot I sleep.There's little Tom Dacre, who cried when his head, That curl'd llke a lamb's back. was shav'd: so I said "Hush. Tom! never mind it, for when your head's bare You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair."And so he was quiet & that very night,As Tom was a-sleeping, he had such a sight!That thousands of sweepers, Dick, Joe, Ned or Jack. Were all of them lock'd up in coffins of black.And by came an Angel who had a bright key,And he open’d the coffins, and set them all free;Then down a green plain leaping, laughing, they run, And wash in a river. and shine in the Sun.Then naked and white, all their bags left behind, They rise upon clouds and sport in the wind;And the Angel told Tom, if he'd be a good boy,He'd have God for his father & never want joy.And so Tom awoke; and we rose in the dark.And got with our bags & our brushes to work.Tho' the morning was cold, Tom was happy and warm; So if all do their duty they need not fear harm.。
履行法律规定义务英文(3篇)
第1篇Introduction:Legal obligations are an integral part of society, ensuring that individuals and organizations adhere to the rules and regulations set forth by the government. By fulfilling these obligations, individuals and entities contribute to the maintenance of law and order, protection of rights, and overall stability of the society. This article aims to provide a comprehensive guide on understanding and fulfilling legal obligations, emphasizing the importance of compliance with the law.I. Understanding Legal Obligations1. Definition:Legal obligations refer to the duties imposed by law that individuals and organizations must adhere to. These obligations are derived from various sources, including constitutional laws, statutes, regulations, and common law principles.2. Types of Legal Obligations:a. Legal Duties: These are obligations imposed by law that individuals and organizations must perform. Failure to comply with these duties can lead to legal consequences.b. Legal Rights: These are the entitlements granted by law that individuals and organizations can enforce. Legal obligations often arise from the protection and enforcement of these rights.3. Sources of Legal Obligations:a. Constitution: The supreme law of the land that establishes the framework for the government and protects fundamental rights and freedoms.b. Statutes:立法机构制定的法律，对特定领域进行规范。
山东省成人高等教育学士学位英语考试大纲及考试真题答案样题
山东省成人高等教育学士学位英语考试大纲(试行)一、总则为了客观地评价我省成人高等教育（非英语专业）学员的英语水平，有效地调动学生学习英语的积极性，提高学生的英语水平，从而保证成人教育本科毕业生学士学位的授予质量，根据教育部《大学英语课程教学要求（试行）》的要求、结合我省英语教学的现状和成人高等教育的特点以及社会对学生英语能力的实际要求，制定本考试大纲。
本考试的难度界定在大学英语三级的水平，是一种标准化考试。
为保证试卷的信度，除短文写作部分是主观性试题外，其余试题全部客观性的多项选择题形式。
短文写作部分的目的是考核考生运用语言的能力，从而提高试卷的效度。
二、评价目标本考试采用水平测试的方法，指在考察学生的基本的英语综合应用能力，包括一定的听说能力，使他们在今后工作和社会交往中能用英语比较有效地进行口头和书面的信息交流，同时增强其自主学习能力、提高综合文化素养，以适应我国经济发展和国际交流的需要，并为进一步提高英语水平打下较好的基础。
具体要求如下：（一）词汇应掌握3500个左右的英语单词，正确熟练使用由这些单词构成的常用搭配，并具备用构词法知识识别生词的能力。
（二）语法知识掌握主谓一致关系，表语从句、宾语从句、定语从句和状语从句等句型，直接引语和间接引语的用法，动词不定式和分词的用法，各种时态、主动语态、被动语态等基本的语法知识，并注重在语篇层面上运用语法知识的能力。
（三）阅读能力考生应该能够综合运用英语语言知识和阅读技能理解书面英语，能以每分钟60词的速度阅读各种题材（包括社会生活、人物传记、科普、史地、政治、经济等）和体裁（包括议论文、记叙文、说明文、应用文等）的文字材料。
阅读材料的生词量不超过３％，对于超出全日制教学大纲词汇表一至三级词汇表范围的词，用汉语注明词义。
应试人员能够：1.掌握所读材料的主旨和大意;2.了解用以阐述主旨的事实和有关细节;3.根据上下文判断某些生词或短语的意义;4.理解单词的意义和上下句之间的逻辑关系;5.根据所读的材料进行一定的判断、推理；6.领会作者的观点和态度。
M10 Unit 4 Law and order教学案例
M10 Unit 4 Law and order--The fight against cybercrime 教学案例教学背景：网络犯罪(cybercrime)是随着Array计算机与通信技术的发展而出现的一个概念。
20世纪90年代，网络从狭窄的部门应用扩大到公众领域，成为个人和社会生活的一部分。
不仅如此，网络的普及和发展还为社会的进步提供了强劲的动力，由此进入了一个崭新的知识经济时代。
政府上网、电子商务、远程教育、虚拟社区这些新生事物不断发展，网络全球化、信息全球化已成为这个时代的主题。
然而，科技总是一个两面性的事物，网络在为人们提供便利、带来效益的同时，也使人类面临着控制网络犯罪的新问题。
教材分析:这篇文章是以法律网络犯罪为主线，通过对网络犯罪的定义和分类的介绍，探讨了网络犯罪的现状，从而引出它的解决办法。
高中生于网络的接触比较频繁，在这篇文章中，学生可以跟进一步了解有关网络犯罪的知识，了解它的危害，从而呼吁周围的人与其作斗争。
教学过程：Step1. Lead inT: Can you name some types of crimes that you know?（S: Murder, threat, theft……）T: Nowadays, with the development of technology, moreand more crimes are less visible and involve the Internet. For example, are you familiar with it?（S: 熊猫烧香….）T: Ye ah, it’s Panda joss-stick virus—A kind of computer virus which can make computers break down. Spreading viruses through computers is a kind of crime. We call it cybercrime, which means crimes related computers, so cybercriminal means……, cyberspace means……, cyber- culture means….. If you want to get more information, let’s come to the passage – The fight against cybercrime.设计意图：通过问学生他们所知道的犯罪形式及“熊猫烧香”的图片进行导入，这些问题和学生生活息息相关，容易激发学生的兴趣，使学生很快进入状态，简单明了地引出网络犯罪这个话题。
美国文学复习资料
American Literature Lecture One 060511/2, 9th Nov. 2009Part I. IntroductionPart I: introduction questions1.Teaching schemes, examination, requirements, advice, contacts, and so on2.What is literature?3.How to define American Literature?4.How to study literature?1. What is literature?1)The definition of 14th century:It means polite learning through reading. A man of literature or a man of letters = a man of wide reading, “literacy”2)The definition of 18th century:practice and profession of writing3)The definition of 19th century:the high skills of writing in the special context of high imagination4)Robert Frost’s definition:performance in words5)Modern definition:We can define literature as language artistically used to achieve identifiable literary qualities and to convey meaningful messages. Literature is characterized by beauty of expression and form and by universality intellectual and emotional appeal.2. How to define the American literatureAmerican literature mainly refers to literature produced in American English by the people living in the United States.3. How to study literatureHistorical Perspectives: Biographical-Historical and Moral-Philosophical.(Diverse Types of Historicisms: including Feminist, Sociological or Marxian Studies of Language, Literature and Translation)Structuralist Perspectives: Looking for Systematic Deep Structures both in Form and Content.(Semiotics, TG Grammar, Systematic/Functional Grammar, Narratology, Freudian psycho-analysis, Russian Formalism, Anglo-American New Criticism, Archetypalism, Myth Criticism, Structural Marxism, Ideology)Poststructuralist or Postmodern Perspectives: Deconstructing Structuring Binaries (No Clear Distinction between Form and Content)[Postmodern Feminism, Postcolonialism, Postmodern Narratologies, New Historicism, Ideological Studies, Discourse Analysis, Reception Theories, Trauma Studies, Trans-Atlantic Studies, Transnationalism, Eco-criticism, Cultural Pathology, and other Postmodernisms]Approaches on Literature1. The Traditional Approaches:1)Analytical ApproachBe familiar with the elements of a literary work, eg: plot, character, setting, point of view, structure, style, atmosphere, theme, etc; answer some basic questions about the text itself.2)Thematic Approach“What is the story, the poem, the play or the essay about?”3)Historical - Biographical Approach4)Moral - Philosophical Approach.2.The Formalistic AppoachStructuralism, Poststructuralism, Semiotics3.The Psychological Approach: Freud4.Mythological and Archetypal Approach5.Feminist Approaches6.Sociological Approach7.Deconstruction8.Phenomenology, Hermeneutics, Reception Theory9.Cultural CriticismAmerican MulticultualismThe New Historicism, British Cultural Materialism10.Additional Approaches:①Aristotlian Criticism②Genre Criticism③Rhetoric, Linguistics, and Stylistics④The Marxist Approach⑤Ecological Criticism⑥Post ColonialismLecture Two 060511/2, 10th Nov. 2009Part II. The periods of American literature①The colonial period (约1607 - 1765)②The period of Enlightenment and the Independence War (1765 -1800)③The romantic period (1800 - 1865)④The realistic period (1865 - 1914)⑤The period of modernism (1914 - 1945)⑥The Contemporary Literature (1945 - 2000)1.The colonial period (约1607 - 1765)The main featuresPuritanism2.The period of Enlightenment and the Independence War (1765 -1800)Benjamin Franklin3.The romantic period (1800 - 1865)1)The early romanticismWashington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper2)“New England Transcendentalism” or “American Renaissance (1836 - 1855)”Emerson, Thoreau/ Whitman, Dickinson/ Hawthorne, Melville , Allan Poe3)“New England Poets” or “Schoolroom Poets”Bryant/ Longfellow/ Lowell/ Holmes/ Whittier4) The Reformers and AbolitionistsBeecher Stowe/ Frederick Douglass4.The realistic period (1865 - 1914)1)Midwestern RealismWilliam Dean Howells2)Cosmopolitan NovelistHenry James3)Local ColorismMark Twain4)NaturalismStephen Crane/ Jack London/ Theodore Dreiser5)The “Chicago School” of PoetryMasters/ Sandburg/ Lindsay/ Robinson6)The Rise of Black American LiteratureWashington/ Du Bois/ Chestnutt5.The period of modernism (1914 - 1945)1)Modern poetry: experiments in form (Imagism)Ezra Pound/ T.S.Eliot/ Robert Frost/ Wallace Stevens/ Carlos Williams2)Prose Writing: modern realism (the Lost Generation)F.Scott Fitzgerald/ Ernest Hemingway/ William Faulkner3)Novels of Social AwarenessSinclair Lewis/ Dos Passos/ John Steinbeck/ Richard Wright4)The Harlem RenaissanceLangston Hughes/ Zora Neals Hurston5)The Fugitives and New Criticism6)The 20th Century American DramaEugene O’ Neil6.The Contemporary Literature (1945 - 2000)I.American Poetry Since 1945: the Anti-traditionII.American Prose Since 1945: Realism and Experimentation.I. Poetry:1)Traditionalism2)Idiosyncratic poets3)Experimental poetry4)Surrealism and Existentialism5)Women and Multiethnic poets6)Chicano / Hispanic / Latino poetry7)Native American poetry8)African-American poetry9)Asian-American poetry10)New DirectionsExperimental Poetry:1)The Black Mountain School2)The San Francisco School3)Beat Poets4)The New York SchoolII. Prose:1.The Realist Legacy and the Late 1940s2.The Affluent but Alienated 1950s3.The Turbulent but Creative 1960s4.The 1970s and 1980s: New Directions1.The Realist Legacy and the Late 1940s1)Robert Penn Warren2)Arthur Miller3)Tennessee Williams4)Katherine Anne Porter5)Eudora Welty2.The Affluent But Alienated 1950s1)John O’Hara2) James Baldwin3) Ralph Waldo Ellison4) Flannery O’Conner5) Saul Bellow6) Bernard Malamud7) Isaac Bashevis Singer8) Vladimir Nabokov9) John Cheever10) John Updike11) J.D.Salinger12) Jack Kerouac3. The Turbulent but Creative 1960s1) Thomas Pynchon2) John Barth3) Norman Mailer4. The 1970s and 1980s: New Directions1) John Gardner2) Toni Morrison3) Alice WalkerPart II. Early American and Colonial Period to 17651. Introduction1. Instead of beginning with folk tales and songs the American literature began with abstractions and proceededfrom philosophy to fiction because there were no written literature among the more than 500 different Indian languages and tribal cultures that existed in North America before the first Europeans arrived there and set up the first colony Jamestown in about 1607.2. American writing began with the work of English adventurers and colonists in the New World chiefly for thebenefit of readers in the mother country. Some of these early works reached the level of literature, as in the robust and perhaps truthful account of his adventures by Captain John Smith and the sober, tendentious journalistic histories of John Winthrop and William Bradford in New England. From the beginning, however, the literature of New England was also directed to the edification and instruction of the colonists themselves, intended to direct them in the ways of the godly.3. Therefore the writing in this period was essentially two kinds: (1) practical matter-of-fact accounts of farming,hunting, travel, etc. designed to inform people “at home” what life was like in the new world, and, often, to induce their immigration; (2) highly theoretical, generally polemical, discussions of religious questions.4. Furthermore, the influential Protestant work ethic, reinforced by the practical necessities of a hard pioneer life,inhibited the development of any reading matter designed simply for leisure-time entertainment.It is the belief that work itself is good in addition to what it achieves; that time saved by efficiency or goodfortune should not be spent in leisure but in doing further work; that idleness is always immoral and likely to lead to even worse sin since “the devil finds work for idle hands to do”. This belief late r developed into the American philosophic idea Puritanism.5. divines who wrote furiously to set forth their views was to defend and promote visions of the religious state. They set forth their visions —in effect the first formulation of the concept of national destiny —in a series ofimpassioned histories and jeremiads from Providence (1654) to Cotton Mather ’s epic Magnalia Christi Americana6. Even Puritan poetry was offered uniformly to the service of God. Michael Wigglesworth ’s Day of Doom (1662) wasuncompromisingly theological, and Anne Bradstreet ’s poems, issued as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650), were reflective of her own piety. The best of the Puritan poets, Edward Taylor , whose work was not published until two centuries after his death, wrote metaphysical verse,Sermons and tracts poured forth until austere Calvinism found its last utterance in the words of Jonathan Edwards . In the other colonies writing was usually more mundane and on the whole less notable, though the journal of the Quaker John Woolman is highly esteemed, and some critics maintain that the best writing of the colonial period is found in the witty and urbane observations of William Byrd , a gentleman planter of Westover, Virginia.2. The Main Features of this period1) American literature grew out of humble origins. diaries, histories, journals, letters, commonplace books, travelbooks, sermons, in short, personal literature in its various forms, occupy a major position in the literature of the early colonial period.2) In content these early writings served either God or colonial expansion or both. In form, if there was any format all, English literary traditions were faithfully imitated and transplanted.3) The Puritanism formed in this period was one of the most enduring shaping influences in American thought andAmerican literature.3. Puritanism1) Simply speaking, American Puritanism just refers to the spirit and ideal of puritans who settled in the NorthAmerican continent in the early part of the seventeenth century because of religious persecutions. In content it means scrupulous moral rigor, especially hostility to social pleasures and indulgences, that is strictness,sternness and austerity in conduct and religion.2) With time passing it became a dominant factor in American life, one of the most enduring shaping influences inAmerican thought and American Literature. To some extent it is a state of mind, a part of the national cultural atmosphere that the American breathes, rather than a set of tenets.3) Actually it is a code of values, a philosophy of life and a point of view in American minds, also a two-facetedtradition of religious idealism and level-headed common sense.Part III. The period of Enlightenment and the Independence War (1765 -1800)I. Introduction1) The 18th-century American enlightenment as a movement marked by an emphasis on rationality rather thantradition, scientific inquiry instead of unquestioning religious dogma, and representative government in place of monarchy.2) Enlightenment thinkers and writers, such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine, were devoted to the idealsof justice, liberty, and equality as the natural rights of man.3) In these period with the exception of outstanding political writing, such as Common sense, Declaration ofIndependence, The Federalist Papers and so on, few works of note appeared. Even if there appeared poetry and fiction, they were full of imitativeness and vague universality. So most Americans were painfully aware of their excessive dependence on English literary models. The search for a native literature became a national obsession.4) Despite these we should pay attention to several points in this period:William Hill Brown (1765-1793) published the first American novel The Power of Sympathy in 1789.Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) was the first American author to attempt to live from his writing. Hedeveloped the genre of American Gothic.The Dictionary edited by Noah Webster (1758-1843) based the American lexicography. Updated Webster’sdictionaries are still standard today.Philip Freneau’s (1752-1832) was known as "the poet of the American Revolution". His major themes are death, nature, transition, and the human in nature. All of these themes become important in 19th century writing. All the while...in romanticizing the wonders of nature in his writings...he searched for an American idiom in verse. II. Benjamin Franklin1706 - 1790(An Extraordinary Life and An Electric Mind)1. His Life1)Born the tenth of fifteen children in a poor candle and soap maker’s family, he had to leave school before he waseleven.2)At twelve he was apprenticed to an older brother, James, a printer in Boston.3)As a voracious reader he managed to make up for the deficiency by his own effort and began at 16 to publishessays under the pseudonym, Silence Dogood, essays commenting on social life in Boston.4)When he was 17 he ran away to Philadelphia to make his own fortune marking the beginning of a long successstory of an archetypal kind.5)He set himself up as an independent printer and publisher, found the Junto Club and subscription library,issued the immensely popular Poor Richard’s Almanac.6)Retired around forty-two, he did what was to him a great happiness: read, make scientific experiments and dogood to his fellowmen. He helped to find the Pennsylvania Hospital, an academy which led to the University of Pennsylvania, and the American Philosophical Society.7)At the same time he did a lot of famous experiments and invented many things such as volunteer firedepartments, effective street lighting, the Franklin Stove, bifocal glasses, efficient heating devices, lightning-rod and so on.8)Beginning his public career in the early fifties, he became a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly, the DeputyPostmaster-General for the colonies, and for some eighteen years served as representative of the colonies in London.9)During the War of Independence, he was made a delegate to the Continental Congress and a member of thecommittee to write the Declaration of Independence. One of the makers of the new nation, he was instrumental in bringing France into an alliance with America against England, and played a decisive role at the Constitutional Convention.2. Major Works1)Poor Richard’s AlmanacMaxims（谚语，格言）and axioms（哲理，格言）a)Lost time is never found again.b) A penny saved is a penny earned.c)God help them that help themselves.d)Fish and visitors stink in three days.e)Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.f)Ale in, truth out.g)Eat not to dullness. Drink not to elevation.h)Diligence is the Mother of Good Luck.i)One Today is worth two tomorrow.j)Industry pays debts. Despair encreaseth them.2)Autobiographya.It is perhaps the first real post-revolutionary American writing as well as the first real autobiography in English.b.It gives us the simple yet immensely fascinating record of a man rising to wealth and fame from a state ofpoverty and obscu rity into which he was born, the faithful account of the colorful career of America’s first self-made man.c.First of all, it is a puritan document. The most famous section describes his scientific scheme of self-examinationand self-improvement.d.It is also an eloquent elucidation of the fact that Franklin was spokesman for the new order of eighteenthcentury enlightenment, and that he represented in America all its ideas, that man is basically good and free, by nature endowed by God with certain inalienable rights of liberty and the pursuit of happiness.e.It is the pattern of Puritan simplicity, directness, and concision. The plainness of its style, the homeliness ofimagery, the simplicity of diction, syntax and expression are some of the salient features we cannot mistake.3. Evaluation1)He was a rare genius in human history. Nature seemed particularly lavish and happy when he was shaped.Everything seems to meet in this one man, mind and will, talent and art, strength and ease, wit and grace, and he became almost everything: a printer, postmaster, citizen, almanac maker, essayist, scientist, inventor, orator, statesman, philosopher, political economist, ambassador, musician and parlor man.2)He was the first great self-made man in America, a poor democrat born in an aristocratic age that his fineexample helped to liberalize.3)Politically he brought the colonial era to a close. For quite some time he was regarded as the father of allYankees, even more than Washington was. He was the only American to sign the four documents that created the United States: the Declaration of Independence, the treaty of alliance with France, the treaty of peace with England, and the constitution.4)Scientifically, as the symbol of America in the Age of Enlightenment, he invented a lot of useful implements. Hisresearch on electricity, his famous experiment with his kite line and many others made him the preeminent scientist of his day.5)Literally, he really opened the story of American literature. D. H. Lawrance agreed that Franklin waseverything but a poet. In the Scottish philosopher David Hume’s eyes he was America’s “first great man of letters”.Assignment: Please read the material by Ralph Waldo EmersonLecture Three 060511/2, 16th Nov. 2009The American Romanticism(I)I. What is RomanticismSimply speaking, Romanticism is a literary movement flourished as a cultural force throughout the 19th C and it can be divided into the early period and the late period. Also it remains powerful in contemporary literature and art.Romanticism, a term that is associated with imagination and boundlessness, as contrasted with classicism, which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. A romantic attitude may be detected in literature of any period, but as an historical movement it arose in the 18th and 19th centuries, in reaction to more rational literary, philosophic, artistic, religious, and economic standards.... The most clearly defined romantic literary movement in the U. S. was Transcendentalism.The representatives of the early period includes Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper, and those of the late period contain Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Edgar Allan Poe.II. The reasons on the rise of American RomanticismInternal causes:1)American burgeoned into a political, economic and cultural independence. Democracy and political equalitybecame the ideals of the new nation. Radical changes came about in the political life of the country. Parties began to squabble and scramble for power, and new system was in the making.2)The spread of industrialism, the sudden influx of immigration, and the pioneers pushing the frontier furtherwest, all these produced something of an economic boon and, with it, a tremendous sense of optimism and hope among the people.3)Ever-increasing magazines played an important role in facilitating literary expansion in the country.External causes:1)Foreign influences added incentive to the growth of romanticism in America.2)The influence of Sir Walter Scott was particularly powerful and enduring.III. Characteristics of American Romanticism (b)1)Sentimentalism, primitivism and the cult of the noble savage2)Political liberalism3)The celebration of natural beauty and the simple life4)Introspection5)The idealization of the common man, uncorrupted by civilization6)Interest in the picturesque past and remote places7)Antiquarianism8)Individualism9)Morbid melancholy10)Historical romanceIV. The Representatives of the early American romanticismA. Washington Irving(1783-1859 )1. About the Author1)Washington Irving was born in New York City on April 3, 1783 as the youngest of 11 children. His parents,Scottish-English immigrants, were great admirers of General George Washington, and named their son after their hero.2)Early in his life Irving developed a passion for books. He studied law privately but practiced only briefly. From1804 to 1806 he travelled widely in Europe. After returning to the United States, Irving was admitted to the New York bar in 1806.3)He was a partner with his brothers in the family hardware business and representative of the business inEngland until it collapsed in 1818. During the war of 1812 Irving was a military aide to New York Governor Tompkins in the U.S. Army.4)Irving's career as a writer started in journals and newspapers. His success in social life and literature wasshadowed by a personal tragedy because his engaged love died at the age of seventeen. So he never married or had children.5)After the death of his mother, Irving decided to stay in Europe, where he remained for seventeen years from1815 to 1832.6)In 1832 Irving returned to New York to an enthusiastic welcome as the first American author to have achievedinternational fame. Between the years 1842-45 Irving was the U.S. Ambassador to Spain.7)Irving spent the last years of his life in Tarrytown. From 1848 to 1859 he was President of Astor Library, laterNew York Public Library. Irving's later publications include Mahomet And His Successors(1850), Wolfert's Roost(1855), and his five-volume The Life of George Washington(1855-59). Irving died in Tarrytown on November 28, 1859.2. His Major Works1)His earliest work was a sparkling, satirical History of New York (1809) under the Dutch, ostensibly written byDiedrich Knickbo cker (hence the name of Irving’s friends and New York writers of the day, the “Knickbocker School”.)2)The Sketch Book (1819-20 as Geoffrey Crayon) - contains 'Rip Van Winkle' and 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow'3)The Life of George Washington (1855-59, five volumes)3. Evaluation to him1)American author, short story writer, essayist, poet, travel book writer, biographer, and columnist. Irving hasbeen called the father of the American short story. He is best known for 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,' in which the schoolmaster Ichabold Crane meets with a headless horseman, and 'Rip V an Winkle,' about a man who falls asleep for 20 years.2)The first American writer of imaginative literature to gain international fame, so he was regarded as father ofAmerican literature.3)The short story as a genre in American literature probably began with Irving’s The Sketch Book, ACOLLECTION OF ESSAYS, SKETCHES, AND TALES. It also marked the beginning of American Romanticism.B. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851)1. His Major WorksIn his life Cooper wrote over thirty novels which can be divided into frontier novels, detective novels and reference novels. He considered The Pathfinder (1840) and The Deerslayer (1841) his best works.The unifying thread of the five novels collectively known as the Leather-Stocking Tales is the life of Natty Bumppo. Cooper’s finest achievement, they constitute4 a vast prose epic with the North American continent as setting. Indian tribes as Characters, and great wars and westward migration as social background. The novels bring to life frontier America from 1740 to 1804.1)The Pioneers(1823): Natty Bumppo first appears as a seasoned scout in advancing years, with the dyingChingachgook, the old Indian chief and his faithful comrade, as the eastern forest frontier begins to disappear and Chingachgook dies.2)The Last of the Mohicans(1826): An adventure of the French and Indian Wars in the Lake George county.3)The Prairie(1827): Set in the new frontier where the Leatherstocking dies.4)The Pathfinder(1840): Continuing the same border warfare in the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario county.5)The Deerslayer(1841): Early adventures with the hostile Hurons on Lake Otsego, NY.2. Contributions of CooperThe creation of the famous Leatherstocking saga has cemented his position as our first great national novelist and his influence pervades American literature. In his thirty-two years (1820-1851) of authorship, Cooper produced twenty-nine other long works of fiction and fifteen books - enough to fill forty-eight volumes in the new definitive edition of his Works. Among his achievements:1)The first successful American historical romance in the vein of Sir Walter Scott (The Spy, 1821).2)The first sea novel (The Pilot, 1824).3)The first attempt at a fully researched historical novel (Lionel Lincoln, 1825).4)The first full-scale History of the Navy of the United States of America (1839).5)The first American international novel of manners (Homeward Bound and Home as Found, 1838).6)The first trilogy in American fiction (Satanstoe, 1845; The Chainbearer, 1845; and The Redskins, 1846).7)The first and only five-volume epic romance to carry its mythic hero - Natty Bumppo - from youth to old age. 3. His Skills1)He is good at making plots.2)All his novels are full of myths.3)He had never been to the frontier and among the Indians and yet could write five huge epic books about them isan eloquent proof of the richness of his imagination.4)He created the first Indians to appear in American fiction and probably the first group of noble savages.5)He hi t upon the native subject of frontier and wilderness, and helped to introduce the “Western” tradition intoAmerican literature.V. American Renaissance1. The Concept1)It also called New England Renaissance period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American CivilWar in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit.2)The literary scene of the period was dominated by a group of New England writers, the “Brahmins”. They werearistocrats, steeped in foreign culture, active as professors at Harvard College, and interested in creating a genteel American literature based on foreign models.3)One of the most important influences in the period was that of the Transcendentalists, including Emerson,Thoreau and so on.4)The Transcendentalists contributed to the founding of a new national culture based on native elements. Theyadvocated reforms in church, state, and society, contributing to the rise of free religion and the abolition movement and to the formation of various utopian communities, such as Brook Farm. The abolition movement was also bolstered by other New England writers, including the Quaker poet Whittier and the novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) dramatized the plight of the black slave.5)Apart from the Transcendentalists, there emerged during this period great imaginative writers—NathanielHawthorne, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman—whose novels and poetry left a permanent imprint on American literature. Contemporary with these writers but outside the New England circle was the Southern genius Edgar Allan Poe, who later in the century had a strong impact on European literature.Lecture Four The American Romanticism(II)TranscendentalismIt is a 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought.Emerson defined it as “idealism” simply. In reality it was far more complex collection of beliefs: that the spark of divinity lies within man; that everything in the world is a microcosm of existence; that the individual soul is identical to the world soul, or Over-Soul. By meditation, by communing with nature, through work and art, man could transcend his senses and attain an understanding of beauty and goodness and truth.In application, American transcendentalism urged a reform in society, and that such a reform may be reached if individuals resist customs and social codes, and rely rather on reason to learn what is right. Ultimately, transcendentalists believed that one should transcend society's code of ethics and rely on personal intuition in order to reach absolute goodness, or Absolute Truth.It was indebted to the dual heritage of American Puritanism. That is to say, it was in actuality romanticism on the puritan soil.Transcendentalism dominated the thinking of the American Renaissance, and its resonance reverberated through American life well into the 20th century. In one way or another American most creative minds were drawn into its thrall, attracted not only to its practicable messages of confident self-identity, spiritual progress and social justice, but also by its aesthetics, which celebrated, in landscape and mindscape, the immense grandeur of the American soul.The Representativesof American RenaissanceI. The Essayists1)Ralph Waldo Emerson2)Henry David ThoreauRalph Waldo Emerson(1803 - 1882)1.His philosophy:1)Strongly he felt the need for a new national vision.2)He firmly believes in the transcendence of the Oversoul and thought that the universe was composed of Nature。