8 Conversational Implicature
会话含义
enormous intellect/a big brain”(反语)，含意是“ Jack非常愚蠢。”
§1.4会话含义的特征
4.可推导性（ calculability），听话人在认识到合作原则和准则的条件下， 从所听到的话语中推导出会话含义来。 5.非规约性（ non-conventionality）指会话含意不是话语的规约意义。会话 含意是根据合作原则中的各条准则，通过话语的字面意义，结合语境推导 出来的。先有字面意义，才有语用含意。 例如“ It’s cold here”，在某一特定语境中可能表示“关窗”的含意；但
1）是基本肯定它，对它的准则尤其是量准则做更具体更精细的形式化分析
。
2）是在认同“合作原则”的基础上，补充别的原则。 3）是完全抛开“合作原则”而另立原则。
Levinson说自己的努力，只不过是“对古典格赖斯一般会话含义理论运用的
具体例释”，并说自己提出的原则是对Grice的各项准则作了“有点新古典意味” 的阐释。
勤恳任劳任怨，或说他工作方法机械呆板，缺少灵活性,或这些含义都有,只
有依据具体的语境,才能确定话语究竟是哪一种含义。会话含义具有不确定 性,它与各种语义理论通常假设的稳定不变的意义不同。
§1.4 会话含义的特征
3.不可分离性（ non-detachability）指一句话所具有的含义是以这句话的整
单词、词语本身所具有的规约意义决定的。 例如，He is a sportsman, therefore, he is strong.这句话中的therefore这个 词的词义决定了这句话的规约性意义，即he is strong是he is a sportman的 结果。
§1.1会话含义
话语的“直说的内容”和“含蓄的内容”之间的区别相当于“意义”和“用意”之间的
8. Implicature (II)
Definite vs. indefinite knowledge
• Articles, possessives, demonstratives, etc. may indicate levels of certainty or definiteness of inference. • Most people may infer the following without more contextual information or effort. E.g.: 1)Carmen: Did you get the milk and the eggs? Dave: I got the milk. Did Dave buy the eggs? (Like in TOEFL listening test!)
11/9/2011
essentials in pragmatics, fall 2011
11/9/2011 essentials in pragmatics, fall 2011 9
Cancelling presuppositions or implicatures
• Cancelling an existential presupposition: Mike: What happened? Annie: Steve’s dog wrecked the garden – and in fact, Steve doesn’t have a dog. • Cancelling a lexical presupposition: Mike: What’s up? Annie: I’ve stopped smoking – although I’ve never smoked.
语言学conversationalimplicature演示文稿
语言学
conversationalimplicature 演示文稿
Outline
▪ Grice ▪ Cooperative Principle ▪ Conversational Implicature
▪ Grice(1913—1988)
▪ a British-educated philosopher of language
▪ Husband: What should we buy for the kids? Wife: Let's veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
Conversational Implicatures
▪ A conversational implicature is an inference from the semantic content depending on context, speaker's intention, hearer's attitude and the mutual assumption.
Manner Maxim
▪ Be perspicuous: 1) Avoid obscurity of expression. 2) Avoid ambiguity. 3) Be brief (Avoid unnecessary prolixity) 4) Be orderly.
▪ Open the door. Go to the door, put the key into the lock, turn the key clockwise two times and push.
(完整版)语用学-5--Conversational-implicature
1. What is an implicature? E.g. A: I have a fourteen year old son. B: Well, that's all right. A: I also have a dog. B: Oh, I'm sorry.
Conversational implicature
Divergence in meaning: Formal devices VS. natural L Formalist VS. informalist Construct an ideal L Inadequte attention to the nature and
E.g. The duck ran up to Mary (p) and licked her (qBut this is not always true in real life as in the above example. Whenever p & q is true, it logically follows that q & p is true:
The logical representation of conjunction: p & q
This logical expression stands for: if p is true and q is true, then p & q is true. If either p or q is not true (i.e. false), then the conjunction of p and q is necessarily false.
B means more than what he or she says, but A can understand it or interpret it well in the context. How does this happen? How does the hearer get from what is said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.
语言学The Theory of Conversational Implicature
Content
• • • • Violation of the Maxim of Quantity Violation of the Maxim of Quality Violation of the Maxim of Relation Violation of the Maxim of Manner
Violation of the Maxim of Relation
· be irrelevant
• A: What time is it? B: The mail has already come. • A: What do you intend to do today? B: I have a terrible headache.
Content
• 8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle (CP) • 8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims • 8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature
8.2.1 The cooperative Principle (CP)
• To specify the CP further, Grice introduced
four categories of maxims as follows： • Quantity:(数量准则) • Quality:(质量准则)
• Relation(关系准则) • Manner(方式准则)
Quantity
2. Not be brief
A: Did you get my assignment?
B: I received two pages clipped together and
covered with rows of black squirrels.
Conversational Implicature- What Is Said and What
Conversational Implicature: What Is Said and What Is Implicated Abstract: Grice made a distinction between what is said and what is implicated in which daily conversation happens. It aroused great attentions and disputes since it put into effect, and different scholars discussed this theory from many viewpoints. This article will be devoted in part to a careful examination of Grice’s theory and give an alternative picture of implicature from common understanding of it. This picture brings out many important features of communication which are ignored in traditional manner to a great extent and tries to expand Grice’s taxonomy to make room for a wider range of cases. The paper will classify the speakers’meaning from speaker-implicature and audience-implicature to expose a concise picture concerning about conversational implicature.Key Words: Conversational Implicature; Speaker-implicature; Audience-implicature1.Background and OverviewGrice (1957) made a distinction between what is said by a speaker of a verbal utterance and what is implicated, which was a creative and influential theory both on linguistic field and philosophy field.. While Levinson (1983) provides a supplementary models which distinguish speaking meaning into standard conversational implicature and non-standard conversational implicature. At home, many a scholars also publish either monographs or papers on the Griean’s theory from different perspectives (Jiang, 2003; He, 2004; Xiong, 2004; Xu, 1996).Apart from these different viewpoints, Neale (1992) gives out two diagrams which show “what U meant” dividing exhaustively into what is said and what is implicated. Besides Saul (2002) tries to give a definite taxonomy about what is said and what is implicated. But his classification does not give a clear borderline and indicate the underlying theory to support his arguments. Here my paper will not take a risk of denying the previous work and then gives the other way to draw a clear borderline on what is said and what is implicated. It has a lot work to be done in this way. This paper just gives out a concise and different perspective and may be provide some suggestions on dealing this tough problem. And some of term in formal semantics and pragmatics will be applied in dimension as the fundamental theory.2.The Basic Theory in Dimension and the Demonstration of Taxonomy2.1 The Theory in TaxonomyAs it is known to us, language is a mental faculty (Saeed 2000:329). It is obvious that there is a cognitive process in conveying the speakers’meaning to audiences’understanding. We can see it clear in the following mental chain:Within the mental chain conversational implicature is not only on the perspective of speaker’s point, which was used to classify into what is said and what is implicated. Here we can see clearly two participants are in mental process of mutual understanding. Insofar it involves two processes in making successful conversations, one is that speaker convey his/her meaning to audience and the other is audience’response to speaker. In both process there is a big problem, that is whether both participants aware or think what they said in consistent with the presumption and whether the information receiver could get the meaning correctly and make a right judgment. Because there is a mental gap between speaker meaning and audience meaning, which can be neatly divides into sentence meaning, speaker-implicature, replied meaning and audience-implicature. The implicature might be blocked because a speaker can not conversationally implicate something which the audience is not required to assume that he/she thinks.Take another famous headline in newspaper for example; a director wants to know about the performance of an actress so he asks another director who has given her a role in a famous movie with the question of “How do you think of her performance?” And at the same time, the actress knows it is a big chance for her if the previous director could recommend her to the latter director. So she expresses her eager to take a role in new movie and requests the previous director could do her a favor. However, in fact, she is not a good actress in performing such a role in new movie whereas the director does not to refuse her please directly, so he says:“She is beautiful” as the response.In fact, the claim that she is beautiful means she is not good at performing the roles in movie. Here the audience intends the speaker form the belief (or the belief that he believes). So it is the speaker’s turn to guess what the real meaning of the hearer is, then he can make a choice about whether gives the actress a role in movie. As you can see, here I still expand my demonstration with the methods I mentioned in explaining speaker-implicature. Why I chose this way? That is because when we stands the point of the audience, it means the speaker and the audience switch the roles and form a new connection, which I have mentioned in diagram.3.ConclusionNot like what have discussed in Grice’s classification, which only pay attention to speaker’s intention rather than the interpretation of audience, here I give a new direction because in psychology it is certainty about the understanding ability in conversations. So it is important to take audience’s response into consideration. Apart this, from both sides, there must be something which they intended to convey or communicate but failed to, namely, making conversations unsuccessful. So it is helpful to analysis from this theory, on which may benefit us with a clear picture about what is said and what is implicated then to achieve the goal of making successful conversations.References：[1]Grice, H. P. 1957.‘Meaning’. Philosophical Review 66, 377–388.[2]Leech, G. (1983). Pragmatics.CUP. Cambridge.[3]Levinson, 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.[4]Neale, 1992. ‘Paul Grice and the Philosophy of Language’. Linguistics and Philosophy 15, 509–559.[5]Saul, 2002, ‘Speaker Meaning, What is Said, and What is Implicated’. No?s.36(2), 228-248[6]Saeed, 2000. Semantics. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press[7]何兆熊.2004. 《语用学讲稿》. 南京：南京师范大学出版社.[8]姜望琪. 2003. 《当代语用学》. 北京：北京大学出版社.[9]熊学亮. 2004. 《语言学新解》. 上海：复旦大学出版社.[10]徐盛桓. 1996. 《会话含意理论的新发展》. 河南大学出版社.。
Conversational-Implicature
5 Indeterminacy（不确定性）
This refers to fact that can expression with a single. Meaning can produce different implicatures as the contexts and participants vary
说话人试图传达他的会话含义，而听话人也能理解这些会 话含义，这一事实说明，会话含义是可推导的。它们可以 根据已知信息被推导出来。
例如：约会后，男方问女方是否喜欢自己：
A：你喜欢我吗？ B：你说呢？
B在回答A的问题是明显违反了质、量和关系准则。但如何 结合具体语境，B的含义应该很容易被推导出来。如果当时 气氛融合，双方和颜悦色，女方语气温柔甜美，B想表达的 一定是肯定的含义。相反，如果当时气氛紧张，双方剑弩 张，女方语气怒气冲冲，B想表达的就是否定的含义了。
• For some of the inferences made when we listen, he proposed different kinds of implicatures. He used that term as he claimed that 'implication' was not the right word.
communicationwhatoneexpressionmeansmaycloselyconnectedactualintentionfurthermorewhatspeakermaydivergentformhearerscomprehensionconversationalimplicature格莱斯认为在所有地语言交际中为了达到特定的目标说话人和听话人之间存在着一种默契一种双方都应该遵守的原则他称这种原则为会话的合作原则cooperativeprinciple简称cp也就是说每一个交谈参与者在整个交谈过程中所说地话要符合交谈的公认目的或方向
[语言学]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》名词解释
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胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatory assimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphological conditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command forshort)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统=derivational procedure推导系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派Syntactic structure (SS)早期转换句法时期Standard theory (ST)标准理论时期Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论The theory of government and binding(GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）Minimalist program (MP)最简方案时期Structural description结构描写式Performance system应用系统Modular theory模块理论Spell-out拼写Language faculty语言机制/官能Mental organ心智器官Knowledge of language 语言知识Meaning potential 意义潜势Context culture 文化语境Field语场Tenor语旨Mode语式pivot words轴心词mental construct心理构念theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学psychological faculty心理官能autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义external functionalism外部功能主义integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义exceptional case marking例外格标记specifier标定成分fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射two-segment category两节语类complement domain补足语区域minimal domain最小区域internal domain内部区域checking domain检验区域sisterhood姐妹关系minimizing chain link最小语链联结representational system表达系统strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件structure-preserving principle结构保存原则C-commanding condition成分统领条件articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统interface conditions中介条件full-interpretation完全解释原则procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则greed句法操作自利原则the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则the shortest movement principle最短移位原则primarycomplement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)secondary complement(non- referentialNP) 二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征ASPP is functional projection .ASPP是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支across the board extraction抽取跨界移动principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法head parameter中心语参数logical form(LF)逻辑形式phonetic form(PF)语音形式spell-out拼读phonological component音韵部分overt component显性部分covert component隐性部分core computation核心运算asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理adjunction加接determiner限定词concatenate联结linearization线性化functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设right-branching右向分支X’(V,N,A,P)词项X’’=XP=Xmax是X的二阶投射结构Y’’=指示语specifierZ’’=补述语complementIP=屈折短语inflection phraseXP=general phrase structureC HL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for humanlanguageLCA线性对应定理=linearcorrespondence axiomXmin=X0=最小投射。
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1.3 Context and meaning (deixis)
• Person deixis: identify participants in the discourse. I, you, he • Space deixis: indicate the spatial relation between the speaker and the referred object and place. Come/go, bring/take Is Johnny there? I want you to put it there. • Time deixis: indicate time relations. Now, them… Pull the trigger now. John lives in Chicago now.
Summary:
• Locution: the literary meaning. LA is what linguists have been studying all the time. • Illocution: the speaker’s communicative intention or the function it is intended to perform. IA is what speech act theory is most concerned with. • Perlocution:can be as the same as the illocution when it is recognized and satisfied, very different from it when it is not recognized or when it is ignored. It involves many psychological and social factors, of which we are still more or less in the dark.
8) I pour some liquid into the tube. 9) I cook this cake. 10) I start this car.
Performatives: the uttering of sentences is the doing of an action. Hereby can be inserted to stress the function. Constatives: the speaker can not do the action by simply uttering these words and must accompany his words with the actual performance.
2.2 Performatives and constatives
1) Excuse me! Hello! Are you serving? How much? Are you serious? • Some sentences do not describe things, can not be said to be true of false. • Some declaratives are not used to make true or false statements. 2) I promise to take a taxi home. 3) I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. 4) I bequeath my watch to my brother. 5) I bet you 6 pence it will rain tomorrow. 6) I apologize. 7) I declare the meeting open.
Problems:
a. There is no strict procedure for producing a performative. I promise. I give my word for it. I will be there. b. The constative may also be infelicitous in these ways. “The king of France is bald” and “I bequeath my watch to my brother” presuppose the existence of something. c. Counterexamples challenge the special features characterized by performative sentences. P-verbs, hereby inserted, 1st person singular subject, simple present tense. Indicative mood, active voice.
2.3 Felicity condition and P-C distinction
Performative utterances can not be true or false, but we may ask whether they work or not. Felicity condition: the condition for them to be appropriate or felicitous.
2.4 Three facets of a speech act
Two basic parts: conventional meaning and the speaker’s speech act. Communicating a speech act consists of three elements: • Locutionary act: the actual form of words used by the speaker and their semantic meaning. The act of saying something with determinate sense and reference. • Illocutionary act: what the speaker is doing by uttering these words? Commanding, offering, promising, thanking, threatening, etc. • Perlocutionary act: the actual result of the locution. It may or maynot be what the speaker wants to happen, but it is caused by the locution.
Pragmatics
• Charles Morris, 1938 Semiotics
semantics
syntax
pragmatics
Pragmatics: Meaning uncovered by semantic analysis • He went to town yesterday.
It can be used by many people on many occasions for many purposes: A statement of information, a defense for the person, a warning…
2. Speech act theory 2.1 Speech acts
1) Congratulate someone! 2) Call someone’s attention to TV set. 3) Forbid someone perform these actions by either speaking or physical gesture?
All utterances have a speech act force. The distinction can not be maintained. All sentences can be used to do things. In what sense to say something is to do something?
The following sentences are said to describe a state of affairs. 4) There’s a spider in your hair. Think of some context where they do more than 5) Someone’s eaten all the ice-cream. simply describe some 6) I’ve got a gun. state of affairs. 7) You’re an idiot. 8) I need the salt. There is no clear distinction between speaking and acting. Words are in themselves actions.
• Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass. • Turn right. Imperative (I order you to turn right) • You did it. Past tense, 2nd person (I find you guilty) • Thank you. Imperative • Shoot her. • Give me some cash.
1.2 Sentence and utterance
• Unit of that abstract linguistic system, stable, analyzed in isolation. • Instances of the system, dynamic process, analyzed in connection with their contexts of situation. the same sentence can be different utterances.