unit 14 second languageacquisition
chapter 14 Second Language Acquisition
• Communicative competence: the ability to use the L2 accurately, appropriately, and flexibly • Grammatical competence: involves the accurate use of words and structures in the L2 • Sociolinguistic competence: the ability to interpret or produce language appropriately. It enables the learner to know when to say according to the social context
• Strategic competence: the ability to organize a message effectively and to compensate, via strategies, for and difficulties; the ability to overcome potential communication problem in interaction
• Communicative approaches • Reaction against the artificiality of patternpractice and also against the belief that consciously learning the grammar of a language will necessarily result in an ability to useቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱthe language • based on a view that the functions of language should be emphasized rather than the forms of the language
second language acquisition简介
★1. SLA (Second language acquisition) is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. The study of second language acquisition is a branch of applied linguistics.It mainly deals with how the second language is acquired. The process not only involves linguistics but also a great many subjects including linguistic physiology, psychology, psycholinguistics, cognitive science and so on.4. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)MotivationAgeLearning strategy5. Through observations and experiments they have found that children all undergo certain stages of language development.Babbling stage (articulating certain speech sounds)(6 -12)One word or Holophrastic stage (using single words to represent various meanings)（12-18 months)Two –word stage (18-20 months)Telegraphic speech stage (using phrase and sentences composed of only content words.)(2-3 years )。
二语习得Second Language Acquisition教学内容
explicit knowledge
L2 Input
noticed input
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
comprehended input
intake
implicit knowledge
L2 output
Second Language Acquisition
Noticing In order for some feature of language to be acquired, it is
Second Language Acquisition
Implicit learning is coming to learn the underlying structure of a complex stimulus environment by a process which takes place naturally, simply and without conscious operations. Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where the individual makes and tests hypotheses.
最新二语习得Second Language Acquisition教学提纲
Theoretical i of
how language is represented in the mind and whether there
is a difference between the way language is acquired and
75
Second Language Acquisition
1. The Grammar-Translation Method (structuralism) 2. The Audio-Lingual Method (听说法) (structuralism, behaviorism s-r) 3. Communicative Language Teaching （交际法语言教学） (cognitive science, linguistic competent, communicative competent) 4. Content-based, Task-based Approaches （学科性方法）
Second Language Acquisition
Implicit learning is coming to learn the underlying structure of a complex stimulus environment by a process which takes place naturally, simply and without conscious operations. Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where the individual makes and tests hypotheses.
second language acquisition
A. All other birthdays are called sing il ( born day). The sixty-first birthday is called huan gup (beginning of new life.)
B. The harbor is protected by a jetty---a wall built out into the water.
More often than not, the meaning of many words can be readily guessed if you use your own experience or general knowledge of the subject.
A. The door was so low that I hit my head on the lintel.
He went to America from Japan.
当方向或目标附加状语与来源附加 状语同时出现时,其中的来源附加状 语可以移至句首,如:
From Japan, he went to America.
但是在方向或目标 附加状语和来源附 加状语同时出现时, 其中的方向或目标 附加状语不可以移 至句首,如:
Second Language Acquisition
Five hypotheses about second language acquisition
1.The acquisition-learning distinction 2.The input hypothesis 3.The monitor hypothesis 4.The affective Filter hypothesis 5.The natural order hypothesis
二语习得讲义 Second Language Acquisition-
Second Language Acquisition1.Introduction2.Description of Learner Language3.External Factors to SLA4.Internal factors to SLA5.Individual Differences and SLA6.Classroom and SLA7.Research Methodology in SLA8.Types of Data Analysis9.Theories in SLAReferences:Ellis, Rod 1999 The Study of Second Language Acquisition 上海外语教育出版社Ellis, Rod 1999 Understanding Second Language Acquisition 上海外语教育出版社Larsen-Freeman, Diane 2000 An introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research 外语教学与研究出版社Cook Vivian 2000 Second Language Learning and Language Teaching外语教学与研究出版社Cook Vivian 2000 Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition外语教学与研究出版社Chapter One Introduction1.Why Study Second Language Acquisitiona)Fascinating study itselfb)For second language learningc)For foreign language learning and teaching2.What is Second Language Acquisitiona)What is Second Language Acquisition?b)What do second language learners acquire?i.What is the reslut that the learners get regarding the rules ofthe the second langugae?ii.Are the rules like those of the native language?iii.Are they like the rules of the language being learned?iv.Do the rules created by second language learners vary according to the context of use?c)How do learners acquire a second language?i.What is the process of learning a second language like?ii.Do second language learners learn in the same way as they acquire their mother tongue?iii.Why don’t the learners learn the second language in a different way?1.Influence of first language2.Cognitive factors3.Affctive factors4.Input5.Output6.Cultural differencesd)What differences are there in the way in which individual learnersacquire a second language?i.native language variable; input variable; instructional variable;intelligence variable; social cultural variable; individualvariable(also include the social factors to which the individualis related)ii.Attitude and motivationiii.Intelligence and apptitudeiv.Agev.Personality(affective domain)1.introverson and extroverson2.self-esteem3.anxiety, risk-taking and inhibition4.empathy5.tolerance of ambiguityvi.learning strategy and learning stylese)What effects does instruction have on SLA?i.Effectiveness of L2 instruction1.On the order of acquisition2.On the pace of acquisition3.On the process of acquisitionii.Learnability(hypothesis) : the idea (Manfred Pienemann) that a second or foreign language learner’s acquisition of linguistic structures depends on how complex these structures are from a pschological processing point of view. Learnability is defined as the extent to which the linguistic material must be re-ordered and reoranged when mapping semantics and surface formiii.Teachability(hypothesis) : the idea that the teachability of language is constrained by what the learners is ready to acqriure. Instruction can only promote acquisition if the interlanguage is close to the point when the structure to be taught is learnable without instruction in natural settings.iv.The implicit and explicit knowledge1.Implicit knowledge(procedural)a)Formulaic: sequences of elements that are stored andaccessed as ready-made chunksb)Rule-based: unconscious knowledge of major andminor schemas consisting of abstract linguisticcategories realizable lexically in an indefinite numberof sentences/utterances.2.Explicit knowledge(declarative)a)Analysed: conscious awareness of minor and majorschemasb)Metalingual: lexical knowledge of technical andnon-technical linguistic terminologyv.The non interface/ interface hypothesis1.The non-interface hypothesis2.The interface hypothesisvi.Enhancing Adult SLA1.Implicit language teaching2.Focus on form3.Incidental language learning4.Task-based language learning5.Reconstruction3.An Overview of Second Language Acquisition Researcha)Second vs. third languageb)Second vs. Foreign Languagec)Naturalistic vs. instructed SLAd)Competence vs. Performancee)Usage vs. usef)Acquisition vs. learningg)Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal study4.What a Teacher can expected from SLA Researcha)Understanding the students’ contribution to learningb)Understanding how teaching methods and techniques workc)Understanding the goals of language teachingChapter Two Description of Learner Language1)Why study learner languageThe goal of SLA is the description and explanation of L2 learners’ competence and how this develops over time.Competence involves underlying systems of linguistic knowledge.2)What is learner language3)Learner language✓Mistakes vs. Errors random guess or slip caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance;systematic result from incomplete knowledge✓Hypothesis making and testing4)The Definition of InterlanguageThe type of language produced by FL learners who are in the process of learning a language. The language which the learnerproduces using the processes (transfer, overgeneralization, communicative strategies--- This place, cannot park----It’s against the law to park here; a cloth for my nose----handkerchief ) differs both from the mother tongue and the TL---- so called interlanguage(Selinker,1972) or approximative systemErrors caused by different processes:✧Borrowing patters from the native language(language transfer)✧Extending patterns from the target language(overgeneralization)✧Expressing meaning using the words and grammar which are alreadyknown (communication strategy)Pidgin: Contact language or Mixed language when speakers of two languages try to communicate with each other on a regular basis. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammatical structure. The process by which a pidgin develops is called pidginization Creole: When a pidgin is used for a long time, it will be expanded into a creole language. A creole is the native language of a group of speakers. The sentence structures and vocabulary of a creole are far more complex than those of a pidgin language. English-based French-based. Creolization---the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole, creolization involves the expansion of the vocabulary and the grammatical system.5)Stages of Interlanguage✧Random error stage✧Emergent stage✧Systematic stage✧Stabilization stage6)Sources of Error7)Fossilization(in SL/FL learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized.Fossilized features of pronunciation contribute to a person’s foreign accent.8)Defossilization9)Attitudes toward errors1.C ontrastive Analysis1)Language Transfer(Zhang Guoyang 8)✓Definition: originally a psychological term: the effect of existing knowledge or skills on the learning or acquisition of new knowledge or skills; the effect of one language on the learning of another.✓Positive transfer is transfer, which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form. e.g. table-桌子desk-课桌.✓Negative transfer, or interference, is the use of a native- language pattern or rule, which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language. e.g. up-fire on the tree:Three levels of negative transfer:✧Phonological Level: thin-sin work—er dialect✧Lexical level: conceptual difference lover –爱人intellectual—知识分子connotative difference propaganda dog 明天我们和三班打篮球We will play basketball with Class Three.✧Syntactical level: tense-- What do you say to him? I very happy;word order-- he often is the first to come to school.2)The comparison of the linguistic system of two languages, forexample the sound system or the grammatical system. Developed and practised in the 1950s(Robert Lado) and 1960s, as an application of STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions:✧the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused byinterference from the first language(language transfer)✧these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.✧teaching material can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce theeffects of interference.✧Contrastive analysis was more successful in phonology than in otherareas of language, and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced by other explanations of learning difficulties(error analysis).In recent years contrastive analysis has been applied to other areas of language eg. Contrastive discourse analysis3)Strong Version: the hypothesis that one can predict the difficultiesof the students in learning a foreign language by comparing the target language with the native language.4)Weak Version: the hypothesis that one account for(explain)theobserved difficulties in second language learning using the linguistic knowledge they have about the TL and the NL.----- posteriori after the fact5)Procedure of CA✧Description: a formal description of the relevant features of languagecompared with the help of formal grammar.✧Selection: select the language items(rules, structures, )to becompared.✧Compare and contrast: the identification of the areas of difference andsimilarity.✧Prediction: identification of possible areas to cause errors.6)Application of CA✧Prediction of errors✧Diagnosis of errors✧Language testing✧Contrastive teaching --- grammar-translation methodalthough--but7)Evaluation of CA✧According to CA: difference(linguistic) is difficulty(psychological)it is not the case. similarity also cause problem✧CA can not predict all the errors student will meet.✧CA is restricted only on the contrast of the structure of the languagebarring the contrast of the culture.2.E rror Analysis1)Definition: the study and analysis of the errors made by secondlanguage learners. Error Analysis may be carried out in order to:a.i dentify strategies which learners use in language learningb.try to identify the causes of learner errorsc.o btain information on common difficulties in language learning,as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials2)Basic Assumption of EAError analysis was developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s, and set out to criticize CA and demonstrate that many learner errors were not due to the learner’s mother tongue but reflect universal learning strategies.3)Types of Errors:A.according to aspects of language✧lexical error✧phonological error✧syntactic error✧interpretive error✧pragmatic errorB.according to the souses of errors✧Interlingual errors---an error resulting from language transfer; causedby the learner’s native language✧Intralingual errors---an error resulting from faulty or partial learningof the target language rather than language transfer; He is comes.OvergeneralizationSimplificationDevelopmental errorCommunication-based errorInduced error(resulting from transfer of training)Error of avoidanceError of overproduction(too often use of an item)4)Procedure of EA✧Collecting the data for analysis: either oral production or writtenexercises✧Identify the errorsError vs. LapseGrammatically right or wrong; pragmatically right or wrong(appropriate in the context)✧Classify the errorsClassify the errors into different categories:Addition; omission; substitution; and ordering, etc.Identify the levels of language within each categories:Phonological; orthography; lexicon; grammar; and discourseIdentify the global or local errorsGlobal errors hinder communication:Because Peter was absent, was snow hard.Local errors do not prevent the message from being heard,allowing the hearer to make accurate guess about the intendedmeaning:Peter was absent, because snowed hard.✧Explain the causes for the errorsInterlingual errorsPhonological: work-er, roomGrammatical: His work is often very busy--- he is often verybusy with his workCultural: Good morning Teacher Teacher LiIntralingual errors:I dislike getting up early in winterI don’t know when is the plane going to take off.Other errorsHe is heavier than an elephant is.Are you from the south? Yes, I am from the south.5)Evaluation of EA✧Function of EA in foreign language teachingBy EA, a teacher can know the degree to which the learners are familiar with the TL----Which stage of learning the learners are in?By EA, a teacher can know how a learner learns a language---the strategies and proceduresEA is also important and necessary to the learners themselves, learning process is actually one in which the learners make errors and correct the errors✧Limitations of EAEA emphasize too much on error, ignoring the correct and fluent language.EA concentrate on the language production, ignoring language perception.In practice it is very difficult to define and identify error, harder to classify them and even harder to explain the situation when thelearners use the strategy—avoidance.Chapter 3 External Factors to SLA1.Introductiona)What are the factors related to (or influence) SLA?b)What does the external factors include?c)Talk about the influence of the external factors on SLA.2.External Factors and SLAa)Learner Attitudesi.The target languageii.The speech communityiii.The target language cultureiv.The use and social value of learning the target languagev.Their own cultureb)Agec)Sexd)Social Classe)Context of SLAi.Natural vs. Educationalii.Submersion and emersioniii.Formal instruction3.Input And SLAa)Three views on inputi.Behaviouristii.Nativistiii.Interactionistb)Motherese; Teacher talkc)i+1 input4.Models of SLA Related to the External Factorsa)The Acculturation Modelb)The Inter-group Modelc)The Socio-educational Modeld)The Historical-structural perspectiveChapter 4 Internal factors to SLA1.Learner Internal Mechanism:a)Process of learning a language: perception;memory; problem-solving; information processingb)Language learning: knowledge-learning orskill-learningOutput Control Procedures ProductionReceptionc) Psychological Mechanismd) The Function of MemoryThe function of memory is to store information for later use: 1) for immediate use( checking telephone number and dial), 2) for short-term use(memorizing the speaker ’s words and respond), 3) for long-term use(knowledge, students memorizing what they have learnt for later use and examination) e) Encoding and decodingEncoding: the process of turning a message into a set of symbols, as part of the act of communication. Inencoding speech, the speaker must select a message to be communicated and turn it into linguistic form using semantic systems(e.g. concepts, propositions), grammatical systems(e.g. words, phrases, clauses), and phonological systems(e.g. phonemes, syllables).Decoding: the process of trying to understand the meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence. When decoding a speech utterance, the listener must hold the utterance in short-term memory and analyse the utterance into segments and identify clauses, phrases, and other linguistic units, and identify the underlying propositions and illocutionary meaning.In memorizing information, a person also needs to encode the message in order to put the information in an appropriate places for later use. Encoding is to reduce and rearrange the information.f)The Information Processing System(The Structureof Memory)g)Sensory store (sensory register, sensory memory) i.Visual aural touchingh)Working memory(short-term memory)i.Controlled processii.Repeat, encode, decide, retrieveiii.7 +(-) 2幻灯片的Magic Seven原则:★幻灯片是辅助传达演讲信息的，只列出要点即可，切忌不要成为演讲稿的PPT版，全篇都是文字。
Secondlanguageacquisition
Second language acquisitionSecond language acquisition or second language learning is the process by which people learn a . Second language acquisition (often capitalized as Second Language Acquisition or abbreviated to SLA) is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's ; although the concept is named second language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth or subsequent languages. Second language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does notrefer to practices in .The academic discipline of second language acquisition is a sub-discipline of . It is broad-based and relatively new. As well as the various branches of , second language acquisition is also closelyrelated to , , and . To separate the academic discipline from the learning process itself, the terms second language acquisition research, second language studies, and second language acquisition studies are also used. SLA research began as an field, and because of this it is difficult to identify a precise starting date. However, it does appear to have developed a great deal since the mid-1960s. The term acquisition was originally used to emphasize the subconscious nature of the learning process, but in recent years learning and acquisition have becomelargely synonymous.Second language acquisition can incorporate , but it does not usually incorporate . Most SLA researchers see bilingualism as being the end result of learning a language, not the process itself, and see the termas referring to native-like fluency. Writers in fields such as education and psychology, however, often use bilingualism loosely to refer to all forms of . Second language acquisition is also not to be contrasted with the acquisition of a ; rather, the learning of second languages and the learning of foreign languages involve the same fundamental processes in different situations.Comparisons with first language acquisitionPeople who learn a second language differ from children in a number of ways. Perhaps the most striking of these is that very few adult second language learners reach the same competence as native speakers of that language. Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for a native speaker. When a learner's speech plateaus in this way it is known as .In addition, some errors that second language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, speakers learning may say "Is raining" rather than "It is raining", leaving out the of the sentence. speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake. This is because sentence subjects can be left out in Spanish, but not in French. This influence of the first language on the second is known as .Also, when people learn a second language, the way they speak theirfirst language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to gestures the learner makes and the things they tend to notice. For example, Frenchspeakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers. When shown afish tank, Chinese speakers of English tend to remember more fish and fewer plants than Chinese monolinguals. This effect of the second language on the first led to propose the idea of , which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind.Learner languageLearner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second language acquisition research. Much research in second language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yetpossible to inspect these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners' speech or writing.Item and system learningThere are two types of learning that second language learners engage in. The first is , or the learning of formulaic chunks of language. These chunks can be individual words, set phrases, or formulas like Can I have a ___? The second kind of learning is , or the learning of systematic rules.InterlanguageOriginally attempts to describe learner language were based on and on . However, these approaches weren't able to predict all the errors that learners made when in the process of learning a second language. For example, Serbo-Croat speakers learning English may say "What does Pat doing now?", although this is not a valid sentence in either language.To explain these kind of systematic errors, the idea of the interlanguage was developed. An interlanguage is an emerging language system in the mind of a second language learner. A learner's interlanguage is not a deficient version of the language being learned filled with random errors, nor is it a language purely based on errors introduced from the learner's first language. Rather, it is a languagein its own right, with its own systematic rules. It is possible to view most aspects of language from an interlanguage perspective,including , , , and .There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguages:. Learners fall back on their mother tongue to help create theirlanguage system. This is now recognized not as a mistake, but as a process that all learners go through.Overgeneralization. Learners use rules from the second language ina way that native speakers would not. For example, a learner maysay "I goed home", overgeneralizing the English rule of adding -ed to create past tense verb forms.Simplification. Learners use a highly simplified form of language, similar to speech by children or in . This may be related to .The concept of interlanguage has become very widespread in SLA research, and is often a basic assumption made by researchers.Sequences of acquisitionIn the 1970s there were several studies that investigated the order in which learners acquired different grammatical structures. These studies showed that there was little change in this order among learners withdifferent first languages. Furthermore, it showed that the order was the same for adults as well as children, and that it did not even change if the learner had language lessons. This proved that there were factors other than language transfer involved in learning second languages, and was a strong confirmation of the concept of interlanguage.However, the studies did not find that the orders were exactly the same. Although there were remarkable similarities in the order in which all learners learned second language grammar, there were still some differences among individuals and among learners with different first languages. It is also difficult to tell when exactly a grammatical structure has been learned, as learners may use structures correctly in some situations but not in others. Thus it is more accurate to speak of sequences of acquisition, where particular grammatical features in a language have a fixed sequence of development, but the overall order of acquisition is less rigid.Process of acquisitionThere has been much debate about exactly how language is learned, and many issues are still unresolved. There have been many theories of second language acquisition that have been proposed, but none has been accepted as an overarching theory by all SLA researchers. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field of second language acquisition, this is not expected to happen in the foreseeable future. However, there are various principles of second language acquisition that are agreed on by most researchers.Input, output, and interactionThe primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the input that the learner receives. took a very strong position on the importance of input, asserting that is all that is necessary for second language acquisition. Krashen pointed to studies showing that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners' vocabulary, grammar, and writing. Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the model.The type of input may also be important. One tenet of Krashen's theoryis that input should not be grammatically sequenced. He claims that such sequencing, as found in language classrooms where lessons involve practicing a "structure of the day", is not necessary, and may even be harmful.While input is of vital importance, Krashen's assertion that only input matters in second language acquisition has been contradicted by more recent research. For example, students enrolled in programs in still produced non-native-like grammar when they spoke, even though they had years of meaning-focused lessons and their listening skills were statistically native-level. Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge. These processes have been codified in the theory of .Researchers have also pointed to interaction in the second language as being important for acquisition. According to Long's the conditions for acquisition are especially good when interacting in the second language; specifically, conditions are good when a breakdown in communication occurs and learners must negotiate for meaning. The modifications to speech arising from interactions like this help make input more comprehensible, provide feedback to the learner, and push learners to modify their speech.Form and meaningThe meaning of things being communicated is more important for second language acquisition than their form. There is a general agreement among researchers that learners must be engaged in decoding and encoding messages in the second language for the conditions to be right for second language learning. Learners must also be engaged in creating pragmatic meaning in order to develop fluency.Some sort of does appear to be necessary for second language acquisition, however. Some advanced language structures may not be fully acquired without the opportunity for repeated practice. Schmidt's states that conscious attention to specific language forms is necessary for a learner's interlanguage to develop. This attention does not have to be in the form of conscious grammar rules, however; the attention is on how each specific form affects the meaning of what is being said.Conscious and subconscious knowledgeDeveloping subconscious knowledge of the second language is more important than developing conscious knowledge. While conscious language knowledge is important for many aspects of second language acquisition, developing subconscious knowledge is vital for fluency. The knowledgethat people use when they are speaking a language is mostly subconscious. It appears that learners can use conscious knowledge in speech if they have time and they are focused on form, but if these conditions are not met then they will fall back on subconscious knowledge. However, if learners have time to plan their speech, grammatical accuracy can improve.It is not certain exactly how subconscious language knowledge is developed in the mind. According to , subconscious language knowledge is gained by practicing language until it becomes automatic. However, according to emergentist theories subconscious knowledge develops naturally from input and communication. The nature of the between conscious and subconscious language knowledge in the brain is also not clear; that is, it is not clear how conscious knowledge can develop into subconscious knowledge. It appears that conscious knowledge and subconscious knowledge are not completely separate, and practice at various aspects of language can lead to language knowledge becoming subconscious. However, studies have found that the two types of knowledge are stored differently in the brain, and this has led to the idea that conscious knowledge merely primes language acquisition processes rather than being directly involved. Both of these issues are still under debate.Language processingThe way learners process sentences in their second language is also important for language acquisition. According to MacWhinney's , learners can only concentrate on so many things at a time, and so they mustfilter out some aspects of language when they listen to a second language. Learning a language is seen as finding the right weighting for each of the different factors that learners can process.Similarly, according to , the sequence of acquisition can be explained by learners getting better at processing sentences in the second language. As learners increase their mental capacity to process sentences, mental resources are freed up. Learners can use these newly freed-up resources to concentrate on more advanced features of the input they receive. One such feature is the movement of words. For example, in English, questions are formed by moving the or the question word to the start of the sentence (John is nice becomes Is John nice?) This kind of movement is too brain-intensive for beginners to process; learners must automatize their processing of static language structures before they can process movementIndividual variationThere is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of in the 1950s, and later with the in the 1970s. More recentlyresearch has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.The issue of age was first addressed with the . The strict version ofthis hypothesis states that there is a cut-off age at about 12, after which learners lose the ability to fully learn a language. This strict version has since been rejected for second language acquisition, asadult learners have been observed who reach native-like levels of pronunciation and general fluency. However, in general, adult learnersof a second language rarely achieve the native-like fluency thatchildren display, despite often progressing faster in the initial stages. This has led to speculation that age is indirectly related to other, more central factors that affect language learning.There has been considerable attention paid to the strategies which learners use when learning a second language. Strategies have been found to be of critical importance, so much so that strategic competence has been suggested as a major component of . Strategies are commonly divided into and , although there are other ways of categorizing them. Learning strategies are techniques used to improve learning, such as or using a . Communicative strategies are strategies a learner uses to convey meaning even when she doesn't have access to the correct form, such as usinglike thing, or using non-verbal means such as .Affective factorsThe learner's attitude to the learning process has also been identified as being critically important to second language acquisition. Anxiety in language-learning situations has been almost unanimously shown to be detrimental to successful learning. A related factor, personality, has also received attention, with studies showing that are better language learners than .Social attitudes such as gender roles and community views toward language learning have also proven critical. Language learning can be severely hampered by cultural attitudes, with a frequently cited example being the difficulty of children in learning English. Also, the of the individual learner is of vital importance to the success of language learning. Studies have consistently shown that intrinsic motivation, or a genuine interest in the language itself, is more effective over the long-term than extrinsic motivation, as in learning a language for a reward such as high grades or praise.In the classroomWhile the majority of SLA research has been devoted to language learning in a natural setting, there have also been efforts made to investigate second language acquisition in the classroom. This kind of research has a significant overlap with , but it is always , based on and , and it is mainly concerned with the effect that instruction has on the learner, rather than what the teacher does.The research has been wide-ranging. There have been attempts made to systematically measure the effectiveness of language teaching practices for every level of language, from phonetics to pragmatics, and foralmost every current teaching methodology. This research has indicated that many traditional language-teaching techniques are extremely inefficient. It is generally agreed that pedagogy restricted to teaching grammar rules and vocabulary lists does not give students the ability to use the L2 with accuracy and fluency. Rather, to become proficient in the second language, the learner must be given opportunities to use it for communicative purposes.Another area of research has been on the effects of corrective feedback in assisting has been shown to vary depending on the technique used to make the correction, and the overall focus of the classroom, whether on formal accuracy or on communication of meaningful content. There is also considerable interest in supplementing published research with approaches that engage language teachers in action research on learner language in their own classrooms. As teachers become aware of the features of learner language produced by their students, they can refine their pedagogical intervention to maximize interlanguage development。
second language acquisition
The first language is acquired
subconsciously, while the second (or foreign) language is learned consciously.
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Error analysis
(错误分析)
In 1970s and early 80s, a large number of papers on error analysis were published throughout the world. Error analysis is the study and analysis of the errors made by second language learners. Error analysis first independently or “objectively” describes the learners‟ interlanguage, then comparing the two forms to locate mismatches.
e.g. the pronunciation, vocabulary usage, etc
Came into fashion in 1960s
(对比分析)
Based on behaviorist thinking: SLA seen as the development of a new set of habits Positive vs. Negative transfer (of habits)
Foreign language (FL):
a language which is not a native language in a country, and is always taught in schools and not used to communicate within a country. e.g. English in China, Japan, etc.
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Stages of first language acquisition The prelinguistic stage
At the babbling stage, the sounds produced by the infants seem not to have been based on any particular human language nor are they age of the household.
The role of instruction
Language acquisition for normal children requires little conscious instruction or classroom teaching. In natural settings, parents rarely correct young children’s grammatical mistakes in their communication. Even if they do so, their efforts very often seem to achieve little effect.
Some children may continue to acquire a second language or a foreign language in addition to their mother tongues. The acquisition of a first or native language is generally called first language acquisition, while the acquisition of a second language or a foreign language is called second language acquisition.
For example: Child: I taked a cookie.
Parent: Oh, you mean you took a cookie. Child: Yes, that's right, I taked it. Therefore, conscious instruction to a normal child plays a minor role at best, if any.
4. Second language acquisition
Second language acquisition （SLA） studies the similarities and differences in the first language acquisition and the second language acquisition, the causes of the difficulties in the second language acquisition and the methods which facilitate second language acquisition.
Introduction
· Language acquisition is about the language development of human beings. Language acquisition generally refers to the acquisition of mother tongues or first languages by children.
The two-word stage
For example: Mama book. Daddy go. Toy mine. Milk me. Sock pretty
· connections between first
language acquisition and second language acquisition
At this stage, the sounds produced by a normal infant and those produced by a deaf child are quite similar. This indicates that babbling does not seem to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input.
The one-word stage
At one word stage, children begin to associate sounds with meanings. Children can use one word to express a concept that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech, therefore the one-word utterance is also called holophrastic sentences.
The role of imitation
For example, children are often heard to say my foots instead of my feet, goed instead of went and maked instead of made.
In addition, children who can not speak because of some other neurological or physiological defects can learn a language. Children do not imitate blindly. They make selective use of imitation，for example, in learning vocabulary. Imitation does not play a key role in the first language acquisition.
The role of correction and reinforcement
Behaviourists believe that a child's verbal behavior was conditioned through association between a stimulus and the response. Correct verbal behaviour gets positively reinforced and incorrect verbal behaviour gets corrected.
Second Language Acquisition
·introduction
· connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisition · contrastive analysis · error analysis · interlanguage ·
the role of native language in second language learning · second language learning models and input hypothesis · individual differences · second language acquisition and its pedagogical implications
For example, children may use “Mama” to express a variety of meanings, such as “Mama is coming.”, “I saw Mama’s socks.”, etc..
Overextension or underextension
4. 2 Transfer and interference
Language transfer refers to the phenomenon in which learners consciously or subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a second language. Positive transfer occurs when an LI pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.
4. 1 Acquisition vs. Learning
The American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen makes the distinction between acquisition and learning.
Krashen holds that language acquisition is a subconscious process to acquire a language in natural settings, while language learning is a conscious process to obtain a language in school settings.
4. 3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA development
Through error analysis, researchers have found that because of the differences in individual learner factors and in the linguistic environment in which learning takes place, the route of SLA development may be slightly different from FLA.