language, thought and culture
关于 语言 的哲学家的名言金句
关于语言的哲学家的名言金句1.语言是思想的载体，是心灵沟通的桥梁。
Language is the medium of thought and the bridge of soul communication.2.词语的力量，可以改变世界，也能伤害人心。
The power of words can change the world and also hurt the heart.3.语言是文化的象征，承载着民族的智慧和传统。
Language is a symbol of culture, carrying the wisdom and tradition of a nation.4.用心说话，懂得倾听，是语言交流的基础。
Speaking with heart and listening are the foundations of language communication.5.语言的美丽在于表达情感，传递思想，让人心灵共鸣。
The beauty of language lies in expressing emotions, conveying thoughts, and creating spiritual resonance.6.词汇的选择，决定了表达的准确和深刻。
The choice of vocabulary determines the accuracy and depth of expression.7.语言不仅是交流的工具，更是思维的创造。
Language is not only a tool for communication, but also a creation of thought.8.符号的力量在于引发联想，激发想象力。
The power of symbols lies in evoking associations and stimulating imagination.9.每一种语言都是一种独特的表达方式，值得尊重和学习。
跨文化交际
Unit1Barriers in intercultural communicationLanguage differenceNonverbal communicationstereotypesWorldview1，Worldview is the set of systematized beliefs and values by which a cultural group evaluates and attaches meaning to the surrounding reality (Gudykunst 1984).2，Worldview is the most important perception because it is a culture’s orientation toward the fundamental issues about relationships among super-nature, nature and man, the meaning of life and existence.Culture(P. 40)CommunicationCommunication is the dynamic, systematic process in which meanings are created and reflected in human interaction with symbols.Inter-cultural communicationInter-cultural communication is the communication that takes place between people of different cultural backgrounds.Intercultural communicative competenceIntercultural communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds.Inter-cultural awarenessThe awareness of or sensitivity to inter-cultural differences in different aspects of the communication processDifferent types of inter-cultural communication1，International communication:Communication between people from different nations.2，Interethnic communication:Communication between members of the same race but different ethnic backgrounds.3，Interracial communication:Communication between members of different races which pertains to physical characteristic. Interracial communication may or may not be intercultural.What cultural elements directly influences communication?Cultural valuesWorldview (religion)Social organizations (family and state).What are the nonverbal behavior that are attached cultural meanings to?gestures, postures, facial expressions, eye contact and gaze, touch, etc.Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people andeconomic activity. The term can also refer to the transnational circulation of ideas, languages, and popular cultureAdvantages Of Globalization•With globalization, there is a global market for companies to trade their products and a wider range of options for people, to choose from among the products of different nations.•Competition keeps prices relatively low, and as a result, inflation is less likely to occur.•The focus is diverted and segregated among all the nations. No country remains the single power head; instead the world tends to be a multi-polar one.•Globalization leads to lowered trade barriers which are beneficial for Lesser Developed Nations.•Through globalization, countries can increase their comparative advantage, and produce goods and services more efficiently by specializing.•Competition keeps prices relatively low, and as a result, inflation is less likely to occur.Disadvantages Of Globalization•Globalization is causing Europeans to lose their jobs as work is being transferred to the Asian countries.•Globalization is the cause for the invasion of infectious diseases.•Poor countries are exploited by the richer countries where the work force is taken advantage of and low wages are implemented.•Large gap between wealth exist, where the gap between the richer countries and the poorer countries widens. Richer countries can easily bully poorer countries.•Multinational corporations begin to destroy the environment to gain profit.Unit2Stumbling blocks in intercultural communicationAssumption of similaritiesLanguage differencesNonverbal misinterpretationPreconceptions and stereotypesTendency to evaluateHigh anxietyConclusionTwo definitionsEmpathy (移情) is the ability to put oneself into the mental shoes of another person tounderstand her emotions and feelings. (Alvin Goldman )Empathy is what happens to us when we leave our own bodies...and find ourselves either momentarily or for a longer period of time in the mind of the other. We observe reality through her eyes, feel her emotions, share in her pain." (Alvin Goldman)Essential elements of communicationContextParticipantsMessagesChannelsNoiseFeedbackCommunication noise refers to influences on effective communication that influencethe interpretation of conversations.Unit3Why is one culture different from another?On the surfacePerception (how we sense the world)Belief (what we believe as true)Value (a system of criteria known asrules and guideposts)More deeplyWorld view (religion)- Spiritual and psychological needs of people (life and death, creation of universe, relationship between humans and nature)- Social aspects of a culture (origin of society and groups within the society, relationship of individuals and groups to one another)Family (gender roles, individualism-collectivism, age, social skills)History (government, community, political system, key historical heroes, geography) Cultural patterns- conditions that contribute to the way in which a people perceive and think about the world- the manner in which they live in that worldDifferent friendshipsAmerican friendship: Few Americans stay put for a lifetime. With each move they are making new friends. “Friend”may be someone who has known for a few weeks in a new place a childhood playmate a business associate or a trusted confidant.American friendship carries a light burn of commitment and is tentative and subject to change.French friendship: Friends are generally of the same sex (male) and friendship is a one-to-one relationship that demands a keen awareness of the other person’s intellect, temperament, and particular interests. Friendship in France is separated from the family life.German friendship: Friendship is more a matter of feeling. Within the family the closest relationship is between brothers and sisters. Outside the family men and women find in their closest friends of the same sex. Friends are brought into the family. Based on mutuality of feeling disagreement between friends is regarded as a tragedy.British friendship: Friendship is based on shared activities. Friendship is formed outside the family circle. Misjudgment will lead to a break in friendship.How high-context and low-context affect intercultural communication•Lack of enough data, people from low-context cultures often feel uncomfortable with the vagueness and inexactness and will ask very blunt(生硬的), inappropriate questions, which will make high-context culture members become impatient and irritated.•People in high-context cultures perceive low-context people less credible.•Conflicts are differently perceived and responded to.high-context: discreetly and subtlyLow-context: directly spell it outUnit4Summary: language and culture•Language is a reflection of culture, and culture is a reflection of language.•Culture influences language by way of symbols and rules for using those symbols, as well as our perceptions of the universe (the meaning associated with the symbols).•Language, on the other hand, would seem to have a major impact on the way an individual perceives and conceptualizes the world.Basis of Sapir-Whorf hypothesisLanguage is a guide to social realityLanguage as reflection of valuesLanguage thought and cultureWe are not born with a language full of fixed ways of expressing our experience, which may restrain or influence our thoughts. Language becomes our shaper of ideas rather than simply our tool for reporting ideas.Language directs its speakers in the perceptions of reality; it gives them ways to analyze and to categorize experience. Such perceptions are unconscious and outside the control of the speaker.In a sense, people speaking different languages tend to perceive the world in different ways.Unit5•Verbal: connected with words and their use•Verbal communication: communication done both orally and in written language•It is easier to use words to represent one’s experiences within the same culture because people share many similar experiences.•It is more troublesome in verbal communication across cultures because people’s experiences, beliefs, values, customs, traditions and the like are different.Conversation patternsHigh-involvement Vs high considerateness (Deborah Tannen)Directness Vs indirectness (Levine & Adelman)Ping-pong game style Vs bowling game style (Levine & AdelmanVerbal communication stylesDirect Vs Indirect verbal style1. Direct Verbal Interaction StyleA.statements clearly reveal the speaker's intentions;B.talk in a forthright tone of voice;2. Indirect Verbal Interaction StyleA. tend to hide the speaker's real intentions;B. talk with subtle difference in tone of voice;Person-oriented Vs Status-oriented verbal style1.Person-Oriented Verbal Style (individual-centered verbal mode)a.emphasizes the importance of informality & role suspension(悬置)b.symmetrical interactionc.respecting unique, personal identity ?2. Status-Oriented Verbal Style ( role-centered verbal mode )a.formality& large power distanceb.asymmetrical interactionc.honoring prescribed power-based membership identitiesSelf-enhancement Vs Self-effacement verbal style• 1. Self-Enhancement Verbal Style boasts one's accomplishments / achievement & ability.• 2. Self-Effacement Verbal Style humbles oneself through verbal means, hesitations, modest talk, and the use of self-deprecationUnit SixHaptics (体触学) is the study of how we touch in communication.(体触学研究如何利用身体接触传达信息)Nonverbal codes refer to communicative messages which are not in word form. Overview of Nonverbal Communication1.Body LanguageGeneral appearance and dress, Gestures, Eye contact, Facial expression, Posture, Touching 2. ParalanguageSilence, Pitch3.Environment LanguageSpace, Time安德逊（Andersen)1）时间学(chronemics)——研究人们利用时间的方式及其意义。
《新大学英语跨文化交际阅读》Language and Culture
Hale Waihona Puke Swedish King Carl XVI Gustaf visited Geely on May 2010 and met Geely Group Chairman Li Shufu. At the meeting, the Swedish King showed his great concern for the future Volvo Cars, so he asked Li how Geely would guarantee that Volvo's standards would not be undermined after Geely's acquisition. Li Shufu said "We are not just keeping Volvo's standards, but helping Volvo regain its past glory.” The following day, the Swedish group attended the Geely-Volvo acquisition forum in Shanghai. One of the textbook authors made a presentation to the Swedish group and he asked the Swedish group whether they understood what Li meant by saying “We are not just keeping Volvo's standards, but helping Volvo regain its past glory.” They replied “No” and they asked the author what Li meant. When the author gave a short explanation from an intercultural perspective, they were all relieved and showed their gratitude to Geely’s acquisition.
英语综艺节目主持稿
Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen. Welcome to our school…s Language Thought and Culture Festival .I am the hostess of this event this afternoon. I am from Class Three Grade One, my name is Amy.First, thank all of my dear friends, teachers and parents of students who join our event. Welcome! And all the people who join in, thank you for your good preparation of all the programs for us.Also thank you for your contribution.(友谊天长地久)A poem said:” What is friendship? Friendship is a kind of care. No matter what happens, you will help me out. Besides, you use small deed to show me that you really care me .Friendship is precious as good as valuable. It needs us treat it carefully. It is because the friendship makes the imperfect world perfect.”Now ,the students from class3 and class4 will bring a very beautifulsong ,song and dance for all of us. They want to tell us what is friendship, how to be polite to each other, co-operate with each other. Please enjoy the show “Auld Lang Syne”（our song ）Thank you. Now I want to ask you, do you know who Is Taylor Swift?Yes, she is a very famous singer from the USA. And the song named” our song ” is very beautiful. Today, three students from class7 and class8 give us a new explanation of this singer, let…s enjoy it.( )（话剧）And now the following performances will show us an very exciting play which is copyrighted by three of the students from class 3 and 4.They also direct it . this play is base on our <good English> I remember Cute hero, the big pirates, parrot Pippi... I can not wait. Enjoy it together.(配音)（大运知识）Youth is not a time of life; It is a state of mind.Youth is the freshness of the deep springs of life .。
认知语言学
On Commonness and Difference of Metaphor in Englishand Chinese in CognitionAbstract :Metaphor is a usual rhetorical case in English , and it is one of the most important means of expresion. By using the metaphor , we can epitomize problems visually , and can make language vivid , brilliant , and full of the expressive and infective forces. Through the analysis and comparison of the metaphor concept in both Chinese and English , we find that , as the essential tool of human beings in the cognitive activities , the metaphor has it s commonness and difference. Thus , we shall make some discussion on these commonness and differences.Keywords:cognition;metaphor;commonness;differenceI.IntruductionA metaphor is the expression of an understanding of one concept in terms of another concept, where there is some similarity or correlation between the two. Metaphor doesn‟t exist on the birth of human. With the advancement of human civilization, the linguistic competence of our ancestors had been greatly strengthened. They gradually acquired the capability to express their ideas through association. In this way, metaphor——one of the most important means of expression in human language came into being. As the foundation of mankind‟s conceptual syste m, metaphor is the common feature of human language. Traditional theorists viewed metaphor simply as an important stylistic device of the poetic imagination and rhetorical flourish, moreover a matter of words rather than thought or action, but in fact, “me taphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but also in thought and action.”Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. Just as I.A.Richards contends, “all language and th ought are metaphorical, and metaphor is the …omnipresent principle of language‟.” In recent years, the research of metaphor has shown a multi-angle, multi-level and multi-disciplinary diversity. In particular, modern metaphor studyshifts from the cognitive psychology to a deeper level of research,which challenges the traditional metaphor research. Richards, Lakoff and Johnson are the typical representatives,and they think metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also a way of thinking and understanding of human existence---one of the basic approach which rooted in language, thought and culture. Therefore, the study of metaphor has become a study of cognitive phenomenaII.The character of metaphorThe construction of English metaphor has three basic components: the tenor, the vehicle and the ground. The tenor is compared to the vehicle because they share an abstract quality, which functions as a tie connecting the two together. In other words, the tenor and the vehicle possess a similar abstract feature or quality, which serves as the basis of their comparison.Besides,the tenor and vehicle are by nature different from each other, though they possess something abstract in common on which their comparison is based. In addition, The vehicle in a metaphor creates a specific image, which is usually vivid and impressive. By comparing the tenor to the vehicle, we not only get a concrete image of the tenor but also make its typical quality or feature stand out. Metaphor is the most common way of analogy.In the sentence “He is a pig”,He is tenor while pig is vehicle.The prominent common feature is that they share the same features:dirty,lazy.greedy,obesity。
unit 9 Language and Culture
• The relationship between language and culture • What we say influences what we think, what we feel and what we believe. Humans learn their culture through language; culture is transmitted through language. • Language use is heavily tinted with its culture. The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. • Language embodies cultural identity. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc. • The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically. • Culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.
• Features of culture: • 1. culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted. • 2. Culture is shared among the members of a community instead of being unique to an individual. • 3. Culture is symbolic. Symbolizing means assigning to entities and events meanings which are external to them and not able to be grasped by themselves alone. Language is the most typical symbolic within culture. • 4. Culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with the other aspects. • In other words, culture is composed of the following systems: techno-economic system, social system, ideational system and linguistic system.
罗曼罗兰20句经典名言英语版本
罗曼罗兰20句经典名言英语版本Roland Barthes was a French literary critic and philosopher known for his influential works on semiotics, structuralism, and cultural theory. His ideas have had a profound impact on various academic fields, including literature, linguistics, sociology, and anthropology. In this article, we will explore 20 of Roland Barthes' most famous quotes and their significance in the realm of cultural analysis.1. "Language is a skin: I rub my language against the other. It is as if I had words instead of fingers, or fingers at the tip of my words."This quote emphasizes the intimate connection between language and the body. Barthes suggests that language is not just a tool for communication but also a tactile experience that shapes our interactions with others.2. "Literature is the question minus the answer."Barthes challenges the notion that literature provides definitive answers. He argues that literature, rather than offering solutions, raises thought-provoking questions that encourage readers to engage in critical thinking.3. "The birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the author."Barthes suggests that the meaning of a literary work is not solely determined by the author's intentions. Instead, it is the reader who actively constructs meaning through their interpretation, making the author's presence less significant.4. "To read is to seek an echo in which our own voice would find a resonance."This quote highlights the personal nature of reading. Barthes suggests that when we read, we are not merely consuming words but also seeking a connection between the text and our own experiences, values, and beliefs.5. "The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture."Barthes argues that every text is composed of fragments borrowed from various cultural sources. He suggests that meaning is created through the intertextual references and associations that these fragments evoke.6. "The writer is someone who plays with language, not someone who possesses it."Barthes challenges the idea of the author as a master of language. Instead, he suggests that writers are playful and experimental, constantly pushing the boundaries of language to create new forms of expression.7. "The world is not dialectical – it is sworn to extremes, not to equilibrium, sworn to radical antagonism, not to reconciliation or synthesis."Barthes critiques the notion of balance and harmony in the world. He argues that reality is characterized by conflicts and contradictions, and attempts to reconcile these opposing forces are futile.8. "The birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the author."Barthes reiterates the idea that the reader's interpretation takes precedence over the author's intended meaning. He emphasizes the active role of the reader in constructing meaning and rejects the notion of an authoritative interpretation.9. "The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture."Barthes emphasizes the intertextual nature of texts, suggesting that they are composed of fragments borrowed from various cultural sources. He highlights the importance of context and cultural references in understanding a text's meaning.10. "Literature is the question minus the answer."Barthes challenges the idea that literature provides definitive answers. He argues that literature is more concerned with raising thought-provoking questions that encourage readers to engage in critical thinking and reflection.11. "The language of the image is emotion."Barthes suggests that images have a powerful emotional impact on viewers. He argues that visual language is capable of evoking feelings and creating a direct connection with the viewer, bypassing the need for verbal communication.12. "The myth is neither a lie nor a confession: it is an inflexion."Barthes explores the concept of myth and its role in shaping cultural narratives. He suggests that myths are not necessarily false but rather distort reality by inflecting it with specific meanings and ideologies.13. "The birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the author."Barthes emphasizes the reader's active role in interpreting a text. He argues that the reader's engagement with the text is more important than the author's intentions, as it is through this engagement that meaning is created.14. "The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture."Barthes highlights the intertextual nature of texts, suggesting that they are composed of fragments borrowed from various cultural sources. He emphasizes the importance of recognizing these references to fully understand a text's meaning.15. "Literature is the question minus the answer."Barthes challenges the idea that literature provides definitive answers. He argues that literature is more concerned with raising thought-provoking questions that encourage readers to engage in critical thinking and reflection.16. "The language of the image is emotion."Barthes suggests that images have a powerful emotional impact on viewers. He argues that visual language is capable of evoking feelings and creating a direct connection with the viewer, bypassing the need for verbal communication.17. "The myth is neither a lie nor a confession: it is an inflexion."Barthes explores the concept of myth and its role in shaping cultural narratives. He suggests that myths are not necessarily false but rather distort reality by inflecting it with specific meanings and ideologies.18. "The birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the author."Barthes emphasizes the reader's active role in interpreting a text. He argues that the reader's engagement with the text is more important than the author's intentions, as it is through this engagement that meaning is created.19. "The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture."Barthes highlights the intertextual nature of texts, suggesting that they are composed of fragments borrowed from various cultural sources. He emphasizes the importance of recognizing these references to fully understand a text's meaning.20. "Literature is the question minus the answer."Barthes challenges the idea that literature provides definitive answers. He argues that literature is more concerned with raising thought-provoking questions that encourage readers to engage in critical thinking and reflection.In conclusion, Roland Barthes' quotes reflect his groundbreaking ideas on language, literature, and culture. His emphasis on the active role of the reader, the intertextual nature of texts, and the power of images has had a profound impact on various academic fields. Barthes' work continues to inspire scholars and readers alike, encouraging them to question established norms and engage critically with the world around them.。
语言 文化 社会 Language,_Culture,_and_Society..
1.2 The heritage concerning the study of language and culture
• Malinowski’s study马林诺夫斯基的研究: • the word wood on the Trobriand Islands off eastern New Guinea • Speech community 言语社区 • Firth’s study 弗斯的研究: • Context of Situation情景语境 • Halliday’s study韩礼德的研究: • The study of language from a socially semiotic or interactional perspective
人的世界观是由语言控制的。一种语言有一种 语言独特的系统，因而思维也是独特的。
• 1.4 More about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis • The strong version(强式说): Emphasizes the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns • The weak version (弱式说): Suggest that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, the cross-cultural differences produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.
• A lively controversy about the hypothesis: • Two examples to show the complexity and controversy of the theory: • One is quoted from Hopi, an American native language spoken in Arizona; the other is taken from a language spoken in the central highlands of Irian Jaya (伊里安 岛，太平洋). • The first example serves to show how languages may differ from each other. • The second example serves to challenge the hypothesis.
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Language and culture
1. What is culture? 2. The relationship between language and culture 1) cultural and linguistic universal • 2) cultural and linguistic peculiarities • 3) the dialectical relationship between language and culture 3. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 4. Linguistic evidence of cultural differences 5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning 6. Cultural overlap and diffusion 7. Intercultural communication
Language, Thought and Culture
Language and Thought
• Introduction • Classical theorists: Plato and Aristotle • ---the categories of thought determine the categories of language • ---language is the outward form or expression of thought • ---further expounded by Saussure • Language is a system of signs. • Each sign has two sides: • image-carrying form (signifier) • Concept or idea (signified)
萨皮尔-沃尔夫假说
• 一种关于语言与文化或语言与思维之间关 系的学说，美国语言学家萨皮尔和沃尔夫 提出，基本观点是语言决定思维，语言不 同，思维便不同，因此操不同语言的人对 世界的认识也就不同。此理论也被称为语 言决定论。说话者的语言通过语言系统中 可能存在的语法范畴和语义分类，决定着 说话者的世界观。这种语言系统是说话者 同他的本族文化一起继承下来的。
• Language determines thought • ---the categories of thought are determined by linguistic categories. • ---two subgroups • 1. language completely determines cognitive categories • 2. Language strongly influences cognitive categories. • 思维在我们说话前就形成？ • 思想根据所用词汇而形成？
萨皮尔-沃尔夫假说
• 主要表明：语言将会塑造我们对世界俄看法。如 今很少有人会倾向于全盘接受此种理论的最初形 式。 • 后期发展：強式和弱式 • 強式：一种最初的判断，强调语言作为思维模式 塑造者额度决定性作用。 • 弱式：一种后期的修改，表明语言，文化和思维 之间存在着 相互关联，但是由此产生的跨文化差 异在我们的思维模式中是相对的，而非范畴式的。
• The hypothesis can be typically represented by the following statement: “ If Aristotle had spoken Chinese, his logic would have been different.”
• The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways: • Strong version: language determines people’s thinking and behavior • --no thought , no language • --people speaking diverse languages would never understand each other • Weak version: language influences people’s thinking and behavior • --which is more reasonable and supportable
Thought determines language
• Those who believe that thought determines language would say that cognitive development comes earlier in the life of children and that cognitive categories they develop determine the linguistic categories that they will acquire.
• The hypothesis has two thrusts要点: • 1. linguistic determinism (language determines thought)
• 2. linguistic relativity (there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages)
• Material culture vs. spiritual culture (p.128)
• 社会及其他人文学科研究的基本问题之一。广义 俄文化是指人类创造的一切物质产品和精神产品。 狭义的是指语言，文学，艺术及一切意识形态在 内的精神产品。 • “文化”源自拉丁文cultura，愿义是指农耕及对 植物的培养。 • 文化的定义千差万别，主要核心要素为： • 1精神要素，主要指哲学和其他具体科学，宗教， 艺术伦理道德以及价值观念等 • 2语言和符号，文化沉积和贮存的手段 • 3 规范体系 • 4社会关系和社会组织 • 5物质产品
What is culture
• In a broad sense
– Culture means: the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. – It is so inclusive that it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people’s behavior, including linguistic behavior.
• In a narrow sense
– Culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.
• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be summarized as follows: • 1. one’s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one can’t but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language. • 2. the categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to the system and incommensurable(不能比较的) with those of other systems.
Language determines thought
• 1. Sapir-Whorf/Whorfian hypothesis • Humboldt洪堡特, Edward Sapir, Benjamin Lee Whorf • Argument: people do not perceive the world freely but rather they do so through language, a filtering structure which will distort the reality and thus influence and control their thought.
• 2) cultural and linguistic peculiarities • --just as the combination of biological and cultural/functional universals tends to generate linguistic universals, so difference in one or more of these respects will give give language their unique grammatical and lexical structure. • --linguistic differences are due to obvious cultural differences. • --different cultural features-be they environmental, material, or social-produce different linguistic features.