Functions of Chinese in Secondary EFL Classroom in China

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英语对话教学实践(3篇)

第1篇IntroductionDialogue teaching is an effective method for enhancing students' English communication skills. It involves engaging students in interactive conversations that mimic real-life situations, thereby promoting active listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. This paper presents a practical dialogue teaching session designed to improve students' proficiency in English, focusing on the use of appropriate vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.ObjectiveThe primary objective of this dialogue teaching practice is to enable students to engage in meaningful conversations in English. By the end of the session, students should be able to:1. Use a variety of vocabulary related to a specific theme.2. Apply correct grammar structures in their conversations.3. Pronounce words and phrases accurately.4. Listen actively and respond appropriately to their peers.Materials- Whiteboard and markers- Handouts with vocabulary and grammar exercises- A set of flashcards with pictures or words related to the theme- A timer or stopwatchPreparation1. Choose a theme for the dialogue: For this session, the theme is "Travel and Tourism."2. Prepare a list of vocabulary and grammar points relevant to the theme.3. Create a scenario or situation that students can engage in, such as planning a trip or discussing favorite travel destinations.4. Design a set of questions and prompts to guide the conversation.Dialogue Teaching Practice1. Introduction (5 minutes)- Begin by introducing the theme and explaining the purpose of the dialogue session.- Briefly review the vocabulary and grammar points that will be used during the conversation.2. Warm-up Activity (10 minutes)- Distribute handouts with vocabulary and grammar exercises related to the theme.- Have students work in pairs to complete the exercises, ensuring they understand the new vocabulary and grammar structures.3. Presentation of the Scenario (10 minutes)- Present the scenario for the dialogue session: "You and your friendare planning a trip to Paris. Discuss the following points: What do you want to see? Where will you stay? What are your favorite foods?"- Use flashcards to introduce key vocabulary and concepts related to the scenario.4. Guided Dialogue (20 minutes)- Divide the class into pairs and assign each pair a specific role (e.g., traveler, travel agent, friend).- Provide each pair with a set of questions and prompts to guide their conversation.- Monitor the pairs and offer assistance if needed, ensuring they are using the correct vocabulary and grammar.5. Free-Flow Dialogue (15 minutes)- Allow the pairs to engage in a free-flow dialogue based on the scenario, without the use of prompts or questions.- Encourage students to speak confidently and listen actively to their peers.6. Reflection and Feedback (10 minutes)- Bring the class back together and ask each pair to share a highlight from their conversation.- Provide feedback on the students' vocabulary usage, grammar, pronunciation, and listening skills.- Discuss any common errors or challenges faced during the dialogue and offer strategies for improvement.7. Extension Activity (10 minutes)- Assign a follow-up activity to reinforce the learning from the dialogue session. For example, students could write a short essay about their favorite travel destination or create a presentation about their planned trip to Paris.ConclusionDialogue teaching is a valuable tool for enhancing students' English communication skills. By engaging students in interactive conversations, teachers can help them develop confidence, fluency, and accuracy intheir use of the language. This practical dialogue teaching session, focusing on the theme of "Travel and Tourism," provides a structured and engaging way to improve students' proficiency in English. Through active participation, reflection, and feedback, students can gain valuable experience in real-life communication situations, ultimately leading to better overall language skills.第2篇Introduction:Dialogue teaching is an essential component of language learning, particularly in English instruction. It allows students to engage inreal-life conversations, develop their listening and speaking skills, and enhance their cultural understanding. This essay will describe a practical dialogue teaching experience that was conducted in a secondary school English classroom. The focus will be on the planning, implementation, and reflection of the lesson.I. Lesson PlanningA. Objectives:1. To improve students' fluency and confidence in speaking English.2. To enhance students' listening skills and comprehension of different accents.3. To promote cultural awareness and understanding through simulated conversations.B. Materials:1. Handouts with conversation scenarios and vocabulary lists.2. Audio recordings of native speakers for listening practice.3. Whiteboard and markers for interactive activities.4. Digital projector for displaying visual aids.C. Procedure:1. Warm-up activity: Group discussion on familiar topics to activate prior knowledge.2. Listening activity: Students listen to a short dialogue and answer comprehension questions.3. Vocabulary introduction: Teacher presents new vocabulary and phrases related to the dialogue topic.4. Role-playing: Students work in pairs to practice the dialogue using the provided scenarios.5. Cultural exploration: Teacher leads a class discussion on cultural aspects mentioned in the dialogue.6. Feedback and reflection: Students share their experiences and receive constructive feedback from peers and the teacher.II. Implementation:A. Warm-up Activity:The lesson began with a group discussion on "Hobbies and interests." Students shared their own hobbies and asked their peers about theirs. This activity helped to create a relaxed and interactive atmosphere, making students more comfortable with speaking English.B. Listening Activity:The teacher played an audio recording of a dialogue between two native speakers discussing their favorite hobbies. After listening, students answered comprehension questions to check their understanding. This activity not only improved their listening skills but also exposed them to different accents and pronunciations.C. Vocabulary Introduction:The teacher introduced new vocabulary and phrases related to hobbies, such as "enjoy," "passion," and "spend time doing." The words were written on the board, and students were encouraged to use them in sentences.D. Role-playing:Students were divided into pairs and given different conversation scenarios, such as "Discussing a favorite hobby" or "Inviting a friend to join an activity." They were encouraged to use the new vocabulary and phrases they had learned. The teacher walked around the classroom, monitoring and giving feedback on their pronunciation and fluency.E. Cultural Exploration:The teacher led a class discussion on the cultural aspects mentioned in the dialogue, such as the different hobbies and interests of people from different countries. This activity helped students to develop a better understanding of cultural diversity and promote tolerance and empathy.F. Feedback and Reflection:At the end of the lesson, students shared their experiences and received feedback from their peers and the teacher. The teacher provided constructive criticism and encouraged students to continue practicing their speaking skills outside of class.III. Reflection:The dialogue teaching experience was a success, as evidenced by the positive feedback from students and their improved speaking andlistening skills. The following points were observed during the reflection:1. The use of real-life conversation scenarios and role-playingactivities helped students to engage more actively in the lesson and develop their fluency.2. The introduction of new vocabulary and phrases was well-received, as students were able to incorporate them into their conversations.3. The cultural exploration activity promoted a deeper understanding of cultural diversity and enhanced students' global awareness.4. The feedback and reflection session allowed students to assess their progress and identify areas for improvement.Conclusion:Dialogue teaching is an effective method for enhancing language learning in English classrooms. By incorporating real-life conversation scenarios, role-playing activities, and cultural exploration, teachers can createan engaging and interactive learning environment that promotes student participation and skill development. The practical dialogue teachingexperience described in this essay serves as an example of how these strategies can be implemented to achieve language learning goals.第3篇IntroductionDialogue teaching is a crucial component of language learning,especially in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). It allows learners to engage in meaningful conversations, practicelistening and speaking skills, and develop their fluency and pronunciation. This paper presents a practical approach to dialogue teaching, focusing on a series of activities and techniques that can be implemented in a classroom setting.Setting the SceneClassroom: A well-lit, spacious classroom equipped with desks, chairs, a whiteboard, and multimedia facilities.Participants: A group of 30 intermediate-level EFL learners.Materials: Handouts, flashcards, multimedia resources, and a timer.Activity 1: Warm-Up and IcebreakerObjective: To create a relaxed and interactive atmosphere, and to familiarize students with the dialogue teaching approach.Teacher (T): Good morning, everyone! How are you all today? Let's start with a warm-up activity. I'm going to show you a series of pictures, and you need to describe them to your partner in English. Remember to use full sentences and try to be as descriptive as possible.Process:1. T displays a series of pictures (e.g., animals, food, transportation) on the whiteboard.2. Students work in pairs, taking turns to describe the pictures.3. T walks around the classroom, monitoring and providing feedback.Reflection:This activity helps students to practice their descriptive language skills and encourages them to communicate with their peers. It also serves as a quick icebreaker, breaking the initial silence and fostering a collaborative learning environment.Activity 2: Role-PlayingObjective: To improve students' speaking skills and ability to engage in conversations.T: Now, let's move on to a role-playing activity. I'm going to divide you into groups of three, and each group will perform a short dialogue based on a given scenario. You can use the handouts for guidance, but feel free to add your own ideas.Scenarios:1. At the airport2. In a restaurant3. At the doctor's officeProcess:1. Students work in groups, reading the scenario and discussing their roles.2. Each group performs their dialogue in front of the class.3. T provides feedback and encourages students to improve their pronunciation and fluency.Reflection:Role-playing activities provide a fun and interactive way for students to practice their speaking skills. It also allows them to explore different contexts and scenarios, enhancing their real-life communication abilities.Activity 3: Question and AnswerObjective: To improve students' listening and comprehension skills, and to encourage them to ask questions.T: For the next activity, I'm going to read a short passage aloud, and you need to answer the questions that follow. Listen carefully, and remember to ask questions if you're not sure about the answer.Passage:John and Sarah are going on a trip to Paris. They are discussing their plans.Questions:1. Where are John and Sarah going on vacation?2. What are they packing for the trip?3. How are they planning to get to Paris?Process:1. T reads the passage aloud.2. Students answer the questions individually.3. T asks for volunteers to answer the questions aloud.Reflection:This activity helps students to practice their listening and comprehension skills, and encourages them to ask questions to clarify their understanding. It also promotes active learning and participationin the classroom.Activity 4: StorytellingObjective: To improve students' creative writing and storytelling skills, and to enhance their fluency.T: In this activity, you will be working individually. I want you to write a short story about a day in your life. You can choose any topic you like, but make sure to include a beginning, middle, and end. Remember to use a variety of sentence structures and vocabulary.Process:1. Students work individually, writing their stories.2. T circulates around the classroom, providing feedback and guidance.3. Students share their stories with the class.Reflection:Storytelling activities encourage students to express their thoughts and ideas in a creative way. It also helps them to improve their writing skills and develop their fluency.ConclusionDialogue teaching is an effective method for enhancing English communication skills. By incorporating a variety of activities and techniques, teachers can create a dynamic and engaging learning environment that encourages students to practice their language skills in real-life contexts. Through these activities, students can improve their speaking, listening, and writing skills, and develop their confidence in using English in both formal and informal settings.。

Backgroud of the study

Disscuesstoues English writting strategies effectively to improve writting skillsin ELS calssroomIntroduction1.1Backgroud of the studyEnglish is taught as a foreign language in China (EFL). It is an important means of communication in certain activities and certain job situations. It is an important language to expand internaional trade and commerce. Learning English aims at using what we learnt to write and speak . As we all know, written language is closely related to spoken language .It is impossible that a student who is poor in writing may be good at speaking, listening or reading .Writing, as a teaching means, helps students learn more language knowledge and writing learning strategies which can be used to communicate with others.In English learning classroom, the teacher aims at developing four skills of his/herthe learners’ ability to understand, to speak, to read and to write. The ability to writeoccupies the last place in this order, but it does not mean that it is the least important.“Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man and writing an exact man,” says Bacon (1561 - 1626). It is an important tool, which enables man to communicate with other people inmany ways. Our abilities in language are made perfect in writing. Writing trains earsand eyes and fixes vocabulary, spelling and patterns in our mind. Speaking and readingform the basis for written work. Emphasis should be paid to written work, which is in noway less important than reading and speaking. As a matter of fact four linguistic abilitiesare developed simultaneously. They cannot be treated in isolation. Like speaking,writing is also an art, a creative art in which the acq uired skills in language and innateinterests are made manifest. While it may be argued that learners may not be required towrite much, and the skill is mainly for examination purpose, writingnevertheless, helpsto learn and practise new words and structures, and since writing is done slowly andcarefully, it helps to focus students’ attention on what they are learning (Doff,1988 p148).As the disciplines of English exam-based reform and the development of the macro baton under the influence of l students in English writing is increasingly being majority of Secondary school English teacher attention. However, due to various subjective and objective existence of complex reasons, makingconsiderable portion of among different level of students fear emotion in English writing, a number of English teachers who are alsoaffliction how to improve the Secondary school students lack English writing skills of effective measures. However, teaching of English writing is not easy and often less effective. Nevertheless,aparadox exists as there is always a constant dissatisfaction with the quality of thewritten work produced by students. Writing seems to be a complex and difficulttask for many writing students.In this case, that led the Secondary schools teaching of English writing problems arise, and how to teach and enhance students writing strategies in English teachers have become increasingly urgent to solve the problems.In this case, Ministry of Education of China should arouse the attention and the implementation. The education sectors needs an effective combination of the status of the students, and learn some good teaching methods to improve writing education in China. As a teacher should cooperationwith the Ministry of Education to help students overcome these difficulties, moving from a traditional approach to a process-oriented. This change will makesthe students have great interest in writing, and further improve student writing skills.1.2Statement of the problemThe training of writing skills is an indispensable aspect in EFL teaching. But in China, especially in Middle schools, the teaching of English writing has been for long a neglected area. For years the teaching method of English writing is fixed in the same pattern. The steps in English writing activities are as follows: First, the teacher assigns a subject for composition; and then the students begin to write in the limited time, and finally the teacher corrects and grades students' compositions.English writing teaching is not just a simple routine task assigned by the teacher, completed and handed in by the students, and then graded by the teacher. But in the process of writing teaching, many teachers misbelieve that assigning writing and correcting writing means everything to teaching writing. The teacher gives a topic, sets a time limit, and sometimes specifies the number of words to be written. He pays much attention to the products of his students, correcting the grammar errors in each composition and moves on to a new topic. Under such circumstances, he cares little about how the student writers have shaped their products. The writers may have gone through to produce them, and give little guidance to how to write a composition. The inevitable result is that the students will lose confidence and interest in English writing, and write in a perfunctory manner, laying a lot of words together according to grammatical rules. It is really a serious loss on the part of the instructor as well as the students that the teaching method overemphasizing the grammatical structure of the product and ignoring the process of writing will lead students to a wrong pace to writing.The outcome of the comprehensive examinations in English writing in China showed that most students in English writing scores is low.The main reason is due to most of the students expressedthat they lack of ideas and can say nothing more, especially for low and intermediate students. The ability of the express of English writing is very important for the Chinese students. The students explained that composition in English is more difficult than in Chinese. The question is not what to say but how to say it. They may have an idea or a thought,but do not know how to express it in English. They always lack ofideas and forget something when they write. At the same time, single and boring teaching method and low marks in writing also makes students lose their interests and enthusiasm in English writing.For this reason, I want to do a research to analyze and explain what methods can effectively help students to expand ideas and improving writing skills in English. Richards (1990) has elaborated on how to apply the brainstorming method to extend ideas, and improve and enhance the students’ writing skills.1.3Purpose of the studyThe primary purpose is to help students to improve and enhance writing skills in English through learning writting strategies, and to extend students' thinking for a writing task. One of the ways to overcome that the students lack of ideas and cannot think of anything to write is through practice brainstorming method, thus to further improve their writing skills, thereout tocultivate interest and confidence in English writing.At the same time, this study also providevariable types of strategies which will be suitable for the English teachers to be used in their teaching classes. And to help students in seleting the strategy that best suits thems.1.4 Objectives of the studyThe objectives of this study are as follows:(1)To improve and enhancethe learning English writing strategies for writing skills in ESLclassroom.(2)To evaluate the writing strategies for writing skills in terms of its usability in ESL classroom.1.5Research QuestionsIn order to carry out this research, the follwing are questions addressed:1.What are the benefits of students using the strategies in English writing?2. What are the students opinion concering the strategies of its usability for writting skills?1.6Significance of the studyAs teachers or future teachers, it is hoped that this study might help them to find an effective way to awaken students’ imagination and set their minds working. Thus, to solve the difficult problemswhichthe students lack of ideas and can say nothing more in their writing.As a result, this study will giving teachers a general view on the types of approaches which might be suitable for the students to be used in their writing classes.It is expected to be helpful for teachers to raise working efficiency.1.7Operational definitionsThe following are some difinitions of words or phrases that used in this research study.abilityDefined by web,‘usability’refers to the measure of a product’s potential to accomplish the goals by the learners;and the extent to which a product can be usesd by specified users to avhieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satidfaction in a specified context of use.1.7.2.Writing“Writing is a creative process because it is a process of reaching out for one’s thoughtand discovering them. Writing, as such is a process of meaning making” (Third YearStudent, 1994, National University of Singapore).In this study, writing means a systematic for interpersonal communication using visible signs or symbols on a flat surface, such as paper, cloth, or even stone slab.1.7.3 Writing skillsWriting skills are specific abilities which help writers to put their thoughts into words in a meaningful form and to mentally interact with the message (Hampton 1989).In this study, writing skill means an ability of writing performance and ways to write down the drafting of information.1.8 ConclusionThe reason of the researcher to do this research is due to most of the Chinese students exist problems in writing task which is they always lack of ideas and can say nothing more when they write. The purpose of this research is to help the students to create their thinking by using different writing strategies, and to improve and enhance writing skills in English. Meanwhile, this study also provides a general view on the types of approaches which will be suitable for the Chinese English teachers to be used in their teaching classes.Chapter ⅡReview of literature2.1IntroductionResearch into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. Particularly, developments in cognitive psychology influenced much of the research done on language learning strategies (William’s and Burden 1997:149). In most of the research on language learning strategies, the primary concern has been on "identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or foreign language." (Rubin and Wended1987:19).In 1966, Aaron Carton published his study entitled The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study, which was the first attempt on learner strategies. After Carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing research focusing on the strategies of successful learners a nd stated that, once identified; such strategies could be made available to less successful learners. Rubin (1975) classified strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Bialystok (1979), Cohen andAphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and O'Malley (1987), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Conti and Kolsody (1997), and many others studied strategies used by language learners during the process of foreign language learning.All language learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when processing new information and performing tasks in the language classroom. Since language classroom is like a problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to face new input and difficult tasks given by their instructors, learners' attempts to find the quickest or easiest way to do what is required, that is, using language learning strategies is inescapable.2.2 The good language learnersThe greater the task, the more important it is to approach the task in an efficient manor. For many people, learning a second language is one of the most important and demanding tasks they will need to accomplish. This is particularly true in some countries where a student's English abilities are often more important for their career success than their university marks. For these reasons, an awareness of how to learn a language, not just what to learn, is very important. Knowledge of the characteristics of a good language learner can help students increase their language learning efficiency. Additionally, with this knowledge, teachers may be able to help their students improve through learner training.Ruben (1975:43) uses the term learning strategies to mean "the techniques and devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge". Based on the work of O'Malley et al. (1985a:32-34), learning strategies are often defined in three areas. The first are meta-cognitive strategies that deal with the awareness and ability to control the process of learning. Meta-cognitive strategies employed by good language learners include monitoring production (Ruben 1979 in Willis 2001:157), being self-aware, being realistic, and being organized (Rubin and Thompson 1982 in Brown 2000:123).The second are cognitive strategies that relate more directly to learning itself and include the acts of memorization and integration. An example of a cognitive strategy employed by good language learners is mnemonic vocabulary learning (Cohen and Aphek 1980, 1981; Cohen 1987 inLarson-Freeman and Long 1991:212). The third are the socio-affective strategies that are related to the actual use of language. Socio-affective strategies employed by good language learners include making errors work for them not against them, learning chunks of language to go beyond their competence, compensation for their weaknesses, and avoidance of areas of weakness (Rubin and Thompson 1982 in Brown 2000:123).The list of strategies associated with successful second language could be much longer. From O’Malley et al. (1985b:557) among others, it appears that students who are able to employ a wider range of effective meta-cognitive, cognitive, and communicative strategies, are generally more successful language learners.2.3 Definition of a Language Learning StrategyThe term language learning strategy has been defined by many researchers. Wenden and Rubin (1987:19) define learning strategies as "... any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information."Richards and Platt (1992:209) state that learning strategies are "intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information."Faerch Claus and Casper (1983:67) stress that a learning strategy is "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language.Mohamed Amin Embi(2000) through his book, language learning strategies: a Malaysia context, defines LLS as plans and actions that the learners take to enhance their process of language learning.’According to Stern (2003:261), "the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniquesLanguage learning strategies language learners’ use during the act of processing the new information and performing tasks have been identified and described by researchers.2.5Taxonomy of Language Learning StrategiesLanguage Learning Strategies have been classified by many scholars (wended and Rubin 1987; O'Malley et al. 1985; Oxford 1990; Stern 1992; Ellis 1994, etc. ). However, most of these attempts to classify language learning strategies reflect more or less the same categorizations of language learning strategies without any radical changes. In what follows, Rubin's (1987), Oxford's (1990), O'Malley's (1985), and Stern's (1992) taxonomies of language learning strategies will be handled:2.5.1Rubin's (1987) Classification of Language Learning StrategiesRubin, who pioneered much of the work in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. These are:1.Learning Strategiesmunication Strategies2.5.1.1Learning StrategiesThey are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed by the learner:1.Cognitive Learning Strategies2.Metacognitive Learning Strategies2.5.1.2 Cognitive Learning Strategie sThey refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Rubin identified 6 main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learning:a.Clarification / Verificationb.Guessing / Inductive Inferencec.Deductive Reasoningd.Practicee.Memorizationf.Monitoring2.5.1.3 Metacognitive Learning StrategiesThese strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning. They involve various processes as planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management2.5.1.4 Communication StrategiesThey are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended. Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker.2.5.2 Oxford's (1990) Classification of Language Learning StrategiesOxford (1990:9) sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the development of communicative competence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into 6 groups. In Oxford's system, metacognitive strategies help learners to regulate their learning. Affective strategies are concerned with the learner's emotional requirements such as confidence, while social strategies lead to increased interaction with the target language. Cognitive strategie s are the mental strategies learners use to make sense of their learning, memory strategies are those used for storage of information, and compensation strategies help learners to overcome knowledge gaps to continue the communication. Oxford's (1990:17) taxonomy of language learning strategies is shown in the followingIt can be seen that much of the recent work in this area has been underpinned by a broad concept of language learning strategies that goes beyond cognitive processes to include social and communicative strategies.2.6Development of writing process2.6.1Approaches to teaching writing in EFL classroomBrainstorming strategyBrainstorming is a strategy for creative productivity. It is a process one goes through in an effort to generate ideas, let the creative juices flow, and problem solved. It can be applied to a variety of activities including conflict resolution, writing, developing a search on the Internet, and figuring out math problems (Osborn, A.F. 1963). Hedge (2000: 308) suggests that in the early stages of writing, brainstorming may beused to help students find the purpose and think out a topic to stimulate writing.Brainstorming is an excellent teaching strategy to generate ideas on a given topic. Brainstorming is a technique that can be used to great effect to solve problems. Itis normally used within a group, but individuals may find it useful too.It has five rules which are:✓Participants must not criticize any ideas suggested.✓Freewheeling✓Quantity – more is better!✓Write it down!✓Incubate all ideas!Sometimes you feel overwhelmed by the number of ideas on your list. You don't knowhow to begin to tackle your problem( Occam’s Razor). The first step of Occam's Razor is a useful problem-solving technique in a case like this.You can use it to simplify a complex situation and identify a broad problem area.Occam's Razor is named after William of Occam, a medieval philosopher, whosescientific writings include the following statement:"Things should not be multiplied except out of necessity".Brainstorming is an effective way to think of new ideas individually or within a group. First, the steps are outlined with a group in mind. Second, ideas for brainstorming are presented with an individual in mind.Group brainstormingIt develops ideas more in depth than individual brainstorming. In fact, individual’s problems in developing ideas could be overcome by creativity and experience of somebody else.Group brainstorming produces a smaller number of ideas (because time is used to develop ideas more in depth rather than to generate them) and moderate individuals could be repressed by the more noisy ones. In fact, in every group there are two different kinds of people: on one hand there are intuitive/flexible people, on the other hand there are strict/logic people. The first category refers to creative thinkers, which are more fruitful in the initial phase. The second one refers to critical thinkers, which are useful in discussing about the feasibility of the generated ideas. Wang Qi (2002: 11) and Chen Yan (2003) point out that group discussion in writing reinforces students' initiative, and improves students' writing, especially stress to stimulate student's writing interest and provides a learner-centered model for the teaching of English writing after performing an experiment. As group work is an important form in writing process, the students' input can be enlarged by group discussion, brainstorming, peer editing (Wang Yongli et al, 2003: 158).Individual brainstormingIndividual Brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming on a solitary basis. It typically includes such techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and drawing a mind map, which is a visual note taking technique in which people diagram their thoughts. Individual brainstorming is a useful method in creative writing and has been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming (Furnham, A., & Yazdanpanahi, T. 1995).It generates a wider spectrum of ideas than the group’s session, but with less efficiency, because often individuals try to give thought to problems that they won’t be able to solve. On the other hand, individual could explore ideas in a better way, without being worried about wasting time or being criticized by someone else and, of course, without being dominated by the other members of the group.This straregy most useful for China students to solve the problems of lack of ideas and can say nothing more in writing. Therefore, for brainstorming by group that students can discuss with group members to extend their thought during group discussion, and through others’comments and suggestions to think new ideas. For brainstorming by individual that students can write down the interesting things which you see, hear, touch, feel, smell or taste while you’re thinking.2.6.2. The process approachAccording to Badger and White (2000), the process approach has been criticized because it views the process as the same for all writers, regardless of what is being written and who is doing the writing, and because it gives insufficient importance to the purpose and social context of the piece of writing. Nevertheless, the process approach is widely accepted and utilize d because it allows students to understand the steps involved in writing, and it recognizes that what learners bring to the writing classroom contributes to the development of the writing skill (Badger and White 2000).Writing is a step by step process that everyone needs to learn. The five steps of thewriting process are prewriting, writing, revising, editing, and publishing. Each of these steps is important to have a successful writing. When a writer follows these steps they will achieve the goal of an i nteresting and successful writing. O’Brien (2004) defines the concept of this approach as an activity in which teachers encourage learners to see writing not as grammar exercises, but as the discovery of meaning and ideas. During the writing process, teachers can enable learners to explore their thoughts and develop their own writing by using the five-step writing process model of Herwins.The following is a diagram taken from Tribble (1996), illustrating the recursive and unpredictable process of writing.Figure 2.1: Dynamic and unpredictable model of process writing1.The first step of writing is prewriting. This step includes brainstorming, gatheringinformation, thinking, planning, and listing. Prewriting is very important because it allows the writer to think of a topic then build ideas that help to clarify and define the topic.1)During theprewriting step the writer will brainstorm. The prupose of brainstorming is todevelop a topic. They will also develop ideas that support the topic. During the brainstorming stage many ideas and topics may have been developed but only one topic at a time can be written. The writer must decide which topic they will write about. The writer must decide on the purpose for writing to help them choose a topic. The puropse fo this step is to hlep writers ensure that they have an appropirate topic2)Gathering information is also an important part of this step. There are six qustions to askwhen gathering information; who, what, where, when, why, and how. W hen a writer gathers enough information to answer these six questions they are beginning to prepare a successful writing.3)Thinking and planning is also part of the prewriting step. Once a writer has gathered allthe needed information they should review it to decide if the information is effective or important. The purpose of this is to help the writer ensure they have appropriate, effective, useful, and accurate information.4)Once all the information has been collected and sorted through the writer should providea sequence for it. The writer should make a list of each important point and put them inorder. Making a list or a detailed outline can put informaiton in a sequence. By doing this the writer can see where their research is missing so they can do further research.2.The second step is writing or also called drafting. Now that the writer has a guide they canbegin their writing. At this point the writer shouldn't be too concerned with punctuation and grammar. They shouldn't worry about neatness. This step is used to get the basics out in writing. Drafting is needed to put the information down for others and the writer to see in a written format.3.Step three is revising. This is the step where you perfect all your thoughts and ideas with theinformation gathered. This is where the writer rereads the draft and finds areas that should be fixed. This step allows the writer to add more detail and interest to the writing.4.The fourth step is editing. After doing all the above-mentioned steps the writer will finallyhave a completed writing, but the work isn't done yet. The writer will share their writing with someone else, such as a frined, classmate, parent, brother, or sister. This person will be the editor. In the editing step the writer needs a fresh pair o f eyes to find any problems or errors in the writing that the writer didn't catch. This is why they need someone to edit their writing. In this step the writer will make any suggested changes by the editor. This is the last chance to fix it. Change anything needed.5.The final step is to publish the writing. The writer shares their work with others and creates asense of pride and accomplishment on a well-written product that the writer can be proud of.In this approach, students are trained to generate ideas for writing, think of the purpose and audience, and write multiple drafts in order to present written products that communicate their own ideas. Teachers who use this approach give students time to tray ideas and feedback on the content of what they write in their drafts. As such, writing becomes a process of discovery for the students as they discover new ideas and new language forms to express them. A writing process approach requires that teachers give students greater responsibility for, and ownership of, their own learning. Students make decisions about genre and choice of topics, and collaborate as。

IGCSE CHINESE AS SECOND LANGUAGE2014(1)

CHINESE AS A SECOND LANGUAGEPaper 0523/01Reading and WritingKey MessagesIn Reading, candidates are expected not only to understand the information provided in the passages but also to b e ab le to distinguish b etween facts, ideas and opinions. They should demonstrate the ab ility to extract relevant specific information from forms, letters and articles and scan for particular information, then organise and present it in a logical manner.In Writing, candidates need to ensure that answers fulfil the task as well as displaying a development of ideas. Successful candidates should demonstrate the ability to employ a variety of grammatical structures and vocab ulary items. Register should b e appropriate. Writing conventions, such as paragraphing and punctuation, should be followed. The characters produced by the candidates should be accurate.General CommentsPerformance on this component was generally very good, and consistent with the previous year. A few candidates displayed the linguistic competence of a first language speaker. Almost all candidates attempted the whole paper.The majority of candidates coped very well with Section 1, showing a thorough understanding of the reading passages. In Section 2, almost all candidates were able to write with reasonable fluency and express their opinions. The area where the compositions could be improved was in the organisation and clarity of thinking shown, to ensure that candidates produce essays that engage the reader’s interest.Comments on Specific QuestionsSection 1Exercise 1 Questions 1-5In Question 1 candidates are required to identify the four true statements in a list of eight. Most candidates coped well with the format of the question, and realised they must only tick the required number of boxes. Performance on this opening question was good, with even the weakest candidates obtaining 2 or 3 marks. Questions 2-5 are 3-option multiple choice questions, and were answered well by most candidates, showing that they were ab le to understand this part of the passage fully. Question 4 proved to b e the most challenging in the exercise, as it required candidates to read the passage carefully and to pay close attention to both the passage and the question. To reach the correct answer, candidates needed to understand the reason why the app caught the attention of the wider public, not why the developer made the app in the first place.Exercise 2 Questions 6-12In this exercise, candidates are presented with a blank form template, and have to complete it according to their understanding of the passage.Most candidates could find the answer to Question 6 with ease. Candidates need to make sure that the full name, 李小晴, is present and not just the first name. Question 7 asks for the nationality of the protagonist. This has to be a country and not a province. The correct answer is that she is from China and not Sichuan or Guangzhou. The second part of this question asks for her place of birth. The passage says that she was b orn in Sichuan b ut grew up in Guangzhou. This was answered correctly b y most, b ut some candidatesneeded to read the passage more carefully to identify the place correctly. Question 8 asks for the name of the school that the protagonist attends. All three characters, 科里尔were needed to be awarded the mark. Question 9 was answered well by most candidates. Questions 9-12 tended to expose candidates who had not fully understood the passage, and this group of questions was found to be challenging by them. Question 10 asks for the protagonist’s hobby, and either, 曲棍球 or 运动 were accepted. Some candidates gave 棍球 which was not accepted as a correct answer. Question 11 was handled well by most candidates. Question 12 asked candidates to list three of the universities that the protagonist had applied for. A number of candidates wrote down that she might go to America, which was considered a harmless addition to the list of the correct three universities, Oxford, Leeds and LSE.Exercise 3 Questions 13-20Candidates should be reminded that answers to Exercise 3 need to be precise and accurate. They need to ensure that they communicate their answers clearly and without ambiguity.Question 13 was answered well b y many, b ut where candidates were not awarded the mark, this was usually b ecause they did not give sufficient information. Candidates needed to say that Ah Xi needed to prepare for his college entrance exam instead of spending time forming a band. Just saying that he needed to study was a full or accurate enough answer. Question 14 also needed a precise response. In this question, candidates needed to point out that Ah Xi’s decision to pursue a career in music was made after he had taken the college entrance exam / once he graduated from high school / before he started university. For Question 15, two elements were required, namely that Ah Xi’s parents supported his decision (1 mark) and that they thought he should learn more/broaden his horizons (1 mark). Question 16 was well-handled by most. For Question 17 two elements were once again required, indicating that the audience was small and they were not paid well. Question 18 required candidates to say that Ah Xi worked hard to learn English because he wanted to sing English songs well (为了唱好英文歌，他下了大力气去学英语). Questions 19 and 20 presented few problems for candidates.Section 2Question 21Most candidates did well in this part of the exam. They demonstrated their ability to write fluently in Chinese and convey b asic information in a short essay. Most of the Chinese characters produced were highly accurate which is a credit to both the candidates and their teachers.Candidates are expected to write a passage b etween 100-120 characters presenting an interesting discussion b ased on the given b ullet points. In order to ensure that candidates write within this limit, covering all the b ullet points, candidates are advised to avoid writing a lengthy introduction, exchanging pleasantries at the beginning of their essays/letters. They should focus instead on the topics listed in the bullet points and demonstrate their ability to develop ideas.Question 22This was found to be the most challenging part of the exam for many candidates. Candidates are asked to write an argumentative essay expressing their opinions ab out a given issue. Four speech b ub b les are provided as suggestions of the arguments which may b e put forward, b ut candidates are not ob liged to include these, and can use their own ideas and opinions as well.The key to success in this section is to make sure ideas are fully developed. It is better for candidates to try and provide an in-depth and focused discussion on fewer points, rather than covering a large numb er of issues superficially. The highest scoring essays contained interesting and sustained discussions with well developed ideas.For language, the best essays were characterised by being technically accurate and well-structured with at least three paragraphs, containing a clear beginning and ending. Candidates need to remember to provide clear links between paragraphs so that there are clear and logical transitions.CHINESE AS A SECOND LANGUAGEPaper 0523/02SpeakingKey messages•Candidates need to show their ab ility to use a variety of structures and precise vocab ulary consistently, both in the presentation and in the conversation sections.•Discussion in both conversation sections should include opinions, explanations and comparisons,as well as facts, to enable candidates to show their command of the language.•Centres wishing to use more than one Examiner must seek permission from Cambridge before the Speaking Test period starts. Centres using more than one Examiner were not always aware of the correct procedure for internal moderation. Feedback to such Centres was provided by the Moderator and should be acted upon in future sessions.General commentsThe vast majority of Centres carried out the tests very well, and the full range of performance was heard. A variety of topics were chosen for the presentation and well-discussed with Examiners. Most Examiners had done the necessary preparation, and asked a series of excellent searching questions.Examiners need to ensure that their candidates are put at ease and given ample opportunity to demonstrate the full range of their abilities. In order to give candidates the best possible chance, Examiners should ensure that they have read the syllabus carefully so that both the tests and the relevant administration are carried out correctly.Candidates are reminded that this paper rewards their ability to communicate appropriately and demonstrate knowledge of a wide range of vocabulary and structures in order to promote their educational or employment prospects.It is important that candidates choose a topic for the presentation which reflects their interests, as well as being related to an aspect of Chinese culture. It is also crucial that the Examiner asks a series of questions appropriate to the candidate’s level. This should include questions that are more unpredictable, and enable candidates to show their ability to respond spontaneously.The b est performances from candidates of all ab ilities were heard in Centres where it was clear that oral work was a regular part of classroom activity and where candidates were familiar with the requirements of the Speaking test. In such Centres, candidates had prepared the presentation well and Examiners managed to pitch questions at a level and depth appropriate to this syllab us. The most successful candidates demonstrated a range and variety of structures and vocab ulary, and showed an ab ility to respond and contrib ute to the conversation with appropriate pronunciation and intonation. Such candidates covered a selection of different topics across both conversation sections, using a variety of structures and a solid range of vocabulary.● Recorded sample: quality and compositionMany Centres managed to select a good recorded sample which covered the full spread of performance in the Centre. Centres with permission to use more than one Examiner had taken care to ensure that both a good range of marks and different Examiners were represented on the sample.In order to ensure that recordings are clear and of good quality, Centres are reminded to conduct the Speaking tests in a quiet place, away from any noise which may cause disruption. The recording should be checked at intervals by the Examiner to ensure that it is clear and there are no extraneous noises. In someinstances this year, the recording on the CD was almost inaudible, making moderation difficult. Centres are reminded to spot check the quality of all recordings before sending to Cambridge.In occasional cases, candidate name and candidate number were announced by the candidate. Examiners are reminded that these should be announced by the Examiner, not by the candidates.Centres should note that the CD should not be stopped at any point during the recording.● Internal moderationAll Centres wishing to use more than one Examiner to conduct the Speaking tests for their candidates are reminded of the need to apply to Cambridge for permission well before the start of each Speaking test period. Permission is normally granted, on the understanding that internal standardisation/moderation takes place at the Centre before a sample is chosen for external moderation by Cambridge.Where Centres with large numbers of candidates have been granted permission by Cambridge to use more than one Examiner to conduct and assess Speaking tests, the coordinating Examiner is responsib le for checking that the mark scheme has b een applied consistently b y all of the Examiners in the Centre. If a particular Examiner’s marking is judged by his/her colleagues to be out of line with the other marking at the Centre, the marks for candidates examined b y that Examiner must b e adjusted b efore paperwork is submitted to Cambridge.● Clerical checksIn most Centres, the clerical work was completed accurately. Errors in addition were found and corrected in a small number of Centres. Centres are reminded of the importance of careful checking of clerical work, and to ensure that all additions on the Working Mark Sheet as well as the transfer of marks from the WMS to the MS1 mark sheet (or the electronic marks file) are checked before submitting them to Cambridge.● Application of the mark schemeThe mark scheme was generally well understood in most Centres. In cases where downward adjustments to marks were made, this was often because candidates needed to communicate and express their thoughts and opinions more clearly. Some needed to demonstrate their ability to use a wider range of structures and vocabulary more precisely, for example, the use of 还是 and 或者，国籍 and 国家，鼓励 and 吉利，环境 and 气氛， etc.Comments on specific questionsTopic PresentationThe vast majority of candidates were well-prepared the Topic Presentation, and demonstrated good knowledge of sayings and idioms as well as a wide range of different structures. Topics ab out Chinese culture and customs as well as social registers were heard in the presentations this year. Some interesting presentations included ‘Chinese Festivals in Different Countries’, ‘Pros and Cons of the Internet’, ‘Education in Taiwan’, ‘Environment in Hong Kong’, ‘Where has Malaysian Airlines Flight370 gone?’, etc.Topic ConversationA good range and quality of vocabulary and structures was heard in the Topic Conversations and the best performing candidates also gave correspondingly impressive performances in the discussions which followed. It is important that the Examiner listens carefully and pitches questions at an appropriate level, enabling candidates to show the full range of their ability.General ConversationA variety of topics was heard in the General Conversation- ‘en viron men t’, ‘cities an d public service’, ‘education and future plans’, ‘healthy eating habits’, ‘current affairs’, to name a few. Many Examiners were fully aware of the level of language and depth to which General Topics are discussed in this examination and pitched questions appropriately, well done.。

How to improve Chinese English education

The Application of CLT in Secondary Schools of ChinaCLT has had a major influence on language learning and teaching in different countries around the world. If you believe that it is the most appreciate approach for the teaching context with which you are familiar, explain your reasons for doing so and discuss the problems which might arise in a different teaching context.Stephen Bax (2003) argues for the view that teaching should be in accordance to specific context, and N.S. Prabhu (1990) also states that there is no best method for different teaching context. Based on this argument, some people may think that as China has its own context which differs from western countries, the popular CLT teaching approach is not suitable for China to adopt. However, in this article, CLT is argued to be a necessary approach that China has to adopt, and some suggestions are going to be given to deal with the problems when applying CLT in China.First of all, what is the English teaching and learning context like in China? When talking about English context of China, one method has to be referred---the grammar-translation method. In China, under the context of typical Grammar-translation teaching method in secondary schools, writing and reading skills are emphasized while listening and speaking are not given concern. Accordingly, t he assessment of students’ learning outcome is written exam with no listening or oral English test at all. In return, the assessment style tends to play a role of leading to traditional language teaching. In addition, many schools hire local Chinese teachers who are educated traditionally. Therefore, they are more familiar and comfortable with the traditional method. The class is more teacher-cantered as opposed to student-cantered and communication does not become a focus. Thus, it may not be so surprised to students that: after more than ten years’ English learning, they find themselves deaf ears and dumb mouth when they need to use English for communicating. Most of the English major graduates even find it difficult to answer a call from native speakers effectively. So not only students themselves, the educational system and the Chinese government find the problem: they need to find a new way to teach English! So people started to explore the way how to teach well and learn effectively, and of course nothing is better than the successful teaching approach CLT, which is so popular in western countries. In 1992, it was introduced to China officially by SEDC (The State Education Development Commission), and secondary English teachers were required to teach English for “commun ication”. Then, what is CLT and what impact it has on L2 teaching and learning?About CLT, there have been many explanations. First of all, comparing with the traditional teaching method, Gorge Yule describes it to be the reaction of Grammar-based methods and approaches (2010: 190). He mentions that the functions of language should be emphasized instead of the forms. Both teachers and students find CLT so useful because it helps people to know how to use language for a set of various purposes instead of just learn dull grammar and memorizing vocabulary glossaries meaninglessly. Ri chards and Rodgers also suggest in their book: “direct rather than delayed practice of communicative acts is central to most CLT interpretations.”(2001:89). Generally speaking, communicative language teaching is mainly about providing opportunities for learners to try out and experience using language what they know to communicate. Under the guidance of teachers, it enables students to recognize how to communicate effectively and accurately; when to speak and what is supposed to talk about with different people and in different context and situations. What comes after the process of using L2 to complete tasks for students is the feeling of fulfilment. According to Savignon: “discourse the rules with the ultimate goal of developing communicative competence” (cited in Richards& Rogers, 2001), students can acquire the communicative competence about how to communicate gradually through some fun activities such as: information gap, information transfer and task-based activity.The result of using CLT is so good and obvious in many countries, but during the past twenty years, is it also effective and working well in China, and does it help Chinese students change the situation of being merely able to do well in writing and reading while weak in listening and speaking? The impact of CLT in China secondary schools seemed to be more like government controlled level. The SEDC required all Chinese secondary schools use CLT in 2001, and the authority---People’s Education Press compiled a series of course books specially help secondary students to develop their all-round skills accordingly. At the moment when people think they are so ready to start teaching and meet a satisfied outcome, however, problems appeared.McDonough, Shaw and Masuhara explored some advantages and disadvantages of the approach (2013), and Richard and Rogers (2001) have said of some difficulties in applying CLT in secondary school: Questions that have been raised include whether a communicative approach can be applied at all levels in a language program, whether it is equally suited to ESL and EFL situations, whether it requires grammar based syllables to be abandoned or merely revised, how much anapproach can be evaluated, how suitable it is from non-native speaker teachers, and how it can be adopted in situations where students must continue to take grammar-based tests.According to Richard and Rogers’ questionnaire they did to find the problems in secondary school, here are some problems.Firstly, the students’ low level of oral English proficiency. If a teacher asks a question, only several students can be able to answer, and the other students are neither autonomous, nor competitive in class. Besides, their attentions are on vocabularies and grammar, and the speaking sentence structure they grasp is just a few. Most of the students are afraid of making mistakes, losing face in front of the English teacher and so many students. So it is hard to apply some communica tive activities if students’oral English is not good enough to complete the task.Secondly, a big problem is how to manage the large-sized number of students learning in one classroom. In secondary school, it is usually 50-60 students learning together, if all students speak at the same time, the noise will affect the teaching in classrooms beside it. The teacher-students communication and communication among students are hindered in a limited time as well, not all the students have the equal chance to answer questions. With so many students, the teacher is not able to monitor the study of each student, which restricts the chance for a teacher to find some mistakes students make.Third ly, the teachers’ immature understanding and applying of CL T restricts the effect of CLT.According to Kuo in Taiwan (The teaching, 1995):“O bjectives appear to call for the ability to communicate in English. Therefore, adopting the communicative approach seems to be desperately needed in order for these objectives to be met.”Many secondary school teachers do not quite understand the teaching approach in such a short time and have not adjusted themselves so soon from the traditional teacher-centred to students-centred teaching routine yet. In Q10 from Richards & Rogers, 79.1% in the fifty students say that they learnt the communicative sentence from their teachers. And for the teachers, as main resource of input for students in the foreign language context, their English is still restricted to the level of using grammar-translation method, which therefore brings difficulty for teachers to guide students and speak English accurately. As a result, there is a strong emphasis on rigidly following the course book which generally eventoday seems to be based around more traditional ideas of language teaching for teachers.Finally, the main problem is related to testing the students through examination. There is no doubt that the National College Entrance Exam plays the most important role in Chinese teachers, students, and parents’ mind. As much of these examinations will be based on multiple choice type questions, the emphasis on classroom activities will be focused on basic grammar and reading activities suitable for assessment. The opportunities for teachers to bring more communicative activities are therefore restricted.And in the exams, listening is not given marks and speaking is not tested. It seems learning in a communicative way does not help to get a high mark, why bother spending so much time in listening and speaking? To get an excellent mark in exams, students and teachers prefer to go for them directly by practising grammar points, multiple choice type reading and remembering vocabularies which may appear in readings.According to Xiaoqing Liao(Doctor in applied Linguistics in the University of Auckland): The application of CLT can bring a positive effect on English teaching and learning in China (The need for CLT in China). So here is the main concern: CLT itself is a good approach, and can be an optimum way for Chinese to solve their dumb English problem. But how to solve the problems appeared in applying it in secondary school teaching process?First of all, the development of CLT in Europe according to Rogers and Richards is a process of trial and error before the success. None of these teaching method and approaches can be successful as soon as you use it in a context. It takes time for people to accept it, for teachers to understand and use it. Of course, a good understanding of CLT needs cooperation and efforts from different parties. The government’s policy, the school’s fund to train teachers, and the teachers’ understanding and adjustment of CLT are all essential to help applying process.Then, based on above, making a proper communicative test system is necessary. Test system affects teaching content, teaching methods, learning strategies and students’ learning attitudes. Though the teaching materials, approaches and policy are all CLT, the evaluation of English is still written linguistic knowledge of grammar, vocabulary of form test. That is to say, how students are evaluated cannot keep up with the steps of the reform of Chinese secondary school teaching and even runs in an opposite way. The new English evaluation system should serve ascommunicative role by testing listening, speaking, reading and writing four skills as a whole.Besides, the large-sized students can be divided into different groups, and to make sure the equal opportunity of talking time they discuss in pairs. However, the noise is a problem the school needs to help. Two or three classrooms can be separated specially for language teaching or just cut down the number of students into 30 by building more classrooms. Finally, an interesting idea is that each student should make their own decision to study English or not. The great scientist Einstein has ever said: “interest is the best teacher”. If a student wants to be a boss of a Chinese restaurant, you cannot make the student learn English just because the possibility one day he will run a Chinese restaurant in England. It is true that many subtends have no chance to use English through their entire life. English is increasingly important though, according to th e article “Why Do Chinese Students Learn English in the 21st Century?”(Zhangping, 2005), reasons are economic and cultural globalization, tourism development, English- related jobs and so on, it does not mean that everyone has to learn English for so many years. A better way, if possible is that English is taught in elementary and junior school years and then make it a selective course in senior high school. And further, in the National College Entrance Examination, English is tested only if the student wants to major in English-related fields. Interest and a release of pressure will largely motivate students to do better in CLT application.In conclude, CLT is an interesting and functional teaching approach both for teachers and students in secondary school, it is right what Chinese seeks to deal with the poor situatio n of students’ dumb English. However, According to a Chinese proverb in education field: “There is no best method, but the truth is in the suitable method”, a multiple methods should be tried and the context-applied changing of a method is necessary as well.Bibliography1. Kuo in Taiwan (The teaching, 1995)ELT Journal Volume 58/3 July 2004 © Oxford University Press. Cited in The Need for Communicative Language Teaching in China, Xiaoqing Liao, READERS RESPOND (2).2. McDonough, j. Shaw, C. and Masuhara, H. (2013) Materials and Methods in ELT: A Teacher’s Guide 3rd Ed. Oxford: Blackwell.3. N.S. Prabhu (1990), cited in “There is no best method –why?” appeared in TESOL Quarterly(1990) 24/2 on pp.161-176.4. Richards,j. and Rogers, T.S. (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.5. Savignon, cited in Richards,j. and Rogers, T.S. (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.6. Stephen Bax (2003), cited in The Need for Communicative Language Teaching in China, Xiaoqing Liao, READERS RESPOND (2).7. Yule, G. The Study of Language, Published Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2010, 4thed.8. Zhangping, 2005,cited in MA Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, The Principles and Practice of English Language Teaching ELTM08, Felicity Breet, updated in 2008.。

The Role of Explicit Grammar in Language Teaching

Sino-US English Teaching, October 2015, Vol. 12, No. 10, 766-770doi:10.17265/1539-8072/2015.10.005The Role of Explicit Grammar in Language TeachingZHENG LingChangchun University, Changchun, ChinaThe debate on grammar in second language acquisition: past, present, and future, is a well written summary of bothexplicit and implicit grammar instruction in second language acquisition from past to present and with futureprojections. The thesis holds that explicit grammar instruction plays a very important role in foreign languagelearning and teaching and argues that English education in China should lay emphasis on how to assist students’grammar internalization and promote the conversion from explicit learning to implicit learning.Keyword: explicit grammar, language teaching, grammarIntroductionThe purpose of this research is to explain the role of explicit grammar instruction in college English learning with regarding to its effect on Chinese EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students’ learning. The conclusionsums up with the point that the explicit grammar should not be confined to the extreme form of total induction ortotal deduction. EFL teachers should make a rational combination of explicit and implicit instruction.All Rights Reserved.Implicit LearningDefinition of Implicit LearningDefining implicit learning is a difficult task, mostly because it is a concept that revolves around multiple criteria. Implicit learning is composed of two kinds of learning: One is formulaic learning, and the other isrule-based learning. The former consists of “ready-made chunks of languages”, i.e., expressions which are learntas unanalyzable wholes and employed on particular occasions, such as “I do not know” and “May I have…?”.The rule-based implicit learning consists of “generalized and abstract structures which have been internalized”(Ellis, 1997, p. 340). Both kinds of the learning are intuitive and largely hidden. Although learners are notconscious of what they know, they can use the knowledge freely in actual performance.Characteristics of Implicit LearningOne of the most intriguing aspects of implicit learning is that one can learn to respond appropriately to complex relations in the task environment without conscious efforts to discover the underlying rules or structureof the task. For example, several implicit learning studies have demonstrated that attempting to figure out therules of a grammar does not facilitate subsequent discrimination of valid from invalid strings compared withsimply attempting to memorize the strings (Brumfit, 1971). Moreover, implicit learning is thought to be analternate mode of learning that is automatic, nonconscious, and more powerful than explicit thinking forZHENG Ling, lecturer, master, Foreign Languages College, Changchun University.THE ROLE OF EXPLICIT GRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE TEACHING767discovering nonsalient covariance between task variables. We argue that implicit learning and the resultingknowledge are distinguished from explicit learning and knowledge by the following characteristics:(1) Manifest in naturally occurring language behavior and cannot be easily accessed separately from thisbehavior;(2) Easily accessible;(3) Unanalyzed (i.e., memory-based rather than rule-based);(4) Both abstract and structured;(5) Can be consciously analyzed.Explicit Grammar Instruction in Language TeachingExplicit Grammar Instruction and Grammatical CompetenceKrashen (1981) has claimed that learning that results from conscious awareness of the form of input is inferior to the implicit learning that occurs in the absence of such awareness (p. 58). They claim this isparticularly evident where the stimulus domain is complex. Krashen claims instruction can be effective where therules to be learned are easy. Reber has argued that learners will not display implicating learning, where thestimulus domain is simple and the relevant structural attributes of rules are salient, because simplicity andsalience will cause them to adopt a conscious rule research strategy. However, where the rules to be learned arecomplex, learners in the unconsciously implicit and incidental learning conditions should outperform those in theexplicitly instructed and rule search conditions.This paper does not support Krashen’s claim that unconscious acquisition produces superior learning relative to conscious learning in the explicitly instructed condition. Training in the implicit instruction does not All Rights Reserved.lead to superior learning of the complex rule relative to training in explicit way. The experimental participantshave a higher mean accuracy on the grammar testing. According to the research as the author has made, the meanon the grammar testing from the experimental class is significantly larger than that of control class. It supportsthat the Explicit Grammar Instruction (EGI) has an effective and positive influence for the subjects inexperimental class. From the result, the experimental class outperforms the comparison class in grammar testing.It is safely concluded that EGI in college English does enhance the subjects’ proficiency of grammar.Effects of Explicit Grammar Instruction on English Writing AbilityResults show that the students who received explicit grammar instruction outperformed those who were instructed using the focus-on-meaning approach. In this study, the learners in explicit grammarinstruction-oriented class, as in Karavas-Doukas (1996) study, not only produced meaningful content in theirwriting but also transferred linguistic knowledge to language use. In Melendez’s study, learners in the twogrammar groups (explicit versus implicit) were more able to get meaning across orally and use reflexive verbscorrectly in the oral task than the control group. In the present study, subjects in experimental class weresignificantly better in getting meaning across and applying some grammatical rules in the writing task than thosein control class. It suggested that explicit grammar instruction helped process input and developed grammaticalcompetence so that the learners in the experimental class were able to use the linguistic knowledge for writtencommunication. Grammar instruction in the present study may have enhanced not only the learners’ grammaticalcompetence, i.e., the ability to recognize a rule and use it, but also their ability to communicate with it in writing.768THE ROLE OF EXPLICIT GRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE TEACHINGThis increased competence may interact with other components and lead to a corresponding increase in overallcommunicative competence. Besides, grammatical knowledge learned in the classroom enhances learners’grammatical competence and can be transferred for language use in communicative expression.The Role of Explicit Grammar in Language TeachingTransference of Knowledge About Grammar Into Use in CommunicationSome students find it difficult to transfer their grammatical knowledge into communicative language use. To this, most teacher recognize this process as a problem for many of their students. Teachers’ understanding of thisgap in students’ grammatical ability is perhaps not surprising for anyone who has taught at this level. Mostteachers are able to relate many examples of students who can recite grammatical rules perfectly, but havedifficulty putting them into practice. It would be interesting to discover if teachers who recognize theseshortcomings in their students are more likely to use an integrated approach to grammar as a way of combatingsuch problems.The Use of Grammatical TerminologyThe use of grammatical terminology in the classroom could be understood as a necessary part of an explicit approach to grammar teaching: When teachers and students talk about grammar, they need terminology. Indeed,metalinguistic discussion is seen by Krahen (1979) as one of the characteristics of explicit language teaching. Alot of teachers believe their students see grammatical terminology as useful. Similarly, there is some feeling thatits use does not present a particular difficulty for students. This seems to link to students’ preferences for explicitgrammar teaching. It may also be related to students’ previous language learning experiences; if these are basedAll Rights Reserved.in the grammar-translation method, students will feel at home with this use of terminology.Problem-Solving ApproachProblem-solving approaches to grammar are often used at this level. These frequently take the form of inductive techniques which challenge learners to find form-function matches for themselves. Many otherconsciousness-raising techniques use similar problem-solving approaches. The use of problem-solvingtechniques in consciousness raising tasks is seen as one of the characteristics of explicit grammar instruction.Most teachers generally feel that problem-solving approaches at this level do not produce frustration in thelearners. These answers can be seen to link to responses concerning real-life tasks as practice of language. Onepossible interpretation is that teachers feel that students have a preference for the use of language to perform awell-defined task, rather than work without a practical end.Indeed, English learners appear to be particularly suited to a problem-solving approach, since they tend to be relatively sophisticated, intelligent, and experienced learners.The Role of PracticeWhen asked to comment on statements concerning both the role of practice and the types of practice which might prove more beneficial for learners, most teachers believe that practice of structures is important forlearning grammar and improving grammatical accuracy. The important issue here concerns the type of practiceused. The recognized problems with the P-P-P model mean that these teachers’ perception of the phrase“productive practice” is crucial to understanding results here. Do they mean production of the P-P-P kind orTHE ROLE OF EXPLICIT GRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE TEACHING769productive practice within a true communicative context? The phrase “practice of structures” within bothstatements could suggest an “analytical” approach to the learning of grammar, building up information aboutindividual grammatical structures into an eventual knowledge of language as a whole.Besides, those teachers also believe that a good knowledge of English language grammar is vital to students’ educational goal. A teacher mentioned that the majority of students wanted to get high score on any kinds ofEnglish exams. Students who were in graduate programs said that they needed to use grammar skills when theywere writing research projects. They realized that they were expected to demonstrate a good knowledge ofEnglish language skills in their writing. This view seemed to resonate in the students comments. Failure todemonstrate a high standard of proficiency in English language in their writings may affect their academicperformances.It can be argued that explicit grammar instruction has only emerged fairly recently within the research and methodological literature and thus it is interesting to speculate about the origins of this group of teachers’preferences. Are they the result of an influence of research on practice, or do they stem from teachers’ personalintuitions about what works best in their classrooms? Without a much more-in-depth study, it is difficult todetermine the factors which influence teachers’ thinking of this area. However, reference to students’characteristics, needs, and wishes in several answers indicates that teachers’ classroom actions are notdetermined by theoretical beliefs alone, but that student reaction to different approaches is taken into account.ConclusionBy means of quantitative and qualitative research, the writer tries to explore the situation of the employment of explicit grammar instruction among college students. Results paint a picture of the effects of different All Rights Reserved.approaches to grammar teaching which may be encouraging to those who advocate on a focus-on-form approach.The findings of the present study suggest that explicit grammar instruction plays an important role in promotinglearners’ language performance.Explicit grammar instruction can promote the learners’ noticing of linguistic forms contained in the input.Learners’ noticing of linguistic problems drives them to seek any linguistic solutions to their problems. Thecontexts in college English demand high levels of grammatical understanding and communicative effectivenessfrom learners and thus are areas in which explicit grammar instruction would appear to be particularlyappropriate. Student preferences for grammar work may not accord with a Focus on Form Approach but teachersmay be able to utilize.ReferencesBrewster, J. (1991). What is good primary practice. In C. Brumfit, J. Moon, and R. Tongue (Eds.), Teaching English to children: From practice to principle. London: Harper Collins Publisher.Ellis, R. (1997). Language, memory, and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Karavas-Doukas, E. (1996). Using attitude scales to investigate teachers’ attitudes to the communicative approach. ELT Journal, 50(3), 187-198.Krashen, S. (1979).A response to McLaughlin, the monitor model: Some methodological consideration. Language Learning, 29, 151-167.Krashen, S. D. (1981). The relationship between teachers’ belief and practices during literacy instruction for non-native speakers of English. Journal of Reading Behavior, 24, 83-108.770THE ROLE OF EXPLICIT GRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE TEACHINGNigel, H., Crawford, L., & Robinson, A. (1997). Writing back: The teacher as respondent in interactive writing. Urbana: Language Arts.Omaggio, A. C. (1986). Teaching language in context: Proficiency-oriented instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.Pajares, F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332.Savignon, S. (Ed.). (1991). Communicative language teaching: State of the art. TESOL Quarterly, 201-220.All Rights Reserved.。

社会文化视角下文化语境在二语习得中的作用

The Function of Context of Culture in SLA form a Sociocultural PerspectivesAbstract:The context of culture is more and more important in the second language acquisition(SLA). This article will analyze the relation among the context of culture,SLA and the Sociocultural theory, the effect and function of context of culture from Sociocultural Perspectives in SFL, and thereby aims to bring and raise SLA's awareness of the importance of context of culture.Key words: Sociocultural Perspectives Context of Culture SLA1.IntroductionPeople's communication is carried out in a certain language environment, that is in the context. A Japanese student in the U.S. was killed because he failed to understand the meaning of―Freeze!‖ This tragedy has told us correct grammar couldn’t make ourselves understood in intercultural communication, that is to say, the textbook-based knowledge of a foreign language does not grant us communicate with foreigners fluently without misunderstanding. Hardly addressed in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classroom, polysemous and other contextually motivated usages in the target language are often elusive to its learners. If the learners aspire to use English as a living language, then their awareness of English pragmatics, that is, how English functions in natural contexts, especially in cultural context, needs to be enhanced. This paper discusses the role and reason why cultural context is worthy our attention including several important types of culture-specific expressions. And which requires SLA’s learners study and pay more attention to these complicated cultural knowledge, then it can make them stronger intercultural competence.In the process of translation, context is even more important. This article aims to present examples to demonstrate the impact of context on translation. Context refers not only to a sentence, a paragraph or a part of an article, but also the entire scene with the event-related background and the environment. Semantics depends on the context and also influenced by context. Communication takes place through a medium and in situations that are limited in time and place. Each specific situation determines what and how people communicate, and it is changed by people communicating. Situations are not universal but are embedded in a cultural habitat, which in turn conditions the situation. Language is thus to be regarded as part of culture. And communication is conditioned by the constraints of the situation-in-culture. So is translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. The complexity of translation, one of the most complex things in human history, lies in the multitude of and the delicate relationship among its relevant factors. Translation is never innocent. There is always a context in which translation takes place, always a history from which a text emerges and into which a text is transposed. The situation-in-culture has been given much emphasis.Looking back at the past 15 years in the field of second language acquisition (SLA),V ygotskian sociocultural theory, learning as changing partic ipation in situated practices, Bakhtin and the dialogic perspective and critical theory. Related to the arrival of these perspectives, the SLA field has also witnessed debates concerning understandings of learning and the construction of theory. The debate discussed in this article involves conflicting ontologies. We argue that the traditional positivist paradigm is no longer the only prominent paradigm in the field: Relativism has become an alternative paradigm. Tensions, debates and a growing diversity of theories are healthy and stimulating for a field like SLA.In this article, we characterize the several most important developments in the SLA field over the past 15 years. Although research and findings in the early decades of SLA were major accomplishments, we believe that the developments of the past 15 years are better characterized asontological, manifested in part as debates and issues. More specifically, we address the arrival of sociocultural perspectives in SLA and then discuss .SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON SLAThese more recent arrivals to the field of SLA—sociocultural perspectives2on language and learning—view language use in real-world situations as fundamental, not ancillary, to learning. These researchers focus not on language as input, but as a resource for participation in the kinds of activities our everyday lives comprise. Participation in these activities is both the product and the process of learning. We provide brief summaries of the sociocultural perspectives we find typically invoked in recent SLA research, mentioning relevant studies. We do not, however, refer to all studies that draw on these perspectives. Readers are urged to see Lantolf (2000) for an overview of Vygotskian SLA studies and Zuengler and Cole (2005) for a review of language socialization research in second language learning. The order we have chosen is somewhat arbitrary. We begin, however, with Vygotskian sociocultural theory and language socialization because one or the other is often positioned as the primary theoretical framework. These two also seem to be invoked more frequently than situated learning theory, Bakhtinian approaches to language, or critical theories of discourse and social relations—the remaining perspectives we discuss. Segregating these sociocultural perspectives into their own sections allows us to address their unique disciplinary roots and contributions to SLA. Thoughwe believe researchers must take care in how they bring together these varying approaches, given their distinctiveness, we suggest that the ―hybrid interdisciplinarity‖ that many SLA scholars practice (Rampton, Roberts, Leung, & Harris, 2002, p. 373) has been productive and mirrorsthe increasing interdisciplinarity found in much of the current social science research. Vygotskian Sociocultural TheorySLA research using Vygotskian sociocultural theory first began to appear in the mid-1980s (Frawley & Lantolf, 1984, 1985) but quickly gained momentum in the mid-1990s with a special issue of the Modern Language Journal (Lantolf, 1994), devoted to sociocultural theory and second language learning. That same year, an edited volume appeared(Lantolf & Appel, 1994), and the first of a series of annual meetings dedicated to sociocultural research in SLA convened in Pittsburgh. Since then, conference presentations and publications taking this approach to SLA have only increased. Like traditional cognitive approaches to learning, Vygotskian sociocultural theory is fundamentally concerned with understanding the development of cognitive processes. However, its distinctiveness from traditional cognitive approaches can best be highlighted by citing Vygotsky: ―The social dimension of consciousness [i.e., all mental processes] is primary in time and fact. The individual dimension of consciousness is derivative and secondary‖ (1979, p.30). Lantolf and Pavlenko (1995) clarify that even though Vygotskian sociocultural theory does not deny a role for biological constraints, ―development does not proceed as the unfolding of inborn capacities, but as the transformation of innate capacities once they intertwine with socioculturally constructed meditational means‖ (p. 109). These means are the socioculturally meaningful artifacts and symbolic systems of a society, the most important of which is language. Of significance for SLA research is the understanding that when learners appropriate mediational means, such as language, made available as they interact in socioculturally meaningful activities, these learners gain control over their own mental activity and can begin to function independently. And as Lantolf (2000) notes, ―according toVygotsky, this is what development is about‖ (p. 80).SLA researchers have focused on learners’ linguistic development in the zone of proximal development (ZPD), Vygotsky’s conception of what an individual can accomplish when working in collaboration with others (more) versus what he or she could have accomplished without collaboration with others (less). The ZPD points to that individual’s learning potential, that is, what he or she may be able to do independently in the future (Adair-Hauck & Donato, 1994; Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Anton, 1999, 2000; DiCamilla & Anton, 1997; Nassaji & Cumming, 2000; Ohta, 2000; Swain & Lapkin, 1998). Others have focused on the use of private speech or speech directed to oneself that mediates mental behavior. Private speech manifests the process in which external, social forms of interaction come to be appropriated for inner speech or mental development (Anton & DiCamilla, 1998; McCafferty, 1994, 2004b; see also McCafferty, 2004a). Still others have focused on activity theory and taskbased approaches to second language teaching and learning (Coughlan& Duff, 1994; McCafferty, Roebuck, & Wayland, 2001; Parks, 2000; Storch, 2004; Thorne, 2003).Language SocializationLanguage socialization researchers, including those in SLA, closely identify with Vygotskian sociocultural approaches to learning (see Ochs, 1988; Schiefflin & Ochs, 1986; Watson-Gegeo, 2004; Watson-Gegeo & Nielson, 2003). But in contrast to a disciplinary history in psychology and a focus on cognitive development, this theory emerged from anthropology with an interest in understanding the development of socially and culturally competent members of society. In her introduction to an edited volume comprising language socialization studies among childrenin a variety of cultures, Ochs comments that she and her co-editor, Schieffelin (1986), ―take for granted . . . that the development of intelligence and knowledge is facilitated (to an extent) by children’s communication with others,‖ and instead emphasize the ―sociocultural information [that] is generally encoded in the organization of conversational discourse‖ (pp. 2–3). As such, language socialization research has investigated the interconnected processes of linguistic and cultural learning in discourse practices, interactional routines, and participation structures and roles.3Although language socialization research in the 1980s largely investigated ways in which children are socialized into the social practices of a community, by the mid-1990s the language socialization approach was being applied to adult second language learners (see, e.g., Duff, 1995; Harklau, 1994; Poole, 1992). Whether at home, in the classroom, at work, or in any number of other environments, language learners are embedded in and learn to become competent participants in culturally, socially, and politically shaped communicative contexts. The linguistic forms used in these contexts and their social significance affect how learners come to understand and use language. In a recent review of language socialization research in SLA, Zuengler and Cole (2005) observed that even though some studies portray socialization as a smooth and successful process (e.g., Kanagy, 1999; Ohta, 1999), many other studies, mostly classroom based, demonstrate ―language socialization as potentially problematic, tension producing, and unsuccessful‖ (p. 306). For example, some researchers have found that school socialization processes can have negative effects on second language learning (Atkinson, 2003; Duff & Early, 1999; Rymes, 1997; Willet, 1995) and others have observed contradictory home and school socialization processes, which often result in students’ r elatively unsuccessful socialization to school norms (Crago, 1992; Moore, 1999; Watson-Gegeo, 1992). These findings, among others, point to the shifting emphasis in language socialization research to the sociopolitical dimensionsof discourse and social organization and their implications for language learning (Watson-Gegeo, 2004). Like language socialization, situated learning theory, to which we now turn, underscores the role of social identity and relationships as well as the historical and practical conditions of language use in learning.IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVESFOR CLASSROOM PRACTICEHall (2002) observes that traditional SLA approaches seek to identify good pedagogical interventions that will most effectively ―facilitate learners’ ass imilation of new systemic knowledge into known knowledge structures‖ (p. 48). However, given their different understandings of language learning, socioculturally informed studies offer much different recommendations for improving classroom practice. For example, in seeing learning as participation, as relational and interactive, and as constrained by unequal power relations, Lave and Wenger’s perspective asks educators to consider how the practices of school relate to those outside of school, how schools and classrooms themselves are organized into communities of practice, and what kinds of participation are made accessible to students.Other studies taking sociocultural perspectives have examined classroom interactions or discourse patterns with an eye toward identifying those that best facilitate student participation (Gutierrez, Rymes, & Larsen, 1995; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Nystrand, Gamoran, Zeiser, & Long,2003; Tharp & Gallimore, 1991). Still others have examined such topics as the kinds of guided or scaffolded assistance from teachers (or other experts) that can move students along within their ZPD (Aljaafreh &Lantolf, 1994; Anton, 1999; McCormick & Donato, 2000; Nassaji & Cumming, 2000), the effectiveness of goal-oriented dialogue between peers to mediate learning (Donato, 1994; Ohta, 2000; Swain & Lapkin,1998), and the need for dialogic and contextually sensitive approaches to language assessment ( Johnson, 2001, 2004). These studies are only a few among many, but they share the sociocultural awareness that highly situated classroom participation promotes language learning.We acknowledge that we do not specify general recommendations for transforming classroom practices, primarily because we are aware of the limits of what can be generalized across classroom contexts. Hall (2000) speaks to the situatedness of learning processes in saying that―effecting change in our classrooms will not result from imposing solutions from outside but from nurturing effectual practices that are indigenous to our particul ar contexts‖ (p. 295). Clearly, thisis no easy task for educators. It requires ongoing and intense work with every group of students and reflective awareness of how the affective and political dimensions of classroom life affect individual students’ parti cipation. However, with the increased awareness and sensitivity to local contexts that sociocultural perspectives bring us, we have reason to hope that we are closer to understanding and creating the kinds of classroom communities that learners need.language learning is essentially social.Target language interaction cannot be viewed simply as a source of “input”for autonomous and internal learning mechanism. But it has a much more central role to play in learning.Interaction itself constitutes the learning process, which is quite essentially social rather than individual in nature.The social-cultural belief in the centrality of language is a “tool for thought”, or a means if mediation, in mental activity.From the socio-cultural point of view, learning is also a mediated process. It is mediated partly through learner’s developing use and control of mental tools. Importantly is also seen as socially mediated, that is to say, it is dependent on face-to-face interaction and shared processes, such as joint problem solving and discussion.The mature, skilled individual is capable of autonomous functioning, that is of self-regulation. However, the child or the unskilled individual learns by carrying out tasks and activities under the guidance of other more skilled individuals, initially through a process of other-regulation, typically mediated through language.Successful learning involves a shift from collaborative inter-mental activity to autonomous intra-mental activity. The process of supportive dialogue which directs the attention of the learner to key features of environment, and which prompts them through successive steps of a problem, has come to be known as scaffolding.Sociocultural theory of human mental processingHe argued that language develops primarily from social interaction.The zone of proximal development，often abbreviated ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help.V ygotsky stated that a child follows an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help.V ygotsky's often-quoted definition of zone of proximal development presents it as:―the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers. For example, two 8-yesr-old children may be able to complete a task that an average 8-yesr-old can do. Next, more difficult tasks are presented with very little assistance from an adult. In the end, both children were able to complete the task. However, the styles methods they chose depended on how far they were willing to stretch their thinking process.”V ygotsky and some educators believe the role of education is to give children experiences that are within their zones of proximal development, thereby to encourage and advance their individual learning.V ygotsky’s sociocultural theory in SLALanguage development takes place in the social interactions between individuals. L2 learners advance to higher levels of linguistic knowledge when they collaborate and interact with speakers of L2 who are more knowledgeable than they are (Lantolf).A learner is capable to learn in the zone of proximal development(ZPD) when there is support from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor.Vygotsky inspired research and its application to second and foreign language developmental processes and pedagogies. Vygotskian cultural-historical psychology, often called sociocultural theory in applied linguistics and SLAresearch (see discussion below), offers a framework through which cognition can be systematically investigated without isolating it from social context. As Lantolf (2004: 30–1) explains, ‘despite the label“sociocultural” the theory is not a theory of the social or of the cultural aspects of human existence . ... it is, rather, ... a theory of mind ... that recognizes the central role that social relationships and culturally constructed artifacts play in organizing uniquely human forms of thinking’.The relationships between human mental functioning and the activities of everyday life are both many and highly consequential. Participation in culturally organized practices, life-long involvement in a variety of institutions, and humans’ ubiquitous use of tools and artifacts (including language) strongly and qualitatively impact cognitive development and functioning. Within the Vygotskian tradition, culture is understood as an objective force that infuses social relationships and the historically developed uses of artifacts in concrete activity. An understanding of culture as objective implies that human activity structures, and is structured by, enduring conceptual properties of the social and material world. In this sense, culture is 1) supra-individual and independent of any single person, and 2) rooted in the historical production of value and significance as realized in shared social practice 1 (See Bakhurst 1991; Cole 1996 for discussions.) Language use and development are at the core of this objective characterization of culture both at the level of local interaction (actual communicative activity) as well as that of society and the nation state in arenas such as language policies, language ideologies, and public education as mass social intervention (to name but a few). As we will discuss briefly below and in greater detail in the chapters dealing with mediation, culturally constructed meaning is the primary means that humans use to organize and control their mental functioning and for this reason, language development and use plays a central role in Vygotsky’s theory of mind.Sociocultural theory is a theory of the development of higher mental functions that has its roots in eighteenth and nineteenth century German philosophy (particularly that of Kant and Hegel), the sociological and economic writings of Marx and Engels (specifically Theses on Feuerbach and The German Ideology), and which emerges most directly from the research of the Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky and his colleagues. While research establishing the relevance of culture to the formation of human mental life has been carried out within the social sciences for over a century, contemporary neuroscience research also demonstrates that phylogenetically recent cortical areas of the brain (specifically the prefrontal cortex) are hyper-adaptive to use and experience. (See LeDoux 2002.) A growing mass of evidence from a variety of disciplines has established strong connections between culture, language, and cognition, and this is nowhere more relevant than in application to organized education, where environment, information, and behavioral processes are (ostensibly) engineered to create optimal conditions for learning and development.Before we proceed further, we think that it is necessary a terminological clarification. In part due to its use by multiple research communities, there has been considerable and understandable debate about the label ‘sociocultural theory’—what it means, who it belongs to, and what its intellectual lineageis. (A colloquium at the American Association for Applied Lantolf & Thorne (forthcoming in 2005): Chapter 1 3Linguistics organized by Zuengler and Cole (2004) addressed this very issue.) There exists a general use of the term‘sociocultural’, sometimes hyphenated as ‘socio-cultural’, in general reference to social and cultural contexts of human activity (for example, Heath 1983; Ochs 1987; Ochs and Schieffelin 1984). L2 researchers, most especially Norton (2000) and her colleagues (Norton and Toohey 2004), have also situated their research within the broader socio-cultural domain. This research is concerned primarily with socialization and the discursive construction of identities (for example, gender, foreigner, native, worker, child, etc.) and is certainly theoretically commensurate with the intellectual project we develop with this volume. However, the term ‘sociocultural theory’ as we use it is meant to invoke a much more specific association with the work of Vygotsky 2 and the tradition of Russian culturalhistorical psychology, especially within applied linguistics research. (See Donato 1994; Frawley and Lantolf 1985; Lantolf 2000; Lantolf and Appel 1994; Swain 2000; Thorne 2000b; 2005.) Moreover, it is heavily focused on the impact of culturally organized and socially enacted meanings on the formation and functioning of mental activity. Our adoption of the term ‘sociocultural theory’ in this second and more constrained sense presents a paradox in that it is unlikely that Vygotsky himself ever used the term. James Wertsch, in particular, has encouraged the adoption of‘sociocultural’ over ‘cultural-historical’ to intentionally differentiate the appropriation of Vygotskian theory into the West from certain negative entailments found in the Russian tradition. (See Wertsch, del Río, and Alvarez 1995.) The critique is that the term ‘cultural-historical’ brings with it colonialist and evolutionist overtones that position industrialized societies as superior to developing societies and those without Western scientific cultures and literacies. While we agree that this is a serious problem in much of the post-enlightenment and early twentieth-century research in psychology, education, linguistics, and anthropology, in our estimation a simple name change does not rectify the situation. Another common usage problem is that the choice of‘sociocultural’ provokes confusion in that this term is used in a wide array of current as well as historical research that is in no way linked to the Marxist psychology that emerged in the writings of Vygotsky, Luria, and A. N. Leont’ev. Lantolf & Thorne (forthcoming in 2005): Chapter 1 4 In sum, and despite our preference for the label ‘cultural-historical psychology’, due to the inertia and name recognition of ‘sociocultural theory’ (hereafter SCT) for the multiple lineages of Vygotsky-inspired research in applied linguistics, we continue with this convention (and have been urged by our publisher to do so). While current SCT approaches include numerous and somewhat divergent emphases, all would agree with Wertsch (1995:56) that ‘the goal of [such] research is to understand the relationship between human mental functioning, on the one hand, and cultural, historical, and institutional s etting, on the other’.The remainder of this introductory chapter has two primary goals: to present an overview of the organization of the book, and to outline an orientation to language and communicative activity that is compatible with the theory of mind and mental development that informs our discussion of L2 learning.Two categories of context•Context of culture•Context of situation( Malinknowski, 1923)•Context of culture means the total way of life of a people, which refers to the patterns of customs, traditions, social habits, values, beliefs and languages of a society (Dai Weidong, 1989)文化语境与语言•Context of culture influences language•Language reflects the environment in which people live•Language is a mirror of culture•Language is culture•Eskimo--- three words for snow (falling snow, fallen snow, snow packed into ice)•English--- one word (snow)•Hopi--- one word for anything that flies•English--- aeroplane, dragonfly, butterfly•Navaho--- no distinction between horse and horses•English--- horse/horsesThe impact of context of culture on language at various levels •At lexical level•At pragmatic level•At discourse level•At stylistic levelChinese and English words compared••1) different context of culture, similar or same connotative meaning.•Fox 狐狸•Dove 鸽子•Bee 蜜蜂•White 白色•Red 红色•Rose 玫瑰different context of culture, different connotative meaning•Owl 猫头鹰•Dragon 龙•Dog 狗•Green 绿色•Blue 蓝色•Fat meat 肥肉•青天 blue sky•青山 green hills•青丝 black hair•红茶 black tea•红糖 brown sugar•黑啤 dark beerconnotative meaning is specific for A context of culture and vacant for B contextof culture•Turtle 乌龟•Daffodil 黄水仙•Greetings vary with contextsof culture•1) talking about eating•2) talking about weather•3) talking about actions2.The influence of cultural context on SLAReflecting people’s tradition, culture is a complex factor. The culture between different nations is also different. Translation is a cross-culture exchange, so next we will discuss the influence of culture, religion and idiom on translation.3.1.CustomIf the culture is different, the custom is different. So in doing translation, the related custom must be consid ered. Let’s first see a sentence; ―Quick，Nancy．‖Mike said and swung the car into the left lane．The translated version is ―快，南西。

功能对等理论透视下的影视片名翻译

最新200份英语专业全英原创毕业论文，都是近期写作1 国际商务谈判中的文化差异分析2 中西饮食文化的差异3 Translation of Tourism English in a Cross-Cultral Perspective4 浅析托妮·莫里森《宠儿》中人物的身份建构5 A Comparative Analysis of English V ocabulary Teaching between China and America at the Primary and Secondary School Level6 圣经典故的翻译7 A Comparative Study of Women in Fortress Besieged and Pride and Prejudice8 Cultural Issues in Interpreting9 A Research on V ocabulary Learning Strategies Employed by Non-English Majors in the CALL Environment10 An Analysis of Tess’s Tragedy in Tess of the D’Urbervilles11 论《傲慢与偏见》中反讽的艺术效果12 从狼人电影解析狼文学13 A Comparative Study on the Two Chinese Versions of Anne of Green Gables from the Perspective of Receptional Aesthetics14 论《大卫•科波菲尔》中人物个性与时代背景的关系15 从合作原则看英语广告中模糊语言的运用及解读16 目的论下英语广告仿拟格的汉译17 影响英语词汇发展的言外因素18 从谈判风格看中美文化差异19 《洛丽塔》—时间的悲剧20 An Analysis of Vampire Image in Fevre Dream by George Martin21 浅析田纳西•威廉斯剧作《欲望号街车》的同性恋倾向22 论加里·斯奈德诗歌的生态意识23 An Analysis of the Translation of Film Titles24 影响高中学生英语学习兴趣因素的调查及分析—以x市高中学生为调查对象25 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Forster’s A Room with a View。

汉字的起源英语作文

The origin of Chinese characters,known as Hanzi,is a fascinating subject that delves into the rich history of Chinese civilization.Hanzi is one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in the world,with its roots tracing back to ancient China.Early DevelopmentThe earliest known form of Chinese writing is Oracle Bone Script,which dates back to the Shang Dynasty approximately16001046BCE.This script was inscribed on turtle shells and animal bones,primarily for divination purposes.The characters were pictographic,representing objects or ideas directly through images.Evolution of ScriptsOver time,the script evolved into various forms such as Bronze Inscriptions,which were cast on bronze vessels during the Western Zhou Dynasty1046771BCE.These inscriptions were more standardized and complex than the Oracle Bone Script.The Small Seal Script Xiao Zhuan and Large Seal Script Da Zhuan emerged during the Qin Dynasty221206BCE.The unification of the script by Emperor Qin Shi Huang marked a significant step in the standardization of Chinese writing.The Clerical Script Li Shu was developed during the Han Dynasty206BCE220CE as a more simplified form of writing,which was easier to write and read.This script was the precursor to Regular Script Kai Shu,which is the most common form of Chinese characters used today.Six Principles of Character FormationChinese characters are formed based on six principles,known as the Six Shu,which are:1.Pictographs Xiang Xing Characters that resemble the object they represent.2.Simple Ideographs Zi Xing Characters that are abstract representations of an idea.pound Ideographs Hui Yi Characters composed of two or more elements,where the meaning is derived from the combination.4.Phonetic Compounds Zheng Sheng Characters where a phonetic element is combined with a semantic element to indicate pronunciation and meaning.5.Rebus Zi Jia Using a character with a similar sound to represent another character with a different meaning.6.Derivative Characters Zhuan Zhu Characters that have evolved from earlier forms, often with a change in meaning or pronunciation.Influence on Other Writing SystemsThe Chinese writing system has had a profound influence on other East Asian scripts,such as Japanese Kanji,Korean Hanja,and Vietnamese ChữNôm.These scripts have borrowed characters and principles from Chinese,adapting them to their own languages.Modern UsageToday,Hanzi continues to be an essential part of Chinese culture and identity.With the advent of digital technology,new ways of writing and inputting Chinese characters have been developed,ensuring the continued relevance and evolution of this ancient script.In conclusion,the origin and development of Chinese characters reflect the rich cultural heritage and the continuous evolution of the Chinese language.Understanding the history of Hanzi not only provides insight into the language itself but also into the broader context of Chinese society and its historical development.。

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