Religious Value of Bronze Vessels知识分享
bronzeware
蜀国的祭器：三星堆铜器
青铜纵目面具
青 铜 人 头 像
三星堆 青铜戴冠纵目面具
1980年，在四川广汉三星堆遗址出土的文物， 引起了世界的轰动。出土文物中包括大量的 青铜器。时间至少在三千年以上。这些属于 古代蜀国的青铜器，形式多样，其中有人头 像、立人像、跪坐人像、兽面具，又有罍、 尊、盘、戈等器具，还有大量的装饰品，包 括铜鸟、神树、铜鹿和其他动物类头像等。 这些青铜器主要是宗教祭祀用品，反映 出三千多年前蜀地浓厚的宗教氛围。其中人 像与中原出土的有较大区别，给人印象深刻 的是，表现人物眼睛的青铜器很多，有些青 铜器就是人物脸部的夸张造型，如同面具， 硕大的脸部中，有两只突出的眼睛，眼球呈 圆形，几乎要暴出，直愣愣地瞪着。这些特 别的图形引起学者们的浓厚兴趣。一般认为， 这些眼睛突出的人像面具，正是蜀国开国君 主蚕丛的神像。有记载说，蚕丛就长得眼睛 突出。
三星堆 青铜立人
这里出土的高2.62米、重 180多公斤的巨型青铜立 人像，是中国早期青铜器 中罕见的全身青铜人像。 人像头上有冠，面部夸张， 眼睛突出，耳朵悬垂，穿 着左衽长袍，衣服有三层， 手臂平抬，脚下佩戴脚镯， 显得威武高大，又很神秘。 人像比真人高大，夸张的 意味浓厚，显然是宗教祭 祀的神像，也当是蜀国的 开国君主蚕丛。
Thankቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱyou
神秘礼器： 大盂鼎
大盂鼎是中国青铜时 代的代表性作品之一， 今藏中国国家博物馆。 它是西周康王时期的 作品，距今大约有三 千多年。这是一件祭 祀所用的鼎器，鼎呈 圆形，立耳，深腹， 三足。鼎高一米多， 体量巨大，体现出那 个时代鼎器威严端庄、 浑穆凝重的特点。
速度的魅力： 马踏飞燕
马踏飞燕是中 国雕塑史上的 不朽之作。这 座青铜奔马雕 塑，为东汉时 期的作品，现 藏于甘肃省博 物馆。
浅析中国古代青铜礼器中的设计美学思想
任勇威戴端
（中南大学艺术学院，湖南长沙４１００７５）
ｐｅａｃｈ．．ｕｆｏ＠１２６．ｃｏｒｎ
摘要：随着当今社会科学和技术的快速发展，人们对产品的要求越发地提高。在产品的形态和功能之外， 还要求设计师为产品注入一定的文化内涵，赋予产品以鲜活的灵魂。作为中国当代的产品设计师，肩负着让 中国设计走向世界的重任。这要求我们要多了解中国古代传统的设计思想和造物活动，研究古代器物中的设 计精髓，从中提炼出我国传统文化的精华为当代产品设计所用，真正实现中国产品的本土化设计。我国古代 的青铜器是世界文明史上的瑰宝，为推动人类社会的发展和促进人类文明的进步做出了卓越的贡献。青铜礼 器是青铜器中地位最高、更具研究价值的一种，其承载的工艺技术和设计思想对我国产品的本土化设计有极 高的借鉴和研究价值。 关键词：青铜礼器；传统文化；设计思想 Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ：Ｗｉｔｈ ｔｈｅ ｓｐｅｅｄ ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔ ｏｆ ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ ａｎｄ ｔｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ，ｐｅｏｐｌｅ’ｓ ｒｅｑｕｅｓｔｓ ｔｏ ｔｈｅ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｓ ｂｅｃｏｍｅ ｈｉｇｈｅｒ．Ｉｎ ａｄｄｉｔｉｏｎ ｔｏ ｆｏｒｍｓ ａｎｄ ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ ｏｆ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｓ，ｉｔ ｍａｋｅｓ ｔｈｅ ｄｅｓｉｇｎｅｒｓ ｉｎｆｕｓｅ ｉｎｔｏ ａ ｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌ ｃｏｎｔｅｎｔ ｆｏｒ ｔｈｅ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｓ，ａｎｄ ｇｉｖｅ ａ ｖｉｇｏｒｏｕｓ ｓｏｕｌ ｔｏ ｔｈｅ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔ．Ｔｏ ｂｅ ａ ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔ ｄｅｓｉｇｎｅｒ，ｗｅ ｔａｋｅ ｏｎ ａ ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔ ｍｉｓｓｉｏｎ ｔｏ ｍａｋｅ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｄｅｓｉｇｎ ｈｅａｄ ｆｏｒ ｔｈｅ ｗｏｒｌｄ．Ｔｈｅｒｅｆｏｒｅ，ｗｅ ｓｈｏｕｌｄ ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌ ｄｅｓｉｇｎ ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ ａｎｄ ｍａｋｉｎｇ— ｔｈｉｎｇｓ ａｃｔｉｖｉｔｙ ｉｎ ａｎｃｉｅｎｔ Ｃｈｉｎａ． ａｎｄ ｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒ ｔｈｅ ｄｅｓｉｇｎ ｅｓｓｅｎｃｅ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ａｎｃｉｅｎｔ ａｒｔｉｆａｃｔｓ． Ｗｅ ａｌｓｏ ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ ｏｕｔ ｔｈｅ ｅｓ－ ￥ｅｎｃｅ ｏｆ ｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎ ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ ａｎｄ ａｐｐｌｙ ｉｔ ｔｏ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔ ｄｅｓｉｇｎ ｉｎ ｏｕｒ ｃｏｕｎｔｒｙ ｔｏ ａｕｔｈｅｎｔｉｃａｌｌｙ ｒｅａｌｉｚｅ ｔｈｅ ｌｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔ ｄｅｓｉｇｎ．Ｔｈｅ ｂｒｏｎｚｅ ｖｅｓｓｅｌｓ ｏｆ ａｎｃｉｅｎｔ ｔｉｍｅｓ ｏｆ Ｏｕｒ ｃｏｕｎｔｒｙ ｉｓ ｔｈｅ ｔｒｅａｓｕｒｅ ｏｆ ｃｉｖｉｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｗｏｒｌｄ，ｉｔ
关于青铜器的英语作文
关于青铜器的英语作文Bronze, a metal alloy composed of copper and tin, has played a significant role in human history for thousands of years. The use of bronze in the production of tools, weapons, and ceremonial objects has had a profound impact on ancient societies around the world. The craftsmanship and artistry of bronze artifacts have not only provided valuable insights into the technological advancements of ancient civilizations but have also served as a testament to the creativity and ingenuity of our ancestors.One of the most remarkable aspects of bronze artifacts is their durability. Unlike many other materials, bronze is highly resistant to corrosion, making it an ideal mediumfor the creation of long-lasting objects. This durability has allowed countless bronze artifacts to survive for centuries, providing modern archaeologists and historians with a wealth of information about the cultures that produced them. From intricately designed weapons to exquisitely crafted ceremonial vessels, bronze artifactsoffer a window into the artistic and technological achievements of ancient societies.In addition to their durability, bronze artifacts are also valued for their aesthetic appeal. The lustrous, golden-brown hue of bronze, combined with its malleability, allows for the creation of intricate and visually stunning objects. The skill and artistry of ancient bronze workers are evident in the delicate details and elaborate designs found on many bronze artifacts. From the elegant curves of a ceremonial vessel to the intricate patterns adorning a decorative object, bronze artifacts showcase the artistic talents of their creators.Furthermore, the significance of bronze artifacts extends beyond their practical and aesthetic qualities. In many ancient societies, bronze objects held symbolic and ritualistic importance. From weapons used in warfare to ceremonial vessels used in religious rituals, bronze artifacts were often imbued with cultural and spiritual significance. The careful craftsmanship and attention to detail that went into the production of these objectsreflect the importance placed on tradition, ceremony, and belief systems within ancient cultures.Moreover, the production of bronze artifacts played a crucial role in the development of ancient economies and trade networks. The demand for copper and tin, the primary components of bronze, spurred the establishment of extensive trade routes and the emergence of specialized metalworking industries. The widespread distribution of bronze artifacts across different regions not only facilitated cultural exchange but also contributed to the development of complex economic systems in ancient societies.In conclusion, the significance of bronze artifacts in human history cannot be overstated. From their durability and aesthetic appeal to their cultural and economic importance, bronze artifacts offer a multifaceted glimpse into the technological, artistic, and social achievements of ancient civilizations. As we continue to uncover and study these remarkable objects, we gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of the ingenuity andcreativity of our ancestors. The legacy of bronze artifacts serves as a testament to the enduring impact of human innovation and craftsmanship throughout the ages.。
圈足上的镂孔_试论商代青铜器的泥芯撑技术_刘煜
文
casting technology of bronze vessels. Study on the usage of clay spacers in different type of bronze vessels from
Erlitou period to late Shang dynasty, more details of section -mold casting technology of Shang bronzes are
图二一 山西灵石荆介所 出觚式尊 （M1：34）， 引 自 《 中 国青铜器全集》（商 4），图版一
一九。
一九），一种是根本没有孔（图二○），而另一种是有
·１１０·
应于范线，这又有助于解决范块之间定位和配合的 问题。
其实，早在二里头时期，青铜容器上已经有镂 孔的出现。二里头遗址出有一件假腹上有四个镂孔 的铜爵（８０ＹＬＩＩＩＭ２：２），其镂孔四周隆起如同兽眼， 具有装饰的意义。天津博物馆亦藏有一件传出河南 商丘，形制与其类似的爵（图二）。考究镂孔的形成，
图一三 花东 Ｍ６０ 出土的尊 （M60：57）
保留了使用泥芯撑的方式。尊、罍都是包含样式较 多的器类，除大口折肩尊和无耳小口折肩罍外，前
者还包括觚式尊和各种动物形尊，后者还包括不带 圈足的鼓肩、深腹、肩上和下腹有耳的器型。下文主 要论及带圈足的大口折肩尊和无耳小口折肩罍以 及瓿，前两种器形其实非常接近，基本上只有大口、 小口的区别⑧。觚式尊的情况与觚接近，故而放在 觚一节里讨论。
图一一 Ｍ１０４６ 出土的盘 （M1046:8）
图一二 盘龙城出土的尊 （PLZM1：8）
三
代
文
图九 平谷刘家河出土的盘， 图一○ 小屯 Ｍ１８ 出土的
介绍青铜器英文作文
介绍青铜器英文作文Bronze ware, also known as bronze vessels, is a type of ancient Chinese artifact that holds immense historical and cultural significance. These exquisite pieces of art were crafted during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, which spanned from the 16th century BC to the 3rd century BC. Bronze ware not only served practical purposes but also reflected the social, religious, and artistic aspects of ancient Chinese civilization.From a historical perspective, bronze ware provides invaluable insights into the political and socialstructures of ancient China. These artifacts were often used as ceremonial vessels by the ruling elite, symbolizing their power and authority. The intricate designs and inscriptions on the bronze ware depict various scenes from daily life, religious rituals, and warfare, offering a glimpse into the customs and traditions of the time. The discovery and study of these artifacts have greatly enriched our understanding of ancient Chinese history.Furthermore, bronze ware holds great cultural significance for the Chinese people. It is considered a symbol of Chinese civilization and represents the artistic achievements of ancient craftsmen. The craftsmanship involved in creating bronze ware was highly sophisticated, with meticulous attention to detail. The process of casting, engraving, and decorating these vessels required immenseskill and precision. The elaborate designs, ranging from mythical creatures to intricate patterns, showcase the artistic prowess of ancient Chinese artisans.Bronze ware also played a crucial role in religious and ceremonial practices. These vessels were often used in sacrificial rituals to honor ancestors and communicate with the spiritual realm. The inscriptions on the bronze ware provide valuable information about the religious beliefsand rituals of the time. They offer a glimpse into the spiritual world of ancient China and the importance placed on ancestor worship.Moreover, bronze ware serves as a testament to thetechnological advancements of ancient China. The ability to cast and manipulate bronze was a significant achievement during that time period. The intricate designs and patterns on the bronze vessels demonstrate the mastery of metalworking techniques. The discovery of various types of bronze ware, such as wine vessels, food containers, and musical instruments, showcases the diverse applications of this ancient technology.In addition to their historical and cultural significance, bronze ware evokes a sense of awe and admiration. These artifacts have withstood the test of time, surviving for thousands of years. The craftsmanship and beauty of bronze ware continue to captivate audiencesaround the world. Exhibitions and museums dedicated to bronze ware attract visitors who are fascinated by the rich history and artistic value of these ancient treasures.In conclusion, bronze ware holds immense historical, cultural, and artistic significance. From a historical perspective, it provides insights into ancient Chinese society and its political structures. Culturally, bronzeware represents the artistic achievements of ancient craftsmen and plays a role in religious and ceremonial practices. Technologically, it showcases the advancements in metalworking during that time period. The enduring beauty and craftsmanship of bronze ware continue to inspire and fascinate people worldwide, making it a cherished part of human history.。
用英语介绍殷墟博物馆的作文
用英语介绍殷墟博物馆的作文The Yinxu Museum: A Window into China's Glorious PastThe Yinxu Museum, located in the ancient city of Yinxu, Henan Province, China, stands as a testament to the grandeur and significance of the Shang Dynasty, one of the most influential and enigmatic periods in Chinese history. This renowned institution serves as a captivating repository, housing a vast array of artifacts and archaeological treasures that provide an unparalleled glimpse into the lives, beliefs, and achievements of the Shang people.Established in 1928, the Yinxu Museum has played a pivotal role in preserving and showcasing the rich cultural heritage of the Shang Dynasty. The museum's collection is a true marvel, featuring an impressive array of bronze artifacts, jade carvings, pottery, and oracle bones that offer a tangible connection to the past. Visitors are immediately captivated by the sheer scale and intricacy of these objects, which range from intricate ritual vessels to exquisite ornamental pieces, each one a masterpiece of craftsmanship and artistry.One of the museum's most prized possessions is the collection oforacle bones, which hold a special significance in the study of Shang history and culture. These ancient inscriptions, etched onto animal bones and turtle shells, provide invaluable insights into the Shang people's religious beliefs, political structures, and daily lives. Visitors can marvel at the meticulous calligraphy and the sophisticated divination practices that were integral to the Shang society.The museum's galleries are meticulously curated, guiding visitors through a chronological journey that spans the rise and fall of the Shang Dynasty. Visitors are captivated by the intricate bronze vessels, which were not only functional but also imbued with symbolic meaning and served as vessels for ritual offerings. The museum's collection of jade artifacts, ranging from delicate pendants to imposing burial suits, showcase the Shang people's reverence for this precious material and their mastery of lapidary techniques.One of the museum's most impressive exhibits is the reconstruction of a Shang-era palace complex, complete with towering columns, intricate murals, and meticulously recreated architectural details. This immersive experience allows visitors to step back in time and gain a deeper understanding of the grandeur and sophistication of Shang imperial life.Beyond the museum's permanent collections, the Yinxu Museum also hosts a variety of special exhibitions and educational programsthat further enrich the visitor experience. Scholars and researchers from around the world come to the museum to study the Shang artifacts and contribute to the ongoing dialogue about this pivotal period in Chinese history.The Yinxu Museum's significance extends far beyond its role as a repository of historical artifacts. It serves as a powerful symbol of China's enduring cultural legacy and its unwavering commitment to preserving and sharing its rich heritage with the world. Visitors who step through the museum's doors are transported to a bygone era, where they can marvel at the ingenuity, artistry, and resilience of the Shang people, and gain a deeper appreciation for the foundations of Chinese civilization.In conclusion, the Yinxu Museum is a must-visit destination for anyone interested in exploring China's ancient past. Its vast collection of Shang-era artifacts and its commitment to education and research make it a truly remarkable institution that deserves the attention and admiration of scholars, history enthusiasts, and curious travelers alike. Through the Yinxu Museum, the Shang Dynasty comes alive, inviting visitors to delve into the mysteries and grandeur of one of China's most captivating eras.。
关于山西青铜博物馆看到了什么英语作文
关于山西青铜博物馆看到了什么英语作文The Shanxi Bronze Museum is a must-visit attraction that showcases the rich history and cultural heritage of the Shanxi region through its impressive collection of bronze artifacts. During my recent visit to the museum, I was amazed by the exquisite craftsmanship and artistic details of the bronze pieces on display.One of the highlights of the museum is the collection of bronze ritual vessels, which are decorated with intricate designs and inscriptions that offer valuable insights into the ancient Chinese civilization. These vessels were used for various ceremonial purposes, such as offerings to ancestors and gods, and the craftsmanship involved in creating them is truly impressive.In addition to the ritual vessels, the museum also houses a wide range of bronze weapons, tools, and ornaments that reflect the technological advancements and artistic achievements of the Shanxi region in ancient times. The bronze swords, spears, and axes on display are not only functional weapons but also works of art that highlight the skills of the ancient craftsmen.Furthermore, the museum features a number of bronze statues and figurines that depict various deities, mythical creatures, and legendary figures from Chinese folklore. These sculptures are not only aesthetically pleasing but also serve as important cultural symbols that have been revered and worshipped for centuries.Overall, my visit to the Shanxi Bronze Museum was a truly enlightening experience that deepened my understanding and appreciation of the rich heritage of the Shanxi region. I highly recommend this museum to anyone interested in Chinese history, art, and culture.。
介绍中国古代文物英语作文
介绍中国古代文物英语作文China is a country with a rich and diverse cultural heritage, and its ancient artifacts and relics are a testament to its long and storied history. From the magnificent terracotta warriors of the Qin Dynasty to the exquisite jade carvings of the Han Dynasty, the art and craftsmanship of China's past civilizations have captivated the world and continue to inspire awe and wonder.One of the most iconic and well-known ancient Chinese artifacts is the Terracotta Army, a collection of thousands of life-size clay soldiers, horses, and chariots discovered in the tomb of the first Qin emperor, Qin Shi Huang. Excavated in the 1970s, the Terracotta Army is a stunning example of the advanced engineering and artistry of ancient China. Each soldier is unique, with distinct facial features and expressions, and the attention to detail is truly remarkable. The Terracotta Army not only serves as a testament to the power and might of the Qin Dynasty but also provides valuable insights into the military tactics and strategies of the time.Another remarkable ancient Chinese artifact is the Jade Suit of the Han Dynasty. This intricate and beautiful garment, made entirely of jade pieces sewn together with gold thread, was discovered in thetomb of a Han dynasty emperor. The suit is a stunning example of the technical mastery and artistic prowess of Han dynasty craftsmen, who were able to carve and assemble thousands of individual jade pieces into a seamless and wearable garment. The Jade Suit is not only a beautiful work of art but also a testament to the importance of jade in ancient Chinese culture, where it was revered as a symbol of purity, strength, and longevity.Another fascinating ancient Chinese artifact is the Dunhuang Caves, a series of Buddhist cave temples located in the Gansu province of northwestern China. These caves, which date back to the 4th century CE, are home to some of the most stunning and well-preserved examples of Buddhist art and architecture in the world. The walls of the caves are adorned with intricate murals and sculptures, depicting scenes from Buddhist scriptures and the lives of Buddhist saints and deities. The Dunhuang Caves are not only a testament to the religious and artistic achievements of ancient China but also a testament to the enduring power of faith and spiritual expression.One of the most iconic and well-known ancient Chinese artifacts is the Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty. Discovered in the 1970s, these life-size clay soldiers were created to guard the tomb of the first Qin emperor, Qin Shi Huang. Each soldier is unique, with distinct facial features and expressions, and the attention to detail is truly remarkable. The Terracotta Warriors not only serve as a testament tothe power and might of the Qin Dynasty but also provide valuable insights into the military tactics and strategies of the time.Another remarkable ancient Chinese artifact is the Jade Suit of the Han Dynasty. This intricate and beautiful garment, made entirely of jade pieces sewn together with gold thread, was discovered in the tomb of a Han dynasty emperor. The suit is a stunning example of the technical mastery and artistic prowess of Han dynasty craftsmen, who were able to carve and assemble thousands of individual jade pieces into a seamless and wearable garment. The Jade Suit is not only a beautiful work of art but also a testament to the importance of jade in ancient Chinese culture, where it was revered as a symbol of purity, strength, and longevity.The Dunhuang Caves are another fascinating ancient Chinese artifact. Located in the Gansu province of northwestern China, these cave temples date back to the 4th century CE and are home to some of the most stunning and well-preserved examples of Buddhist art and architecture in the world. The walls of the caves are adorned with intricate murals and sculptures, depicting scenes from Buddhist scriptures and the lives of Buddhist saints and deities. The Dunhuang Caves are not only a testament to the religious and artistic achievements of ancient China but also a testament to the enduring power of faith and spiritual expression.In addition to these well-known artifacts, there are countless other ancient Chinese relics that offer a glimpse into the rich and diverse cultural heritage of this ancient civilization. From the delicate jade carvings of the Shang Dynasty to the intricate bronze vessels of the Zhou Dynasty, each artifact tells a story of the ingenuity, creativity, and cultural sophistication of the people who created them.One of the most remarkable aspects of ancient Chinese artifacts is the level of craftsmanship and attention to detail that went into their creation. Whether it was the meticulous carving of jade, the intricate metalwork of bronze vessels, or the delicate brushwork of calligraphy and painting, ancient Chinese artisans were masters of their craft. They were able to create works of art that not only served practical purposes but also embodied the spiritual and philosophical beliefs of their culture.Another fascinating aspect of ancient Chinese artifacts is the way they reflect the cultural and political developments of the time. For example, the Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty were created to protect the first emperor of a unified China, while the jade carvings of the Shang Dynasty reflect the religious beliefs and cosmological views of that era. By studying these artifacts, we can gain a deeper understanding of the social, political, and cultural dynamics that shaped ancient Chinese civilization.In conclusion, the ancient artifacts and relics of China are a testament to the rich and diverse cultural heritage of this ancient civilization. From the magnificent Terracotta Warriors to the exquisite jade carvings, these artifacts offer a glimpse into the ingenuity, creativity, and cultural sophistication of the people who created them. By studying and appreciating these artifacts, we can gain a deeper understanding of the history and cultural traditions of China and the enduring legacy of this ancient civilization.。
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The Religious Value of Bronze Vessels
During the Bronze Age, the religious thought of people was mainly included in the ornamentation of bronze vessels. The ornamentation of bronze vessels was mostly about taotie design and different animal veins, and the most prominent ornamentation of the Bronze Age was taotie design. As the important sacrificial vessels, bronze vessels had great religious value.
Firstly, taotie design showed people’s worship of their ancestors. Taotie design seemed like a collection of different kinds of animals which had only head, but it was truly the symbol of the ancestor. On the one hand, it was originated from the myth of thinking. They thought some animals met the characters of their ancestor. On the other hand, it was to beautify the divinity of their ancestor through the different of the animals. For example, the ox-head taotie of the Niu Ding which was found in Anyang province was the ancestor of God of that clan. Secondly, animal veins showed people’s worship of the animal deity. There were cattle, sheep, pig, elephant, deer, bird, snake, fish and so on. The worship of the animal deity was the primitive religious phenomenon. People adored them to pray for their safety. For instance, the Longhu Zun which was found in Anhui province and the Si Mu Wu square ding-cauldron both showed the tiger’s protection to people. Not only taotie design but also animal veins were used as tools to help the wizard to communicate with deities.
The ornamentation of bronze vessels showed the religious thought of nature worship, ancestor worship and god worship. At that period, people’s power was so weak that they needed the protection of the nature and deities. All in all, bronze vessels had great religious value.
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