语言学教程Chapter-10.-Language-and-Computer
胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照
语言学教程chapter1-31.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。
如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。
2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functionsinclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingualfunction.功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。
语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。
3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the casewith phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the nativemembers of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’singenuith or intuition alone.位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
《语言学教程》Chapter-2-ics
语法
语法
语法是语言中词和句子的结构规律和 规则，是语言的组织原则。语法包括 词法和句法两部分。词法研究词的内 部结构和变化规律；句法研究短语和 句子的结构规律和规则。
语法的特点
语法具有抽象性、生成性、层次性和 系统性等特点。抽象性是指语法规则 是对语言中具体实例的抽象概括；生 成性是指语法能够生成无限多的合乎 语法的句子；层次性是指语法结构分 为若干层次，不同层次之间存在递归 关系；系统性是指语法规则相互联系 、相互制约，形成一个完整的系统。
新的词汇、表达方式和语法结构等可能会随着时间的推移而出 现，丰富和发展语言的表达和沟通功能。
05
语言与社会文化的关系
语言与文化的关系
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化 传承和发展的载体。语言中蕴含着丰 富的文化信息，反映了特定民族的历 史、传统、信仰、价值观等。
语言与文化相互影响，语言使用中的 词汇、语法、表达方式等都受到文化 的影响，同时语言也影响了人们对世 界的认知和表达方式。
语音的生理属性
语音的生理属性包括发音机制和听觉机制。发音机制包括呼吸系统、声源系统、调制系统 和共鸣系统；听觉机制包括听觉接收器和大脑处理声音信息的过程。
词汇
词汇
词汇是语言中所有词的总和，是语言的建筑材料。词汇由词和固定词组构成，包括实词和虚词两大类。实词表示事物 、概念、动作等具体内容；虚词表示语法关系和语气等抽象内容。
语法的作用
语法在语言中起着非常重要的作用。 首先，语法保证语言的正确性和规范 性，使人们能够准确地表达思想、传 递信息。其次，语法使语言具有生成 性，能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句 子。最后，语法使语言具有开放性， 能够吸收外来文化和方言的影响，不 断丰富言演变的原因
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章资料(最新整理)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋10 Language Acquisition
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD (Language Acquisition Device), like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty (青春期） or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)
(完整)《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第1章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
语言学教程
语言学教程本《教程》自1988年出版以来，受到广大教师和学生的广泛欢迎，赢得了广泛的赞誉，为我国语言学事业做出巨大的贡献。
但是，近10多年来，语言学的发展又取得了长足的进展，新的成果急需补充。
有鉴于此，主编胡壮麟先生及一批中青年语言学家对教材做了修订。
修订版听取了在第一线使用本书的老师们的意见，对有些意义不大的内容作了删除或删节，对十余年来语言学领域中的新进展作了充分反映。
本《教程》自1988年出版以来，受到广大教师和学生的广泛欢迎，赢得了广泛的赞誉，为我国语言学事业做出了巨大的贡献。
但是，近10多年来，语言学的发展又取得了长足的进展，新的成果急需补充。
有鉴于此，主编胡壮麟先生及一批中青年语言学家对教材做了修订。
修订版听取了在第一线使用本书的老师们的意见，对有些意义不大的内容作了删除或删节，对十余年来语言学领域中的新进展作了充分反映。
在注重理论的深透性的同时，也增加了语言的浅近性和趣味性。
修订版对问题和练习做了调整和补充。
并附了答案。
另外，为了适应不同程序的读者的需要，本《教程》的编者将出版一本语言学高级教程，将语言学中难度较大、理论性较强的内容作专门的讨论，以供研究生教学使用。
高级教程将在近期内推出，敬请广大读者关注。
编写本书的指导原则是：①以英语专业高年级学生为主要对象，也可供英英语专业的研究生使用。
②用英语编写，尽可能选用英语例句。
③在内容上，既要传授基本知识，也要反映语言学中的最新发展。
④在观点上，不拘泥于一派之说。
⑤讲授本书内容时可详可简，授课教师可根据自己学校的教学方案和学生程度进行调整。
修订版《语言学教程》'Linguistics.A Course Book' second edition主要内容：Chatpter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language Processing in MindChapter 7 Language,Culture and SocietyChapter 8 Language in UseChapter 9 Language and LiteratureChapter 10language and ComputerChapter 11Linguistics and Foreign Language TeachingChapter 12Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics修订版<<语言学教程>>分为12个章节，它们分别是：第一章语言学导论第二章语音第三章词汇第四章句法第五章意义第六章语言的心理过程第七章语言，文化和社会第八章语言的使用第九章语言与文学第十章语言和计算机第十一章语言学和外语第十二章现代语言学理论与流派“语言学概论”是我国高校文科尤其是语言文学（汉语言文学、少数民族语言文学、外国语言文学）专业的基础理论课，是普通语言学的入门课。
语言学教程复习题与答案
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts andchecked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies thebasic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations ofthe sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is calledmorphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not inisolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguisticof the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, becauseA. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparativetook a (n) view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a __point of view. A. sociological…psychological B. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD. semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, __ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between __ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called__,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through __, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language 47. Phonetics 48Morphology 51. Applied Linguistics 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?III. 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. 3l.CIV. 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. : The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have tofollow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V 61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail. First of all, language is a system, becauseelements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrarybecause there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they areassociated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocalbecause the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for languageto have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is productiveor creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. Theycan send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to thingswhichare present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics isdescriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studiesand describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and adiachranic study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular pointin time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, notthe written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinctionbetween langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the r ules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may havemistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language is arbitraryin nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both ChineseandEnglish.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called . English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue inthe mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into differentcategories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting onesound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of twoor more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speechsounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , they are allb_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible forvarieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms ofp____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speechsound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broadtranscription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular languageand how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three importantcavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of thevocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress:word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C.tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A.voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feat ure of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B.same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and theycan distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricate B. voicedalveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemicsegments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C.suprasegmental features D. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, acollection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. sound C.allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C.phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 48. international phonetic alphabet 49.intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53.phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. 21. Aspiration 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27.Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32.oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:IV. : Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctivevalue. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally acceptedsystem of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. Itstudies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. Itstudies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking alanguage. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes.If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. 58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position ofthe tongue in the mouth. 2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels. 4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.60. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics? They differ intheir approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the。
语言学教程Chapter-10.-Language-and-ComputerPPT课件
It has not made much progress since its birth.
The stages it has gone through: (1) The independent work by MT
researchers (2) Why the drawbacks of MT in early days? (2) Towards good quality output (3) The development of translation tools
.
21
10.4 computer mediated communication
❖ Mail ❖ News ❖ Power point ❖ Blog ❖ Chartroom ❖ Emoticons ❖ Smileys
.
22
10.4.1 Mail and News
.
23
10.4.2 powerpoint
.
5
10.2 machine translation
❖ The definition ❖ The two types of it ❖ People examine it philosophically,
religiously, politically, economically.
.
6
10.2.1 history of development
.
9
(2) Research by MT researchers
❖ 1. the transfer approach ❖ 2. the interlingual approach ❖ 3. the knowledge-based approach ❖a ❖b ❖c
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
10.3 corpus linguistics
area of example-based machine translation.
11
10.2.3 MT quality
❖ Faults of MT ❖ 1. ❖ 2.
12
10.2.4 MT and the internet
❖ The internet is demanding the translation of the real-time on-line messages (often colloquial) which MT can deal with.
14
10.2.6 MT and Human translation
❖ The strong points of MT ❖ The strong points of Human translation ❖ MT is proper for…. ❖ Human translation is proper for….
❖ The further profound impact on MT by internet:
❖ 1. ❖ 2.
13
10.2.5 speech translation
❖ Speech translation by MT is the most widely anticipated development in the new century.
3
10.1.2 phases of CALL development
❖ Four phases ❖ Phase one ❖ Phase two ❖ Phase three ❖ Phase four
4
10.1.3 technology
❖ Programs developed in CALL ❖ Or what we can do with CALL ❖ (1) ❖ (2) ❖ (3) ❖ (4) ❖ (5)
Chapter ten language and computer (computational linguistics)
10.0 introduction Computer literacy Computational linguistics Its research problems
1
10.1 computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
7
10.2.2 research methods
❖ Two research methods: ❖ The research from the linguistic theories ❖ The research by MT researchers ❖ 1. the transfer approach ❖ 2. the interlingual approach ❖ 3. the knowledge-based approach ❖a ❖b ❖c
9
(2) Research by MT researchers
❖ 1. the transfer approach ❖ 2. the interlingual approach ❖ 3. the knowledge-based approach ❖a ❖b ❖c
10
With the help of corpus linguistics, recently research has moved into the
It has not made much progress since its birth.
The stages it has gone through: (1) The independent work by MT
researchers (2) Why the drawbacks of MT in early days? (2) Towards good quality output (3) The development of translation tools
2
10.1.1 CAI /CAL vs. CALL
❖ The differences of the first two ❖ The differences of the first two and the
third ❖ The forms taken by CALL: ❖ A. ❖ B. ❖ C.
8
(1) The linguistic approach
❖ The relevant theories for MT theory as a testbed for linguistic theories were information theory, categorical grammar, transformational-generative grammar, dependency grammar, and stratificational grammar in the 1950s and 1960s; artificial intelligence, lexical-functional grammar, generated phrase structure grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, Montague semantics, etc. In the 1970s and 1980s; neural networks, connectionism, parallel processing, and statistical methods and others nslation
❖ The definition ❖ The two types of it ❖ People examine it philosophically,
religiously, politically, economically.
6
10.2.1 history of development