organizational_culture
Organizational Culture
Organizational Culture（组织文化）作者：Edgar H. Schein出处：American Psychologist Feb. 1990, 109-119壹、缘起本文作者史屈恩教授是研究企业文化的大师，出生于1928年。
1964年毕业于芝加哥大学，曾在史丹佛大学进修，1952年获得哈佛大学社会心理学博士。
他是开创「组织心理学」研究领域的学者之一；对管理理论有很大的影响力。
先后着有组织心理学、组织文化与领导等书。
史屈恩教授对组织文化的定义是：『一个基本假设的型式由一个既定团体学着去克服外部适应与内部整合问题所发明及发展出来的；而这些假设因运作良好而被承认有其效度，并以之对有关适应与整合问题的正确知觉、思考及感受方式教导给新进成员。
』史屈恩教授的这个定义，视文化为成员自然而然的一种行为表露，可见文化是一种深入人心的内化作用，而经长期融洽后的成果，故研究文化需要深入了解各个表面现象所隐含的背后意义。
此外，史屈恩教授亦强调了学习的重要性，此点道出组织文化是不断地在变迁，并且也是要从日积月累的学习中获得。
史屈恩教授在组织文化的领域内是举足轻重的，他首先提出关于文化本质的概念，在本文中，则是他研究内容的重点回顾，包括文化的构成因素、如何分析文化，文化的层次，产生文化的动力等，这些也是化在此领域内的重要成就。
貳、内容摘要------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 摘要：组织文化的观念近年来逐渐受到专家学者等重视，文章中作者说明文化如何被应用于组织心理学的领域，并以历史及两个例子来说明如何分析文化及思考文化的变迁。
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------要撰写一篇组织文化评论文章有些困难，因为对于文化观念及其定义尚无定论。
organisational culture
Organizational CultureOrganizational culture refers to the staff in an organization has a system of sharing meaning that makes the organization unique and different from other organizations (Schein, 1985).Actually, the sharing of meaning system is an aggregation of characteristics valued by organization. These characteristics constitute the essence of organizational culture. Organizational culture focus on how employees perceive the characteristics of organizational culture instead of liking or receiving them, which makes it different between employee satisfaction.According to Handy’s theory, there are four main types of organization culture –power culture, role culture, task culture and person culture. The power culture may be more appropriate to small enterprises or important industries and priority fields controlled by the government in China. The role culture and the task culture are more suitable for competitive firms as a result of seeking high efficiency. The person culture should exist in particular departments as a subculture. Organization culture represents a common perception the organization’s members hold. Based on this, individuals with different backgrounds or at different levels in the organization should describe its culture in similar terms (Ashkanasy, 2000). Large organizations usually have a dominant culture and numerous subcultures. The dominant culture expresses the core values a majority of members share and that give the organization its distinct personality. Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems or experiences members face in the same department or location. For example, the IT department can have a subculture that includes the core values of the dominant culture plus additional values unique to members of that department.Besides dominant culture and subcultures, there still is another method to divide cultures, which are strong and weak cultures. If most employees (responding to management surveys) have the same opinions about the organiz ation’s mission and values, the culture is strong; otherwise, if opinions vary widely, the culture is weak(Hamm 1998).In a strong culture, the organization’s core values are both intensely held and widely shared. The more members who accept the core values and the greater their commitment, the stronger the culture and the greater its influence on members’ behavior. It is obviously that all Disney’s employees have affinity faces and childlike hearts to play with children no matter where they come from or what personality are they. On the job, a strong culture supported by formal rules and regulations ensures they will act in a relatively uniform and predictable way.Based on this, a strong culture can reduce employee turnover because it demonstrates high agreement about what the organization represents. Such unanimity of purpose builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational commitment. These qualities, in turn, lessen employees’ propensity to leave(Wiener 1988). One study found that the more employees agreed on customer orientation in a service organization, the higher the profitability of the business unit (Mowday 1982). Another study found that when team managers and team members disagree about perceptions of organizational support, there were more negative moods among team members, and the performance of teams was lower (Dolan 1992). These negative effects are especially strong when managers believe the organization provides more support than employees think it does.Organizational cultures often reflect national culture. According to Adler’s research, national culture has much more impact on employees than even strong culture. So, the Germany employees in IBM branch office in Munich are more influenced by German culture rather than IBM corporate culture. The organizational culture has great impact on individuals; however, national culture has greater impact. For a multi-national corporation, when the HR consider who are more appropriate, they prefer to choose those whose thinking style comfort to the organization instead of some typical national people.Schein provided three steps to explain how culture works: assumptions, values andartefacts. Employees form an overall subjective perception of the organization based on factors such as rights system, characteristics, ethics and structure. This overall perception becomes, in effect, the organization’s culture or personality and affects employee performance and satisfaction, with stronger cultures having greater impact.ReferencesSchein E H. How can organizations learn faster? The challenge of entering the green room [J].Sloan Management Review, 1993, 34(2): 85-92.Jordan P J, Ashkanasy N M, Härtel C E J. The case for emotional intelligence in organizational research[J]. The Academy of Management Review, 2003: 195-197.Hamm S, Cortese A, Burrows P. No letup- and no apologies[J]. Business Week, 1998: 50-3.Vardi Y, Wiener Y. Misbehavior in organizations: A motivational framework [J]. Organization Science, 1996, 7(2): 151-165.Mowday R T, Porter L W, Steers R M. Employee-organization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover [M]. New York: Academic Press, 1982.Dolan S L, Garcia S. Managing by values: Cultural redesign for strategic organizational change at the dawn of the twenty-first century [J]. Journal of Management Development, 2002, 21(2): 101-117.Robbins S P, Judge T A. Organizational Behavior 15th Edition [M]. prentice Hall, 2012.。
organizational culture
Organisational culture
• A common perception held by the organisation’s members; a system of shared meaning or “the way we do things here”
Henry Mintzberg on Culture
Chapter learning objectives
• Three levels of organizational culture as defined by Edgar Schein • Culture web: the seven elements of organizational culture • Combine the different cultural models with the real situation
What Is Organizational Culture?
• Innovation and risk taking (3M) • Outcome orientation (Bausch & Lomb) • People orientation (IBM) • Aggressiveness (Microsoft) • Family-friendly (Mc donald’s)
• Top Management
– Senior executives establish and communicate the norms of the organization
• Socialization
– Organizations need to teach the culture to new employees
Chapter 4 - Organizational Culture
中国
Collective attitudes & behavior Organizational outcomes
• Effectiveness • Stress
Group & social processes
• Socialization • Mentoring • Decisionmaking • Group dynamics • Communication • Influence & empowerment - Leadership
Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (2007).
*
Dimensions of Organizational Culture
中国
• Seven dimensions of organizational culture emphasize different aspects of culture and suggest different ways to understand an organization’s culture:
• Espoused values represent explicitly stated values and norms that preferred by an organization. • Enacted valalues and norms that actually are exhibited or converted into employee behavior.
*
Champoux, J.E. (2003).
Levels of Organizational Culture
organizationalculture组织内成员所共享的价值观信念态度
15.2.3 象徵(symbols)
玫琳凱化妝品公司的大黃蜂
15.2.4 語言(language)
沃爾瑪歡呼 「短缺剋星」啦啦隊
Ch 15 組織文化 15-6
常見的組織文化要素 2/2
15.2.5 社會化(socialization)
正式化途徑，如員工引導、訓練課程 非正式化途徑，如員工聚會
15.2.6 價值觀與規範(norms)
Ch 15 組織文化 15-9
創造企業組織文化的方法
緬懷過去 1. 回到過去尋找靈感及指導 2. 回到基本面 以新方式成長 1. 讓事情用新方法去發展 2. 對正確的努力給予報酬
3. 找出依然不變的原則 4. 找出現有文化中的成功之處 5. 拔擢熟悉組織文化但有特殊 見解的人 6. 標示出不同的紀元(era) 7. 紀念輝煌的過去
Ch 15 組織文化 15-2
章首個案：五個方程式打造微軟創新文化
源源不絕的科技創新能力 開放性系統，共享研究成果，避免視野的凍結 善用多元人才，提升人員貢獻度 微軟的組織文化為何﹖對於員工績效是否有影 響﹖ 這樣的組織文化是否與微軟的組織架構有關﹖
多元員工如何管理以及溝通﹖
Ch 15 組織文化
15-3
Ch15 組織文化
章首個案：五個方程式打造微軟創新文化 15.1 何謂組織文化 15.2 組織文化的要素 15.3 組織文化的來源與改變方法 15.4 組織文化的評估 15.5 強勢文化與弱勢文化 15.6 組織文化的基本類型 15.7 組織文化如何影響經理人的工作 15.8 組織文化與績效的關係 章末個案：以客為尊—Zappos打造極限客服
Ch 15 組織文化
15-4
15.2 組織文化的要素 1/2
OrganizationalCulture
Organizational Culture （组织文化）作者：Edgar H. Schein出处：American Psychologist Feb. 1990, 109-119壹、缘起本文作者史屈恩教授是研究企业文化的大师，出生于1928 年。
1964年毕业于芝加哥大学，曾在史丹佛大学进修，1952 年获得哈佛大学社会心理学博士。
他是开创「组织心理学」研究领域的学者之一；对管理理论有很大的影响力。
先后着有组织心理学、组织文化与领导等书。
史屈恩教授对组织文化的定义是：『一个基本假设的型式由一个既定团体学着去克服外部适应与内部整合问题所发明及发展出来的；而这些假设因运作良好而被承认有其效度，并以之对有关适应与整合问题的正确知觉、思考及感受方式教导给新进成员。
』史屈恩教授的这个定义，视文化为成员自然而然的一种行为表露，可见文化是一种深入人心的内化作用，而经长期融洽后的成果，故研究文化需要深入了解各个表面现象所隐含的背后意义。
此外，史屈恩教授亦强调了学习的重要性，此点道出组织文化是不断地在变迁，并且也是要从日积月累的学习中获得。
史屈恩教授在组织文化的领域内是举足轻重的，他首先提出关于文化本质的概念，在本文中，则是他研究内容的重点回顾，包括文化的构成因素、如何分析文化，文化的层次，产生文化的动力等，这些也是化在此领域内的重要成就。
貳、内容摘要摘要：组织文化的观念近年来逐渐受到专家学者等重视，文章中作者说明文化如何被应用于组织心理学的领域，并以历史及两个例子来说明如何分析文化及思考文化的变迁。
要撰写一篇组织文化评论文章有些困难，因为对于文化观念及其定义尚无定论。
同时文化常与人类学、社会学、社会心理学、组织行为等学门相关；因此各学者进行研究时，常有偏颇，作者先将其它观点作历史性回顾，再进一步针对其中的社会心理学与人类学之研究典范，提出有关之概念架构.文化研究之历史回顾:最早提出的观念是气候(climate)、规范(norm)、态度(attitude)等，但这些研究方法都无法完整来解释文化关系，及进一步探究组织功能运作之深层因果关系。
Organizational Culture
Cirque du Soleil’s founders promote a risktaking and creative corporate culture. They frequently take gambles on new forms of creativity and initiatives.
• A few dominant values
• Example: Dell -- efficiency and competitiveness
Problems with measuring org culture
• Oversimplifies diversity of possible values
Organizational Culture
Re-aligning Dell’s Organizational Culture
Dell’s “winning” culture, which emphasized cost efficiency and competitiveness, became more of a liability as the market moved toward a preference for style and innovation.
• Describe real people • Assumed to be true • Known throughout the organization • Are prescriptive
Artifacts: Rituals and Ceremonies
Rituals
• programmed routines • (eg., how visitors are greeted)
Organizational culture
Organizational culture Definition of organizational cultureOrganizational culture, also called corporate culture, is one of the most important fields in management as it is an ideal way to form a unified organization. There is no single definition for organizational culture. The topic has been studied from a variety of perspectives ranging from disciplines such as anthropology and sociology, to the applied disciplines of organizational behavior, management science, and organizational communication. But it always relates to how the members in organization react in their group. Some expert definite it as “A set of understandings or meanings shared by a group of people that are largely tacit among members and are clearly relevant and distinctive to the particular group which are also passed on to new members (Louis 1980).” Some assert it is “A system of knowledge, of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating and acting . . . that serve to relate human communities to their environmental settings (Allaire and Firsirotu 1984).” I prefer to define it as “the sum total of an organization's past and current assumptions, experiences, philosophy, and values that hold it together, and is expressed in its self-image, inner workings, interactions with the outside world, and future expectations. It is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, express or implied contracts, and written and unwritten rules that the organization develops over time and that have worked well enough to be considered valid”(Schein 1995). Organizational culture contains four parts. The first part is the way the organization runs its business and now the organization treats its employees, customers, and the wider community. Secondly, the level of freedom is allowed in decision making, developing new ideas, and personal expression. Third, the way the power and information flow through its hierarchy. Fourth, the strength of employee commitment towards collective objectives. In my opinion, the first part is key part of culture in company as it contains both insides employees’attitude and outside image to the customers.The role of organizational cultureThere are many practices within an organization that tend to build a unique culture and keep a culture alive and measure the cultural fit between the organization and its employees. Cultural forms function as the linking mechanism by which networks of understanding develop among employees. (Trice and Beyer, 1993) The cultural forms shown in the table on pages 293-94 act as a medium for communicating ideologies, values, and norms. Cultural forms enable leaders to transmit messages about desirable culture to influence thinking and ways of behaving. Cultural forms also address the emotional aspects of organizations that are commonly referred to as cohesion or camaraderie. The organization's culture can be reinforced by many human resource practices such as selection, performance appraisal, training, and career development. Organizational beliefs also tend to influence the work norms, communication practices, and philosophical stances of employees. In the first place, organizations use a socialization process to adapt new employees to the organization's culture. If employees do not adapt well, they feel increasing pressure from supervisors and from coworkers who are better acculturated. They might stay and fight or even leave the organization, voluntarily or involuntarily, and look for a different organization whose culture they fit better. In contrast, employees who understand and share the organization's values have a better basis for making choices that match the firm's goals. Many organizations compete through innovation. Therefore when most employees understand and support the organization's expectations, less time is spent explaining, instructing, and building consensus before trying something innovative. Moreover, the error level will be lower in most cases. Employees who are well acculturated also find their work more meaningful: They are part of, and contribute to, something larger than themselves. Thus, a good cultural fit between employees and the organization contributes to employee retention, organizational productivity, and profit.Comparison of organizational culturesDifferent organizational cultures have different effects on corporations. A goodculture can cheer up the employees and encourage them to work efficiently. However a poor culture tends to limit the talent of employees and bring harm to the corporation. Thus a company’s organizational culture plays a vital role in its success. Therefore how to choose a suitable organizational culture is very vital. An excellent company's culture helps it attract the best talent available people in the industry. Take Google Inc as an example. Google is one of the few companies that has successfully blended technological innovation with strong organizational culture which is very interesting. This culture has helped Google become one of the fastest and most useful web search engines around; it had also helped Google to become one of the top 100 companies to work for according to Fortune (2007). Google maintains a casual and democratic atmosphere and the company do not boast a large middle management. Teams are made up of members with equal authority and a certain level of autonomy is maintained. Google rewards their employee's hard work with an extremely relaxed workplace that encourages creativity through fun activities such as roller hockey and through a casual dress code. Google also encourages their employees to take care of their minds and their bodies by offering them the ability to work out in the gym and get a massage inside the company building. In this way, Google attracts a great deal of highly skilled people to work for it and it encourages them greatly. Germany organizational Culture, another type of organizational culture, is totally different from Google’s. Due to the social culture of integrity and rigorous attitude, German organization tends to do business and train employees in a strict and meticulous way. Employees are expected to tackle problems according to rules and regulations strictly. Enterprise efficiency and social responsibility are the company’s core value. To be more exact, Germany organizational culture inner side is cultivating the teamwork spirit and showing respect to stuff. Outer side is improving product quality and establishing a positive corporate image. With this type of organizational culture, there are several successful companies, such as Siemens, BMW and AUDIConclusionThere is no prefect organizational culture but every company should find their ownsuitable culture to organize their work. An understanding of organizational culture, and how to transform it, is a crucial skill for leaders trying to achieve strategic outcomes. Strategic leaders have the best perspective, because of their position in the organization, to see the dynamics of the culture, what should remain, and what needs transformation. This is the essence of strategic success. Only with a strong and positive organizational culture, can company be successful.BibliographyAliah D Wright. (2009, January). At Google, It Takes A Village To Hire an Employee. HRMagazine: SHRM's 2009 HR TREND BOOK,56-57Allaire, Y. and Firsirotu, M.E. (1984). Theories of oganizational culture. Organization Studies 5(3):193-226Frost, Peter J., Larry F. Moore, Meryl R. Louis, Craig C. Lundberg, and Joanne Martin, eds. Organizational Culture. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985.Graf, Alan B. Building Corporate Cultures. Chief Executive, 2005, 18.Greg Goth. Googling test practices: Google's culture encourages process improvement).IEEE Software 25.2 p92(3). 2008Louis, M.R. Organizations as culture-bearing milieux. In Organizational Symbolism. Edited by L.R. Pondy, et al. Greenwich, CT: JAI. 1980Ouchi, William G. Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge. MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1982.Schein, Edgar H. Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995.Trice, H. & Beyer, J. 1993, The Cultures of Work Organizations, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.Strategic Leadership and Decision Making: Organizational Culture. [online] Available at:</au/awc/awcgate/ndu/strat-ldr-dm/pt4ch16.html>[Acessed 28 August 2011]。
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Quinn, R. E. and J. Rohrbaugh (1983). "A Spatial Model of Effectiveness Criteria: Towards a Competing Values Approach to Organizational Analysis "[J] Management Science 29(3): 363-377.
Factors influencing OC
Nationality, industry, task nature Organizational structure, control system Organizational uniqueness such as its history, founder’s character and philosophy, etc.
Ouchi (1979): control forms market clan bureaucracy
Cultural types and organizational life cycles
Quinn and Cameron（1983） Entrepreneurial stage Collectivity stage Formalization and control stage Elaboration of structure stage
Several representative definitions
Schein Wilkins and Ouchi Hofstede Denison Cameron and Quinn
Differences in methodologies
Organizational culture vs. organizational climate Post-modernism and positivism
Competing Values Framework (Quinn and Rohrbaugh,1983)
竞争性价值观框架（CVF） （根据Quinn和Rohrbaugh, 1983:369）
灵活性 人际关系模型（团队型） 开放系统模型（活力型）
过程：凝聚力；士气 结果：人力资源发展
过程：灵活性；应变力 结果：增长；获取资源
The creation of CVF
Quinn and Rohrbaugh(1983) Organizational effectiveness Value dimensions:
◦ Internal vs. external ◦ Stability vs. flexibility ◦ Means vs. ends
内部
外部
过程：信息管理；沟通 结果：稳定性；控制
内部过程模型（层级型） 稳定性
过程：规划；设定目标 结果：生产力；效率
理性目标模型（市场型）
Cultural types in CVF
Clan Adhocracy Market Hierarchy
Cultural types and control forms
Organizational Culture
Yu, Tianyuan Associate Professor IBF, BNU Zhuhai
Outline
Historical context of organizational culture research Definitions and research methodologies Competing values framework★
Reference
Ouchi, W. G. (1979). "A Conceptual Framework for The Design of Organizational Control Mechanisms." [J]Management Science 25(9): 833. Quinn, R. E. and K. S. Cameron (1983). "Organizational Life Cycles and Shifting Criteria of Effectiveness: Some Preliminary Evidence."[J] Management Science 29(1): 33-51.
Quinn and Cameron（1983）
Application of CVF and OCAI
Empirical study using CVF and OCAI Several main scales of organizational culture Characteristic of CVF and OCAI
Historical context of organizational culture research
Crisis in international economic competition field Crisis in social values field Crisis in academic field: traditional organizational theories and methodologies