ethnic groups
People and Ethnic Groups 美国人口与种族
淘金热和《排华法案》
1848年加州发现了黄金，开启了华人移 民美国的第一波浪潮。当时有30万人蜂拥进 加州，希望实现自己的黄金梦。而同时期， 中国因为鸦片战争和太平天国的战乱，大批 水深火热中的老百姓希望寻找出路。 “黄金梦”通过商人、海员、骗子、传教 士，从香港朝内地扩散。成百上千的失地农 民，通过各种合法和非法的方式，前往梦想 之地。于是“金山”也成为了San Francisco最 早的中文名称，直到后来澳大利亚的墨尔本 发现金矿以后，“金山”才改称为“旧金 山”。
在淘金热过去以后，1865年中央太平洋大铁路（Central Pacific Railroad）的开建也需要从中国引入大量的劳工。许 多华工放下金矿里的工作，会合老家来的新同胞，又投入了 这条沟通美国东西两边大铁路的工程。 华工对于中央大铁路的修建贡献重大，他们吃苦耐劳，任 劳任怨，工价低廉，故铁路公司大量增雇华工。因华工的贡 献，铁路比原定日期竟然早了7年竣工。 随着太平洋大铁路的竣工，需要的劳工大减，同时美国发 生经济危机，失业率激增，民间排华活动日甚，奉行“白人 至上”种族主义的政界人士趁机抨击华人以迎合选民，直至 1882年《排华法案》（Chinese Exclusion Act）的颁布。
犹太人遍布全世界。当今全世界的犹太人 总数约为1300万，主要分布在以色列和美国。 美国有约580万，以色列约442万，其余人口 散布世界各地。 犹太人占全球人口总数不到0.25%， 但却 获得了近25%的诺贝尔奖， 诺贝尔奖获得概 率远高于其他各个民族。爱因斯坦、马克思、 弗洛伊德、毕加索等许多名人都出自这一民 族。
Hispanic（拉美裔，又称拉丁裔Latino） 指从拉丁美洲移居到美国或加拿大的讲西班 牙语或葡萄牙语的人。美国人称拉美裔人为 “西班牙裔”，实际他们和西班牙人不同， 是欧洲人和当地印第安人的混种。美国人把 他们视为有色人种，在被歧视范围之内。 拉丁美洲（Latin America）通常用来指称 美国以南的大部分美洲地区。历史上这一地 区主要是西班牙和葡萄牙的殖民地，而西班 牙语和葡萄牙语衍生于拉丁语，故称拉丁美 洲。
Ethnos(民族)和Ethnic group(族群)的早期含义与应用
Ｅｔｈｎｏｓ（民族）和Ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ（族群）的早期含义与应用Ｅｔｈｎｏｓ（民族）和Ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ（族群）的早期含义与应用郝时远英文ｅｔｈｎｉｃ是希腊语ｅｔｈｎｏｓ拉丁化的形容词形式，对应中文的直译可理解为“族”或“族的”，属于人类社会“族类共同体”应用范畴。
该词在英文中没有形成名词形式，在与ｇｒｏｕｐ连用后形成了复合名词ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ形式。
在２０世纪６０年代中期以后，ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ一词在美国和西欧国家的社会学、人类学和政治学等学科流行开来，用以分析这些国家基于种族、民族、语言、宗教、文化、习俗等要素基础上的“认同群体”。
２０世纪８０年代以后，ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ这一术语在世界范围流行开来，在引入中国人类学、民族学界时，中文翻译为“民族”、“民族集团”、“种族”、“族裔群体”和“族群”等，其中以“族群”最为通行。
但是，学界在研究和应用这一术语时，缺乏对ｅｔｈｎｏｓ及其派生的ｅｔｈｎｉｃ和ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ源流的关注。
本文就这一术语在西方国家早期（２０世纪７０年代以前）的含义演变和应用情况做一梳理，并指出了这一术语的流行属于西方国家“族类政治化”裂变的产物及其表现出的“后现代”话语的特点，以期为进一步研究这一术语在西方国家广泛应用的社会背景作一铺垫。
关键词：ｅｔｈｎｏｓ（民族）ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ（族群）社会学人类学作者郝时远，中国社会科学院民族研究所所长，研究员。
地址：北京市中关村南大街２１号，邮编１０００８１。
英文ｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐ一词，在２０世纪７０年代末开始为国内民族研究学界所引进，起初翻译为“民族群体”等，后逐步采用了台湾、香港学界的译法，即“族群”。
在对这一术语进行研究的著述中，不少学者都提及了这一词汇的希腊语来源ｅｔｈｎｏｓ，但是对ｅｔｈｎｏｓ的拉丁化过程和早期指称对象等却缺乏较为系统的梳理，尤其是对其含义的演变以及该术语在２０世纪６０年代以前的释义和应用方面的情况更缺少关注。
族群
概念背景英文ethnic group一词，在20世纪70年代末被国内民族学界引入并使用，起初译为“ 民族群体”，后逐步采纳台湾学者的译法，即“族群”。
我国的民族学研究长期受前苏联影响，对西方民族学、人类学理论借鉴较少，缺乏对外理论交流，因而不仅研究方法单一，而且理论陈旧。
客观上讲，族群这一概念及其相关理论的引入，对中国民族学界产生了强烈反响，为中国民族学研究开辟了一个崭新的视角，学界对此的关注也与日俱增。
英文ethnic group一词，表示具有语言、种族、文化和宗教特点的人们共同体。
关于族群的定义，数量繁多，表述各异。
马戎(1996)曾不完全地查阅英文文献，发现至少有20多种不同的关于族群的定义；郝时远(2002a)也列出了20种关于族群的定义。
这里简要介绍几种影响较大的定义。
——马克斯·韦伯的定义：“某种群体由于体质类型、文化的相似，或者由于迁移中的共同记忆，而对他们共同的世系抱有一种主观的信念，这种信念对于非亲属社区关系的延续相当重要，这个群体就被称为族群”(蒋立松，2002)。
——挪威人类学家弗雷德里克·巴斯在其著名的《族群与边界》一书的序言中谈到，族群这个名称在人类学著作中一般理解为用以指这样一个群体：(1)生物上具有极强的自我延续性；(2)分享基本的文化价值，以实现文化形式上的统一；(3)形成交流和互动的领域；(4)具有自我认同和他人认同的成员资格，以形成一种与其他具有同一秩序的类型不同的类型(弗雷德里克·巴斯著，高崇译，1999)。
——哈佛大学的N·格拉泽和D·P·莫尼汉归纳了一些学者的讨论，并将族群定义为：是指一个较大的文化和社会体系中具有自身文化特质的一种群体；其中最显著的特质就是这一群体具有的宗教的、语言的、习俗的特征，以及其成员或祖先所共有的体质的、民族的、地理的起源(Nathan Glazer & Daniel P.Moynihan,1975)。
关于“族群”与“民族”概念和翻译的讨论
关于“族群”与“民族”概念和翻译的讨论近年来，随着地区性冲突的加剧，民族关系的研究开始成为人类学、学、学等学科研究的热点。
上个世纪初期（1900s）传入中国的民族概念和上个世纪末期（1990s）传入中国的族群概念因民族关系的升温逐渐成为学术界争论的焦点。
本文将对这个两个词汇从它们的、定义和意义以及关系作一介绍。
一、族群概念与民族概念的翻译问题。
1、“族群”概念的翻译。
“族群”概念是英文ethnic group一词的译法。
英文中的ethnic一词来自希腊语ethnos。
英文中的ethnic group一词来自希腊语ethnikos。
[1]Ethnikos在希腊语中表示“习惯、特点”等意义，在中表示具有、种族、和宗教特点的人们共同体。
Ethnic group （族群）是上个世纪60年代（1960s）国际人类学界广泛运用起来的。
学者首先把英美流行的ethnic group翻译成中文“族群”，受台湾学者的影响，在80－90年代（1980－90s）大陆学者开始引用“族群”这个词，现在被普遍认同并把ethnic group翻译为“族群”。
早期，对ethnic group的汉译有两种观点。
一是反对将ethnic group译为族群，而应翻译为“民族”。
这种观点的代表人物是阮西湖先生。
他认为，“族群”显然是指那些尚未发展成为民族的人们共同体，各者使用ethnic group时的涵义是指“民族”，而非“族群”。
[2]而且，这一术语既不符合关于“人们共同体”演进的各个阶段的表述，也不符合联合国教科文组织的专家们对当代社会人类学群体的划分。
同时也有悖于世界各国人类学者所表述的人们共同体的原意。
[3]最近他还进一步阐述了把ethnic group翻译为民族的理由：（1）美国韦氏词典认为ethnic表示“具有表现在风俗习惯、特征、语言和共同等方面的共同文化遗产的居民群体”，这与我国的民族定义是吻合的；（2）台湾人类学界对世界各国民族共同体的研究不够，基本上局限于台湾省内，因而遣词不当，把ethnic group译为“族群”，并被台独分子利用来分裂汉族，达到搞台独的目的；（3）无论是前苏联学者或俄罗斯学者都把“ethnic group”一词作为民族来看待不是作为“族群”[4]二是对这种译法持肯定态度的学者如石奕龙、黄泽以及国外学者，他们认为，ethnic除了指“民族的”以外，也可指“种族的、部落的、民族或国家以及某一特定文化群体”。
关于族群、种族和民族：在没搞清楚它们有啥区别前最好别乱说
关于族群、种族和民族：在没搞清楚它们有啥区别前最好别乱说关于族群、种族和民族：在没搞清楚它们有啥区别前最好别乱说2016年10⽉02⽇ 10:12来源：凤凰国际智库⽂章来源：微信号“国关国政外交学⼈”编者按：现实中，⼈们常把种族和民族、族群与民族相混淆。
国际⾦融论坛（IFF）学术委员、中国⼈民⼤学全球治理中⼼主任庞中英在本⽂从多个⾓度探讨了族群、种族和民族这3个易被混淆的基本概念。
另外，庞中英教授还特别分析了现代民族概念的3种基本含义(政治、⽂化和经济)、民族形成的两种不同的路径及其动态性、与民主和公民⾝份相联系的现代民族的根本性质，最后提出了关于民族的新界定。
作者：庞中英/ 国际⾦融论坛（IFF）学术委员、中国⼈民⼤学全球治理中⼼主任为了加深对国际社会中民族与民族国家的认识，有必要严格区分族群、种族和民族这样3个经常被混⽤的概念。
在现实中，⼈们把种族和民族、族群与民族相混淆，问题之严重已到了必须正视的地步。
例如，把前南斯拉夫(如波斯尼亚的塞尔维亚、克罗地亚和穆斯林族)、前苏联的各族群、⾮洲国家卢旺达(胡图族与图西族)、中东的巴勒斯坦⼈与犹太⼈、斯⾥兰卡的僧伽罗⼈和泰⽶尔⼈等的民族或族群冲突称为“种族冲突”。
这种混淆实在是⼀个很⼤的错误，因为上述国家内部的冲突不是什么种族冲突，⽽是族际冲突，英⽂叫作ethnic conflict。
由于翻译和历史等原因，汉语中的“民族”⼀词含义极为复杂，所以它不仅包含了英⽂等西语的民族(C na-tioW、族群(ethnio group、民族的少数(na-tional minority、⼈类共同体(human com-munity)等含义，⽽且经常与种族⼀词相混⽤(当然这种现象不仅在中⽂中有，在其它语⾔中也存在)。
为了深⼊研究民族和民族主义问题，本⽂认为需要廓清民族的含义并把它与族群、种族等概念加以明确区分。
下⾯⾸先从语义学⾓度⼊⼿对族群、种族和民族等概念做⼀具体分析。
Unit 6 Ethnic Groups
4. minority (pl. -ies) the smaller number or part, especially a number which is less than half the whole number 少数 Only a minority of British households do not have a car. 英国只有少数家庭没有汽车。 a relatively small group of people, especially one commonly discriminated against in a community, society, or nation, differing from others in race, religion, language, or political persuasion少数民族, 少数信仰不同的人 The interests of the minorities should be protected. 少数民族的利益应该得到保护。
5. 习惯用语 have an addition (to the family) 生孩子, 添人口 in addition 加上, 又, 另外 in addition to 加上, 除...外, 又 with the addition of 外加
Unit 6 Ethnic Groups
1.What ethnic groups is the UK population originated from? 2. Do you know the proportion of white people? 3. Can you describe the major minority ethnic ground from 从...下来 是...的后裔, 源于 descend to 把人格[身分]降低到, 堕落到 转谈细节 descend upon 突然袭击,突然拜访某人
中东民族与宗教 The Ethnic Groups and Religions in the Middle East
The Ethnic Groups and Religions in the Middle EastI. The Ethnic Groups in the Middle EastWhen it comes to countries, we need to talk about people living in these countries.First, I want to let you know what an ethnic group means.An ethnic group (or ethnicity) is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, consisting of a common language, a common culture (often including a shared religion) and a tradition of common ancestry (corresponding to a history of endogamy).Now let’s take a look at the them and start our real learning the ethnic groups in the Middle East.Though the Middle East is a place much smaller than us China, it is also home to numerous ethnic groups, including Arabs, Turks, Persians, Jews, Kurds, Assyrian, Armenians, Azeris, Circassians, Greeks and Georgians. Here I introduce to you four major ethnic groups in this area.Over 350 million people live in the Middle East and four major ethnic groups are Arabs, Turks, Persians and Jewish.Arabs constitute the majority ethnic group in all of the Middle East states except Iran, Israel, and Turkey.Originally, the term "Arab" referred to the peoples that inhabited the northern and central portions of the Arabian Peninsula. Following the spread of variousArab-Islamic empires throughout the Middle East and into Europe and south Asia, the term "Arab" has come to be synonymous with those who speak Arabic. Presently, about 60% of the total population in the Middle East speak Arabic and consider themselves to be an Arab.Today, most Arabs are Muslim, with a minority adhering to other faiths, largely Christianity.Now take a look at Turks.The world's Turkic peoples, numbering perhaps 130 million people in all, are the diverse descendants of large groups of tribes people thought to have originated in Central Asia.Presently, the largest group of Turkic people is living in Turkey. Additionally, other Turkic people live in the Xinjiang region of China, Iran & Afghanistan, and RussiaNow let’s move to the third major ethnic group- Persians.The Persian people are defined by the use of the Persian language as their mother tongue. The Persian language is one of the world's oldest languages still in use today, and is known to have one of the most powerful literary traditions. The Persians are believed to be descendents of the Aryan (Indo-Europeans) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BCE. There are around 80 million Persians live in the Middle East and most of them are Muslims. Today, they mainly live in Iran, Georgia, Turkey, Afghanistan,and Northern Pakistan.The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and a group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East.Jewish people trace their origin to Abraham, who established the belief that there is only one God, the creator of the universe.There are an estimated 13–14 million Jews worldwide, accounting for around 0.2% of the world's population. Now many of the Jews live in the state of Israel. There are about 4 million Jewish people living there.II . Religions in the Middle EastThe Middle East is very diverse when it comes to religions, many of which originated there. Islam in its many forms is by far the largest religion in the Middle East, but other faiths, such as Judaism and Christianity, are also important.Now I‘d like to tell more about the three main religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism.Islam is a strictly monotheistic religion.The literal meaning of Islam is peace; surrender of one’s will i.e. losing oneself for the sake of God and surrendering one’s own pleasure for the pleasure of God. The message of Islam was revealed to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings on him) 1, 400 years ago. It was revealed through angel Gabriel (onwhom be peace) and was thus preserved in the Holy Quran.The followers of this religion are called Muslims. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, dead meat and alcohol.Islam believes that each person is born pure. The Holy Quran (Koran) tells us that God has given human beings a choice between good and evil and to seek God’s pleasure through faith, prayer and charity.At present there are 1.5 billion Muslims worldwide and they form the majority in more than 50 countries of the world. In the Middle East, most Arabics and Persians are Muslims and believe in Islam. Today Islam is the fastest growing faith in the world - its beautiful message is reaching millions in the far corner of the earth.A large number of people in the Middle East in another famous religion called Christianity.Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. Christianity comprises three major branches: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy (the two split from one another in 1054 A.D.), and Protestantism (which came into existence during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century). Protestantism is further divided into smaller groups called denominations.Christians believe Jesus is the Son of God, God having become human and the savior of humanity. Christians, therefore, commonly refer to Jesus as Christ orMessiah.As of the early 21st century, Christianity has around 2.2 billion adherents. Christianity represents about a quarter to a third of the world's population and is the world's largest religion. So, we can safely say that one in three persons on earth is Christians. In addition, Christianity is the state religion of several countries.Judaism is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people. Judaism, originating in the Hebrew Bible and explored in later texts such as the Talmud, is considered by Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship God developed with the Children of Israel. The Hebrews / Israelites were called (referred to) as Jews, already, as early as in the Book of Esther. The term Jews replaced the title "Children of Israel.".Judaism claims a historical continuity spanning more than 3000 years. It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions, and the oldest to survive into the present day. Its texts, traditions and values have inspired later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity and Islam.Today, 14 million people identify themselves as Jewish, and about 4 millions of them live in Israel.References：/wiki/Ethnic_group/earthinfo/meast/MEpeo.html /t/tu/turkic_people.html http://www.science.co.il/israel-history.asp/wiki/Islam/wiki/Judaism#Defining_character。
大学英语四级翻译小练(1)
段落翻译A1-工艺美术-瓷器-发展-4中文：中国的制瓷（porcelain）技术从东汉（the Eastern Han Dynasty）以后发展很快，各个历史时期都出现了别具特色的制作瓷器的名窑（kilns）和瓷器新品种。
元代（the Yuan Dynasty）以后，制瓷业迅速发展起来的江西景德镇，被称为中国的“瓷都”。
中国瓷器不仅是精美的日用品，也是珍贵的艺术品。
自汉唐（the Han and Tang dynasties）以来，中国瓷器就大量销往国外，中国的制瓷技术也逐渐传遍世界各地。
语言要点：manufacture; with unique features; the Capital of Porcelain; precious arts and crafts译文：The techniques of manufacturing porcelain have developed rapidly since the Eastern Han Dynasty. Famous kilns producing porcelain products with unique features and new porcelain varieties constantly came forth in the following dynasties. After the Yuan Dynasty, the porcelain industry rose swiftly in Jingdezhen of Jiangxi Province, which became known as the Capital of Porcelain. Chinese porcelain wares are not only delicate daily necessities, but also precious arts and crafts. Since the Han and Tang dynasties, Chinese porcelain wares were exported abroad and their manufacturing techniques gradually spread all over the world.A2-工艺美术-风筝-传承-4中文：风筝，古时候也叫纸鸢（Zhiyuan），是中国人发明的。
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As we all known, there are 56 ethnic groups in our homeland. There are so many groups in our country, so we must need peaceful coexistence between the groups. Only the peaceful coexistence can make our country development more quickly.
From ancient times to the present, our country always insists the theme of peace. There are so many reasons to insist the peace. First, peaceful coexistence is the foundation of a united country. This marks the unity of our country. Second, the peace between distinguished groups contributes to the abundant culture very much. This makes us can appreciate a wide variety of culture to develop our field of view. Third, it is because the peaceful coexistence that our country becomes stronger in the world and our country take a very important place in the world. All the people in the 56 ethnic groups are friends, we need peaceful coexistence.
But, we can’t ignore the boundary makers, such as the different clothing, food, economic activities and so on. These boundary makers go against the development of peaceful coexistence. For example, the different language is a big problem. This badly affects the communication between the different groups. We all know there must be many difficulties, but we don’t afraid it and we can overcome these.
Different ethnic groups posse distinct traits, but we can still accomplish the peaceful coexistence to have a wonderful country.。