国际贸易Chapter10 The Political Economy of Trade Policy
国际贸易实务双语Chapter 10
n.
contractual
adj.
承运，运输，输送；车辆， (旧时载客的) 四轮马车； 〈英〉火车客车车厢；运费 雇用；就业；职业 法律约束的协议 有效的；有法律效力的； 本质的；要点 (的)；必要的；精华的 必需品；基本要素；必不可少的东西 要约，出价；表示愿意 提议；企图；供奉 提议；出价，开价；试图；求婚 接受，承诺；接纳； [金融]承兑；无怨接受 (逆境、困境等)；赞成 合同的，契约的；契约性
display
n.
vt.
price-marked goods
unqualified
adj.
consideration
n.
履行合同能力 要约人，出价人；发价(盘)人 受约人; 被发价人，受盘人 函件，通知 广告，宣传；公告；出公告，做广告 简介，说明书；(即将出版的书等的)内容介绍；计划书， 意见书；(讲义等的)大纲 提出要约的邀请 展览，陈列；陈列品，展览品；显示器；炫耀 显示；陈列；展开，伸展；夸示，炫耀 明码标价的商品 绝对的；不合格的；无限制的；无资格的； 对价；考虑，考察；照顾，关心；报酬；尊敬
对价指乙方的权利所得到的利益或由另一方承受的忍耐遭受的损害损失或者所给予的责任
Chapter Ten Sales Contracts 销售合同
克鲁格曼国际经济学课件英文官方第10版1第十章
10-13
Counter-Argument
• For some countries like the U.S., an import tariff and/or export tax could improve national welfare at the expense of other countries.
3. Free trade provides competition and opportunities for innovation (dynamic benefits).
– By providing entrepreneurs with an incentive to seek new ways to export or compete with imports, free trade offers more opportunities for learning and innovation.
10-9
The Cases for Free Trade (cont.)
• The political argument for free trade
– Taking politics into account, free trade is the best feasible policy, even though there may be better policies in principle.
• Any policy that deviates from free trade would be quickly manipulated by political groups, leading to decreased national welfare.
2024年中级经济基础 第十章 国际贸易理论和政策 重点
中级经济师-经济基础重点第十章国际贸易理论和政策一、知识点：国家契易理论1、国际贸易理论的演变-4种理论2、影响国家贸易的因素影响出口贸易的因素：1•一国的经济总量和总产出水平2.汇率水平3.国际市场商品的供给情况和价格水平的高低二、知识点：国家贸易政策(1)政府对进口贸易的干预主要采取关税限制和非关税限制两种方式非关税壁垒则是指采用关税以外的手段对外国商品进口设置障碍的各种措施，如进口配额制、自愿出口限制、歧视性公共采购、技术标准和卫生检疫标准。
记忆口诀(卫技愿配歧=微机员佩奇)注意进口配额、自愿出口。
(2)政府鼓励出口的措施政府干预出口贸易以刺激出口增加的主要措施是出口补贴。
出口补贴分为直接补贴和间接补贴两种。
直接补贴是政府直接以现金形式弥补出口企业国际市场价格与本国国内市场价格的差价；间接补贴是对出口企业在出口商品时给予财政上的优惠待遇，如出口退税、出口信贷等。
实行出口补贴的目的是降低本国出口产品的价格，提高其在国际市场上的竞争力，扩大出口。
2、倾销与反倾销(1)倾销：出口商以低于正常价值的价格向进口国销售产品，并因此给进口国产业造成损害的行为。
WTO 规定，确定产品正常价值可依据的标准有：原产国标准、第三国标准、成本加费用和利润的标准。
(2)倾销类型:掠夺性倾销：出口企业为在国外市场上达到排除竞争对手、获取超额垄断利润的目的，在短期内以不合理的低价向该市场销售产品，一旦竞争对手被排除，再重新提高产品销售价格的行为。
持续性倾销：出口企业为长期占领市场，实现利润最大化目标而无限期的持续以低价向国外市场出口产品的行为。
隐蔽性倾销：出口企业按国际市场的正常价格出售产品给进口商，但进口商则以倾销性的低价在进口国市场上抛售，其亏损部分由出口企业予以补偿。
偶然性倾销：出口国国内存在大量剩余产品，为处理这些产品而以倾销方式向国外市场抛售。
（3）反倾销反倾销税是一种附加税。
反倾销税的税额不得超过所裁定的倾销幅度。
国际商务谈判(英文)chapter10NegotiationStrategies
Contents
1 Improving Negotiation Skills 2 Strategic Considerations 3 Developing Your Negotiation strategies
4
10.1 Improving Negotiation Skills • “Strategy〞 is considered as comprising
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10.3.3 The Compromising Strategy (1)Bit-by-Bit (2)Conditional Proposals (3)“Log-Rolling〞 (4)“Splitting the Baby〞 (5)Tit-for-Tat
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10.3.4 The Collaborative Strategy (1)Flexibility (2)Focus on Process (3)Identify with Others in Similar Circumstances
(13)Silence
(14)Straw Man
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(15)Turnabout
10.3.2The Accommodation Strategy
(1)Face-Saving (2)Identification (3)Take the Lead Oar (4)Take Reasonable Actions
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10.3.5 The Avoidance Strategy (1)Negotiate Money Issues First (2)Negotiate Non-Money Issues First (3)Refuse to Combine Negotiation of Related
Chapter_10_Negotiation_and_Conclusion_of_Contracts_in_International_Sales_of_Goods
In other words, it refers to trading terms put forward by offerors to offerees, on which the offerors are willing to conclude business with the offerees. 即：发盘是交易的一方向另一方提出各 项交易条件，并愿意按这些条件达成交 易、签订合同买卖某种商品的意思表示。
询盘，又称为“询价”或“邀请发盘”，是指买 方为了购买或者卖方为了销售货物而向对方提出 有关交易条件的询问。询盘在法律上称为“要约 邀请”（Invitation to offer）。我国《合同法》规 定：要约邀请是希望他人向自己发出要约的意思 表示。询盘的主要目的是诱使对方发盘。
Inquiry
The seller and the buyer both can make an inquiry.
Offer
There are two kinds of offers: Firm offer with engagement Non-firm offer without engagement
Invitation for Offer
Examples For Model A, We quote USD800 per set CIF Sydney. We are glad to quote for your reference as follows:… We offer subject to your reply reaching us within 5 days … We quote for Item AA …, subject to our final confirmation
国际贸易(第10版)
8
9 10
2013-7-25
Italy
Canada Belgium
410.6
389.5 369.2
3.4
3.2 3.1
UK
Belgium Canada
437.8
430.8 419.0
3.1
3.1 3.0
7
Table：Leading Exporter in World Merchandise Trade2008（bn USD，%）
2013-7-25 19
图：商品贸易、服务贸易与技术贸易
硬件技术设备贸易 商品贸易 安装、调试、培训，技术诀窍、 服务贸易 专利等软技术贸易
服务贸易
技术贸易
商品 贸易
技术贸易
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表：全球货物贸易中的两大复出口地（Bn USD）
国家/地区 年份 出口额 中国香港 2006 322.7 新加坡 2006 271.8 全球排名 12 14 其中复出口额 299.9 128.6
2
6
Table：Leading Exporter in World Merchandise Trade（bn USD，%）
2006 2007
Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Exporters
Germany US China Japan France Holland UK
Value
1112.0 1038.3 968.9 649.9 490.4 462.4 448.3
2013-7-25 18
国际服务贸易内涵
WTO将服务部门分为12大类160个项目： １。商业服务 BUSINESS SERVICES ２。通信服务 COMMUNICATION SERVICES ３。建筑及有关工程服务 CONSTRUCTION AND RELATED ENGINEERING SERVICES ４。销售服务 DISTRIBUTION SERVICES ５。教育服务 EDUCATIONAL SERVICES ６。环境服务 ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES ７。金融服务 FINANCIAL SERVICES ８。健康与社会服务 HEALTH RELATED AND SOCIAL SERVICES ９。与旅游有关的服务TOURISM AND TRAVEL RELATED SERVICES １０。娱乐、文化与体育服务RECREATIONAL, CULTURAL AND SPORTING SERVICES １１。运输服务 TRANSPORT SERVICES １２。别处未包含的服务 OTHER SERVICES NOT INCLUDED ELSEWHERE
克鲁格曼国贸理论第十版课后习题集答案解析CH04
Chapter 4Specific Factors and Income Distribution⏹Chapter OrganizationThe Specific Factors ModelBox: What Is a Specific Factor?Assumptions of the ModelProduction PossibilitiesPrices, Wages, and Labor AllocationRelative Prices and the Distribution of IncomeInternational Trade in the Specific Factors ModelIncome Distribution and the Gains from TradeThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsCase Study: Trade and UnemploymentInternational Labor MobilityCase Study: Wage Convergence in the Age of Mass MigrationCase Study: Foreign Workers: The Story of the GCCSummaryAPPENDIX TO CHAPTER 4: Further Details on Specific FactorsMarginal and Total ProductRelative Prices and the Distribution of Income⏹Chapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, the Ricardian model of trade was introduced with labor as the single factor of production exhibiting constant returns to scale. Although informative, this model fails to highlight the observed opposition to free trade. In this chapter, the Specific Factors model is presented to gain a better understanding of the distributional effects of trade. After trade, the exporting industry expands, while the import competing industry shrinks. As a result, the factor specific© 2015 Pearson Education Limitedto the exporting industry gains from trade, while the factor specific to the import competing industry loses from trade. However, the aggregate gains from trade are greater than the losses.The Specific Factors model assumes that there is one factor that is mobile between sectors (commonly thought of as labor) and production factors that are specific to each sector. The chapter begins with a simple economy producing two goods: cloth and food. Cloth is produced using labor and its specific factor, capital. Food is produced using labor and its specific factor, land. Given that capital and labor are specific to their respective industries, the mix of goods produced by a country is determined by share of labor employed in each industry. The key difference between the Ricardian model and the Specific Factors model is that in the latter, there are diminishing returns to labor. For example, production of food will increase as labor is added, but given a fixed amount of land, each additional worker will add less and less to food production.As we assume that labor is perfectly mobile between industries, the wage rate must be identical between industries. With competitive labor markets, the wage must be equal to the price of each good times the marginal product of labor in that sector. We can use the common wage rate to show that the economy will produce a mix of goods such that the relative price of one good in terms of the other is equal to the relative cost of that good in terms of the other. Thus, an increase in the relative price of one good will cause the economy to shift its production toward that good.With international trade, the country will export the good whose relative price is below the world relative price. The world relative price may differ from the domestic price before trade for two reasons. First, as in the Ricardian model, countries differ in their production technologies. Second, countries differ in terms of their endowments of the factors specific to each industry. After trade, the domestic relative price will equal the world relative price. As a result, the relative price in the exporting sector will rise, and the relative price in the import competing sector will fall. This will lead to an expansion in the export sector and a contraction of the import competing sector.Suppose that after trade, the relative price of cloth increases by 10 percent. As a result, the country will increase production of cloth. This will lead to a less than 10 percent increase in the wage rate because some workers will move from the food to the cloth industry. The real wage paid to workers in terms of cloth (w/P C) will fall, while the real wage paid in terms of food (w/P F) will rise. The net welfare effect for labor is ambiguous and depends on relative preferences for cloth and food. Owners of capital will unambiguously gain because they pay their workers a lower real wage, while owners of land will unambiguously lose as they now face higher costs. Thus, trade benefits the factor specific to the exporting sector, hurts the factor specific to the import competing sector, and has ambiguous effects on the mobile factor. Despite these asymmetric effects of trade, the overall effect of trade is a net gain. Stated differently, it is theoretically possible to redistribute the gains from trade to those who were hurt by trade and make everyone better off than they were before trade.Given these positive net welfare effects, why is there such opposition to free trade? To answer© 2015 Pearson Education LimitedChapter 4 Specific Factors and Income Distribution 15this question, the chapter looks at the political economy of protectionism. The basic intuition is that the though the total gains exceed the losses from trade, the losses from trade tend to be concentrated, while the gains are diffused. Import tariffs on sugar in the United States are used to illustrate this dynamic. It is estimated that sugar tariffs cost the average person $7 per year. Added up across all people, this is a very large loss from protectionism, but the individual losses are not large enough to induce people to lobby for an end to these tariffs. However, the gains from protectionism are concentrated among a small number of sugar producers, who are able to effectively coordinate and lobby for continued protection. When the losses from trade are concentrated among politically influential groups, import tariffs are likely to be seen. Ohio, a key swing state in U.S. presidential elections and a major producer of both steel and tires, is used as an example to illustrate this point with both Presidents Bush and Obama supporting tariffs on steel and tires, respectively.Although the losers from trade are often able to successfully lobby for protectionism, the chapter highlights three reasons why this is an inefficient method of limiting the losses from trade. First, the actual impact of trade on unemployment is fairly low, with estimates of only 2.5 percent of unemployment directly attributable to international trade. Second, the losses from trade are driven by one industry expanding at the expense of another. This phenomenon is not specific to international trade and is also seen with changing preferences or new technology. Why should policy be singled out to protect people hurt by trade and not for those hurt by these other trends? Finally, it is more efficient to help those hurt by trade—by redistributing the gains from trade in the form of safety nets for those temporarily unemployed and worker retraining programs to ease the transition from import competing to export sectors—than it is to limit trade to protect existing jobs.Finally, the chapter uses the framework of the Specific Factors model to analyze the distributional effects of international labor migration. With free migration of labor across borders, wages must equalize among countries. Workers will migrate from low-wage countries to high-wage countries. As a result, wages in the low-wage countries will rise, and those in the high-wage countries will fall. Though the net effect of free migration is positive, there will be both winners and losers from migration. Workers who stayed behind in the low-wage country will benefit, as will owners of capital in the high-wage country. Workers in the high-wage country will be hurt, as will owners of capital in the low-wage country. We also need to consider the education levels of migrants relative to the country they move to. Immigrants to the United States, for example, tend to be concentrated in the lowest educational groups. Thus, migration is likely to only have negative effects on the wages of the least educated Americans while raising the wages of those with more education.Answers to Textbook Problems1. A country would opt for international trade even though the workers in the importcompetitive sector face the risk of losing their jobs. This is mainly because if the gains that the consumer realizes if more imports were allowed and the associated increase in employment in the export sectors. Under perfect labor mobility, if the real wage inThailand is higher than Bangladesh, then labor movement from Bangladesh to Thailand takes place. This reduces the labor force and raises the wage rates in Bangladesh.Similarly a movement in labor to Thailand increases the labor force and reduces the real wage rate in Thailand. The movement between two countries will continue until the wages in these two countries are equalized.2. a.b.The curve in the PPF reflects diminishing returns to labor. As production of Q1increases, the opportunity cost of producing an additional unit of Q1 will rise. Basically,as you increase the number of workers producing Q1 with a fixed supply of capital, each additional worker will contribute less to the production of Q1 and represents anincreasingly large loss of potential production of Q2.3. a. Draw the marginal product of labor times the price for each sector given that the totallabor allocated between these sectors must sum to 100. Thus, if there are 10 workers© 2015 Pearson Education LimitedChapter 4 Specific Factors and Income Distribution 17employed in Sector 1, then there are 90 workers employed in Sector 2. If there are 50workers employedin Sector 1, then there are 50 workers employed in Sector 2. For simplicity, define P 1 = 1 andP 2 = 2 (it does not matter what the actual prices are in determining the allocation oflabor, only that the relative price P 2/P 1 =2).In competitive labor markets, the wage is equal to price times the marginal product oflabor. With mobile labor between sectors, the wage rate must be equal betweensectors. Thus, the equilibrium wage is determined by the intersection of the two P ⨯MPL curves. Looking at the diagram above,it appears that this occurs at a wage rate of 10 and a labor supply of 30 workers inSector 1(70 workers in Sector 2).b. From part (a), we know that 30 units of labor are employed in Sector 1 and 70 units oflabor are employed in Sector 2. Looking at the table in Question 2, we see that theselabor allocations will produce 48.6 units of good 1 and 86.7 units of good 2.At this production point (Q 1 = 48.6, Q 2 = 86.7), the slope of the PPF must be equal to-P 1/P 2, which is -½. Looking at the PPF in Question 2a, we see that it is roughly equalto -½.© 2015 Pearson Education Limitedc. If the relative price of good 2 falls to 1.3, we simply need to redraw the P ⨯ MPLdiagram withP 1 = 1 and P 2 =1.3.The decrease in the price of good 2 leads to an increase in the share of labor accruingto Sector 1. Now, the two sectors have equal wages (P ⨯ MPL ) when there are 50workers employed in both sectors.Looking at the table in Question 2, we see that with 50 workers employed in bothSectors 1 and 2, there will be production of Q 1 = 66 and Q 2 = 75.8.The PPF at the production point Q 1 = 66, Q 2 = 75.78 must have a slope of -P 1/P 2 = -1/1.3 = -0.77. d. The decrease in the relative price of good 2 led to an increase in production of good 1and a decrease in the production of good 2. The expansion of Sector 1 increases the income of the factor specific to Sector 1 (capital). The contraction of Sector 2decreases the income of thefactor specific to Sector 2 (land).Chapter 4 Specific Factors and Income Distribution 194. a. The increase in the capital stock in Home will increase the possible production of good 1,but have no effect on the production of good 2 because good 2 does not use capital inproduction. As a result, the PPF shifts out to the right, representing the greaterquantity of good 1 that Home can now produce.b. Given the increased production possibility for Home, the relative supply of home (definedas Q 1/Q 2) is further to the right than the relative supply for Foreign. As a result, therelative price of good 1 is lower in Home than it is in Foreign.c. If both countries open to trade, Home will export good 1, and Foreign will export good 2.d. Owners of capital in Home and owners of land in Foreign will benefit from trade, whileowners of land in Home and owners of capital in Foreign will be hurt. The effects onlabor will be ambiguous because the real wage in terms of good 1 will fall (rise) in Home(Foreign) and the real wage in terms of good 2 will rise (fall) in Home (Foreign). The net welfare effect for labor will depend on preferences in each country. For example, iflabor in Home consumes relatively more of good 2, they will gain from trade. If labor in Home consumes relatively more of good 1, they will lose from trade.5. The real wage in Home is 10, while real wage in Foreign is 18. If there is free movement oflabor, then workers will migrate from Home to Foreign until the real wage is equal in each country. If 4 workers move from Home to Foreign, then there will be 7 workers employed in each country, earning a real wage of 14 in each country.We can find total production by adding up the marginal product of each worker. After trade, total production is 20 + 19 + 18 + 17 + 16 + 15 + 14 = 119 in each country for total world production of 238. Before trade, production in Home was 20 + 19 + 18 = 57. Production in Foreign was 20 + 19 + … + 10 = 165. Total world production before trade was 57 + 165 = 222. Thus, trade increased total output by 16.Workers in Home benefit from migration, while workers in Foreign are hurt. Landowners in Home are hurt by migration (their costs rise), while landowners in Foreign benefit.6. If only 2 workers can move from Home to Foreign, there will be a real wage of 12 in Homeanda real wage of 16 in Foreign.a. Workers in Foreign are hurt as their wage falls from 18 to 16.b. Landowners in Foreign benefit as their costs fall by 2 for each worker employed.c. Workers who stay at home benefit as their wage rises from 10 to 12.d. Landowners in Home are hurt as their costs rise by 2 for each worker employed.e. The workers who do move benefit by seeing their wages rise from 10 to 16.7. If the price of wheat increases by 10%, then the labor demand in the wheat sector wouldincrease by the same 10 percent. In other words, the curve defined by MPLw × Pw would increase by 10 percent. On the other hand, if the price of paddy remains the same and only there is an increase in the price of wheat, this result in an increase in the wage rate less than the increase in the price of wheat. In the present case the wage rate will increase less than 10 percent.© 2015 Pearson Education Limited。
国际贸易第15版复习大纲剖析
Chapter One (第一章)International Economics Is Different(国际经济学是一门独特的学科)1. Four Controversies (四个有争议的事件)（1）Imports of Automobile Tires （汽车轮胎的进口）（2）Immigration （移民）（3）China′s Exchange Rate (中国的汇率)（4）Global Financial and Economic Crisis （全球金融和经济危机）2.Economics and the nation-state（经济学和国家政府）Nations are sovereign (国家是主权独立的)Nobody is in charge of the whole world economy(没有人可以掌控整个世界经济)Nations have their separate policies(国家拥有独立的政策)（1）Factor mobility（要素流动性）（2）Different fiscal policies（不同的财政政策）（3）Different moneys（不同的货币）Part One: The Theory of International Trade(第一篇：国际贸易理论第二章至第七章)Chapter Two (第二章)The basic theory using demand and supply（需求与供给的基本理论）1.Four Key Questions About International Trade(贸易的四个重要问题)2.Demand and supply(需求与供给)(1)Demand and Consumer surplus（需求与消费者剩余）①Price of elasticity of demand（需求价格弹性）The percent change in quantity demanded of a product caused by a one percent increase in the price of this product（产品价格上升一个百分点所引起的该产品需求数量的百分比变化）注意：需求曲线越平坦，说明越具有价格弹性②Consumer surplus（消费者剩余）The difference between the value that consumers place on the units of the product that they buy and the payment that they make to obtain these units.（消费者在每单位产品上愿意支付的价格与获得这些产品实际支付的价格之间的差额）（2）Supply and producer surplus(供给与生产者剩余)①Price of elasticity of supply（P20）②Supply surplus (figure 2.1)(P22)3. Two national markets and the opening of trade（两国的市场与贸易的开展）（1）Free Trade Equilibrium （自由贸易均衡）What will happen when US trade with the rest of country?Buy low and sell high ----- arbitrage（套利）Note: one –dollar, one-vote metric (一元一票制)（2）Which country gains more?（哪个国家获益更多）The country that experiences the larger price change has a larger value of the net gains from trade (经历较大价格变化的国家从贸易中获得较大的净收益)Chapter Three (第三章)Why Everybody Trades：Comparative Advantage(为什么开展贸易：比较优势)1. Adam smith′s theory of absolute advantage （斯密的绝对优势理论）（1）Mercantilism （重商主义）（P35）（2）The theory of absolute advantageEvery country will focus on producing what it does best and exports it。
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Chapter 10
The Political Economy of Trade Policy
Slides prepared by Thomas Bishop
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.
Preview
• The cases for free trade
• 在被保护的市场中，不仅生产被分割，而且由于减少了 竞争和提高了利润，从而吸引了太多的厂商进入被保护 的行业。在一个狭小的国内市场中拥挤着那么多的厂商， 各厂商的生产规模都很小。
中国的汽车工业生产规模不足就是一个很好的例子。根据国际 惯例，一个有效率的汽车组装厂年产汽车应该达到8-20万辆。而 中国1999年只生产了183.2万辆汽车，国内的汽车生产厂家却有 近千家！中国以80%-100%的汽车进口关税维持国内汽车生产的 高利润显然是中国汽车厂家小规模生产但仍然存活的重要原因。
Counter-Argument
• Most small countries have very little ability to affect the world price of either their imports or exports, so that the terms of trade argument is of little practical importance. • For some countries like the U.S. an import tariff or and export tax could improve national welfare at the expense of other countries. But this argument ignores the likelihood that other countries may retaliate against(报复) large countries by enacting their own trade restrictions.
But at some tariff rate, the national welfare will begin to decrease as the economic efficiency loss exceeds the terms of trade gain.
Fig. 2: The Optimum Tariff
Political Argument for Free Trade
• Another argument, called the political argument for free trade(主张自由贸易的政治 依据), says that free trade is the best feasible political policy, even though there may be better policies in principle.
The optimum export tax is positive but less than the prohibitive tax(禁止性关税) that would eliminate export completely.
What policy would the terms of trade argument dictate for export sectors?
The Terms of Trade Argument for a Tariff(赞成关税的贸易条件改善论)
• For a “large” country, a tariff or quota lowers the price of imports in world markets and generates a terms of trade gain.
This benefit may exceed the losses caused by distortions in production and consumption.
• In fact, a small tariff will lead to an increase in national welfare for a large country.
• 自由贸易后，企业可以寻求新的出口途径和参与同进 口产品的竞争，从而获得比管理贸易下多得多的学习 和革新的机会。
• These are dynamic benefits, unlike the static benefits of eliminating the efficiency losses caused by distorted prices and overproduction.
对于大国而言，存在着一个最优关税t0， 在这一点上，从贸易条件改善中获得的 边际收益正好等于生产和消费扭曲所带 来的边际效率损失。
The Optimum Tariff(最优关税)
• For a large country, there is an optimum tariff t0 at which the marginal gain from improved terms of trade just equals the marginal efficiency loss from production and consumption distortion.
Free Trade and Efficiency (自由贸易和效率)
• The efficiency case for free trade(自由贸易的效率).The first case for free trade is the argument that producers and consumers allocate resources most efficiently when governments do not distort market prices through trade policy. National welfare of a small country is highest with free trade.
With restricted trade, consumers pay higher prices.
With restricted trade, distorted prices cause overproduction either by existing firms producing more or by more firms entering the industry.
Additional Gains from Free Trade(cont.)
• A second argument for free trade is that it allows firms or industry to take advantage of economies of scale.
Additional Gains from Free Trade(cont.)
• A third argument for free trade is that it provides competition and opportunities for learning and innovation.
• The cases against free trade • Political models of trade policy • International Negotiations of Trade Policy
The Cases for Freຫໍສະໝຸດ Trade (支持自由贸易的观点)
• 很少国家能做到真正的自由贸易。尽管如此，自斯密 时代以来，经济学家仍一直倡导自由贸易，并将其作 为贸易政策的奋斗目标。 • 但是，倡导自由贸易的原因并不象这个思想本身一样 简单。自由贸易可以避免保护政策所带来的效率损失 。除了消除生产与消费的扭曲，自由贸易还能产生额 外的收益。即使在认为自由贸易并非绝对完美之策的 经济学家中，仍有许多人相信在通常情况下自由贸易 比其他任何可供采取的替代政策都要好。
• A tariff rate tp that completely prohibits imports leaves a country worse off, but tariff rate t0 may exist that maximizes national welfare: an optimum tariff.
Fig. 1: The Efficiency Case for Free Trade
A trade restriction, such as a tariff, leads to production and consumption distortions. 关税会带来生产和 消费效率的扭曲。